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Review on Alkali-Activated Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete

Article  in  Materials Science Forum · January 2016

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.841.162

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Materials Science Forum Vol. 841 (2016) pp 162-169 Submitted: 2015-09-26
© (2016) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland Accepted: 2015-11-07
doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.841.162

Review on Alkali-Activated Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete

KEFIYALEW Zerfu1, 2, 3, a* and JANUARTI Jaya Ekaputri1, 3, b
1
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning, Institut Teknologi
Sepuluh Nopember (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia
2
Ethiopian Association of Civil Engineers-EACE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
3
Konsorsium Riset Geopolimer Indonesia (KORIGI), Laboratorium Beton dan Bahan Bangunan,
Kampus ITS Sukolilo Surabaya, Indonesia, 60111
a
Kefiyalewz@gmail.com , bjanuarti_je@yahoo.com

Keywords: geopolymer concrete, fly ash, alkaline-activators, benefits, review

Abstract. Due to environmental pollution form cement industries, some efforts for alternative
construction material are increasing. Recently, geopolymer concrete has drawn attention of
researchers and engineers because of its lower carbon print and better mechanical property over
Portland cement concrete. According to previous studies, geopolymer concrete results almost up to
90% reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) emission to atmosphere. Mechanical properties of
geopolymer concrete such as compressive strength, durability, sulfate resistance, early strength and
low shrinkage are better than Portland cement concrete. In addition, the appropriate usage of one
ton of fly ash earns one carbon-credit redemption value of about 20 Euros, and hence earns
monetary benefits through carbon-credit trade.Therefore, this paper presents a review on alkali-
activated fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. The paper mainly covers composition, mixing and
curing process, benefits, limitations and applications of alkali-activated fly ash based geopolymer
concrete.

Introduction
Construction materials being used in civil engineering faced many considerable difficulties to get
suitable materials for engineers. The invention of Portland cement in 1824 by J. Aspdin [1] proved
an excellent binder material which was used in production of concrete. After this invention,
Portland cement concrete becomes relatively economical and easy binder material because it uses
aggregates and water, which are available in nature, as principal component materials. Furthermore,
it provides design flexibility to design various shapes of elements and structures. In addition to
these purposes, cement becomes the most popular building material of the 20th century.
Despite these accomplishments, construction contained Portland cement has some limitations
resulting low corrosion resistance and increasing environmental pollution. Previous researches
show that Portland cement concrete specimens without any added material has low corrosion
resistance than the one which blended with the silica fumes, fly ash or slag [2]. It has also published
by many researchers that the production of one tone of cement directly generates almost one tone of
CO2 emission to the atmosphere [3].
However, currently geopolymer cement brings comprehensive solutions for those defaults from
Portland cement concrete. Geopolymer cement is an innovative material and a real alternative to
conventional Portland cement for application in transportation infrastructure, construction and
offshore applications [4]. Geopolymer cement concrete significantly decreases carbon dioxide
(CO2-greenhouse gas) emission, resulting up to 90% reduction [4,5]. In addition, geopolymer
concrete shows good performance, especially in its mechanical properties. According to researches,
fly ash-based geopolymer is better than Portland concrete in many aspects such as compressive
strength, exposure to aggressive environment, shrinkage and exposure to high-temperature [6,7, 8].
Furthermore, geopolymer concrete has a potential economic benefit. The appropriate application
of one ton of fly ash earns one carbon-credit with a redemption value of about 10 to 20 Euros, and

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 Materials Science Forum Vol. 841 163

as a result earns monetary benefits through carbon-credit dealing. According to the researches, one
ton low-calcium fly ash can be utilized to manufacture approximately 2.5 cubic meters of fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete [9]. Actually, the overall cost is difficult to estimate accurately due to
variation of material cost from place to place. Some research papers also shows different estimation
[10, 11].

Composition
Basically, geopolymer concrete mainly consists of geopolymer paste, aggregates and admixtures.
In alkali-activated mixture, the main binder material is fly ash. As it describes in Fig.1, it used as
binder material which is rich in alumina-silicate minerals.

Alkaline Activators;
NaOH, KOH, Na2SiO3

Geopolymer Paste
Alumino Silicates
materials;
Fly Ash
Geopolymer
Concrete
Crushed Stone
Aggregates
Sand

Admixtures Superplasticiser

Figure 1. Alkali-activated fly ash geopolymer concrete composition.

Geopolymer paste. For fly ash based geopolymer paste, the binder material made from alkaline
activators and fly ash. Since fly ash is rich in silica and alumina, it can be used as raw material in
geopolymer cement. [12].
a) Fly Ash. It is a by-product from combustion of coal in large power plants. Fly ash is collected
in electrostatic precipitators or bag houses, then transferred to substantial silos for shipment
[13]. According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM C 618), there are
two types of fly ash. Fly ash class F and class C. The short summary of these two types of fly
ash is given in Fig.2 [13, 14, 15]. Both class F and class C contribute significantly different
characteristics and properties in concrete mixtures.
164 Properties and Application of Geopolymers

• An ideal cementitious material in mass and high

strength concrete application.
• Provides sulfide and sulfate resistance equal or
Class F fly ash superior to Type V cement.
• SiO2+ Al2O3+ Fe2O3≥70%
• has low calcium content (< 15%)

• More useful in “performance” mixes, prestressed

concrete applications.
• Reccomended under situations where higher early
Class C fly ash strengths are important.
• Reccomended in soil stabilization, since Class C
may not require the addition of lime.
• has high calcium content (>15%)

Figure 2. Summary of fly ash classification, use and composition.

According to recent researches, fly ash can be mixed with other materials such as
volcanic materials, husk ash and clay to produce light weight geopolymer paste. Volcanic ash
blended geopolymer concrete is cheaper and environmentally friendly in the rehabilitation
projects in volcanic areas [16, 17].
b) Alkaline activators. According to previous studies, the common materials used as alkaline
activators are sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. In geopolymer
concrete mix, sodium based solutions were more chosen from potassium based solution
because they are relatively less expensive and readily available in the market in the form of
pellets and gel (liquid) [18]. Mass ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash as 0.35 and a mass ratio of
sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide as 2.50 give the optimum compressive strength as shown
in fig.3. In addition, 12M concentration of NaOH is ultimately the most recommended
solution even if it gives slightly less strength compared with 14M and 16M, in which the later
gives denser and less workable paste [19]. Fig.4 clearly shows how the compressive strength
of geopolymer concrete increase with increase in molarity of alkaline solution.
 Materials Science Forum Vol. 841 165

Figure 3. Effect of mass ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide for Ambient and oven dry
curing [19].

Figure 4. Strength gain with variation in molarities [18].

Aggregates. As in the Portland cement concrete, the aggregates occupy the largest volume, i.e.
about 60-80 % by mass, in geopolymer concrete [20]. Previous research showed that the proper
selection of all aggregates and ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate content improves modulus
of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of geopolymer concrete. At the same time, the split and flexural
tensile strength increased for the total content varied from 60% to 75% (with a constant fine
aggregate to the total aggregate ratio of 0.35). In general, higher and more stable strength values can
be achieved when there is an optimum surface area for interfacial bonding between the geopolymer
matrix and the aggregate [20,21].
Admixtures. Admixtures are chemicals or natural materials, which are used to improve special
properties of fresh or hardened concrete such as; durability, workability or strength characteristics
of a given concrete [22]. Commonly used admixture in geopolymer concrete is super-plasticizer.
Previous research shows that addition of super-plasticizer improves the workability of the fresh
concrete. It has less effect on the compressive strength for about two percent addition to the mass of
166 Properties and Application of Geopolymers

fly ash. The dosage varies from 0.6-2% of the weight of fly ash. Beyond this value, there is some
degradation of the compressive strength and risk of segregation [23]. According to
Nematollahi [24], the effect of different super-plasticizer on the workability and strength of fly ash
based geopolymer directly depends on the type of activator and super-plasticizer.

Mixing and curing

In order to get a good mix, alkaline solutions should be prepared one day before casting. Because
at the time of making NaOH solution, an exothermic reaction result. So heat is generated and the
polymerization takes place by reacting with one another [19, 23]. Mixing of geopolymer concrete
adopts the conventional techniques from Portland cement concrete. In the laboratory, fly ash and
aggregates are first mixed together at a waterless state for about 3-5 minutes. Then the alkaline
solution together with superplasticizer is added to the dry mix of fly ash and aggregates.
Subsequently, the mixing is continued for another three to five minutes depending on
the class of fly ash [21]. Then it is followed by pouring the uniform mixture to the prepared mould.
Short summary of mixing process is given in Fig.5.

Alkaline
solution
Fly ash +
Alkaline + Fly ash
Solution
Aggregates +
Aggregates
+
Admixtures

Figure 5. Summary of concrete casting.

However, for a large-scale mixing, the type and condition of the mixer used (its speed of rotation
and size of the charge), and setting time of paste determine the correct mixing time. Consequently,
fly ash-based geopolymer concrete can take more than twenty up to thirty minutes of mixing. Paste
with class C fly ash has a rapid setting time so that the huge amount of mixture should be avoided.
On the other hand, paste containing class F fly ash takes longer setting time. Therefore, the mixing
time is not standard for each batch.
Some studies suggested that steam or normal curing in oven within a temperature range of 600C-
900C for 24 hours is applied for geopolymer concrete. During curing process, the polymerization
process starts rapidly, and the concrete can gain 70% of its strength within three to four hours of
curing. Curing beyond 60 degree Celsius has less contribution to strength development. Thus
according to researches, the optimum curing temperature is recommended with in 600C -750C [8,
18].

Benefits
Geopolymer concrete has drawn attention of researchers and engineers not only because of its
lower carbon print. In addition to this advantages, it has more significant benefits in terms of
environment, mechanical property and economy over conventional Portland cement concrete[25]. A
short list benefits of Geopolymer concrete is given in Fig.6. In addition, supporting result for
compressive strength of geopolymer and Portland cement concrete is given in fig.7.
 Materials Science Forum Vol. 841 167

• Gives high strength and can be used as lightweight concrete that

enables to design thinner sections [7, 13,25].
• Ensure durable material [13,25].
• Low specific creep, low drying shrinkage, good sulfate and
corrosion resistance[2,25].
• Higher fire,salt and freezing-thawing resistance [25].
Benefits

• Permits design flexibility to designs curves, arches and other

pleasing architecture [13,25].
• Results up to 90% reduction in CO2 emissions from OPC
concrete[4,5].
• Creates clean environment around power Industries by recycle use
of waste material (Fly Ash).
• Earns approximately one carbon credit of about 10 to 20 Euros per
2.5 m3 GPC[8].
• Low maintenance cost since geopolymer concrete gives durable
material.

Figure 6. Some advantages of Geopolymer concrete.

Figure 7. Comparative study result for compressive strength of geopolymer and concrete blocks [7].

Limitations
Besides many advantages of geopolymer concrete over Portland cement, it has limitation.

The Alkaline solution in the geopolymer mix is expensive [10, 11]. Even though the cost
of the same quantity of fly ash is significantly cheaper than cement, the direct price of
alkaline solution covers more than 60% of overall cost. However, in a large scale, the price
can be reduced for application to the industrial scale.

A wide propagating cracks occurred in high-impact load since geopolymer concrete is
brittle. That implies it can be broken without any warning when the peak load is reached.
This is supposed to be avoided for practical construction. However, according to previous
studies, this problem can be improved by using fibers in the mixture. Addition of fibers
prevents geopolymer concrete from rapid propagating cracks .Thus, fiber-reinforced fly
ash composites can exhibit higher tensile strength and improvement in ductility [26, 27].

Strength development at early ages depends more on curing condition. High temperature is
required to cure geopolymer concrete. This limitation could be big issues in cast-in–situ
concrete in non-tropical countries where the construction site is located in high fluctuations
168 Properties and Application of Geopolymers

in temperature and humidity. In tropical countries, this may not be problem and curing can
be done naturally.

Bond strength between reinforcement bar and geopolymer concrete is not well studied as
in Portland cement.
Applications in advance
As discussed earlier, fly ash based geopolymer can be used in all types of concrete applications
from small to high scale construction. Previous constructions show that fly ash based geopolymer
concrete had been used in ready mix and precast concrete for high strength concrete application in
dame, tunnel and high rise buildings. The following construction are selected as an examples for
some of the demanding applications of fly ash concrete. Frist, the new St. Clair River Tunnel that
constructed in 1993-1994 in Michigan is one of large scale application of precast fly ash concrete.
In this construction, ready-mixed fly ash concrete containing 6% silica fume and 30% Class C fly
ash was used. Second, construction of a high rise residential/commercial building - The Bayview
High-Rise Apartment in 2000 in Vancouver, shows the use of fly ash in high rise building.
Fly ash concrete could be well suited for construction of airport pavement. Load from aircraft
with high tire pressure during hot weather deform the surface of pavement. For over repeated time,
these deformations increased and forms cracks. Since geopolymer has high compressive and tensile
strength, it avoids these damage. Therefore, utilizing geopolymer concrete is suggested in airport
pavement because of its high strength to resist static load from aircraft. Additionally, geopolymer
concrete according GEOCISTEM research is best choice for storage of toxic and radioactive
wastes. It is also preferable in developing countries as low cost construction materials. For instance,
bricks made form fly ash could be cheaper and more available from Portland cement bricks.

Conclusion
In over all, using fly ash-based geopolymer concrete has significant benefits in terms of
environment, engineering and economy over conventional Portland cement concrete. Especially it
gives better solution to the main default of Portland cement concrete, i.e. low resistance to corrosion
and increase of environmental pollution.

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