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THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

The strength of a material is not the only criterion that must

be considered in designing structures. The stiffness of a
material is frequently of equal importance. To a lesser degree,
mechanical properties such as hardness, toughness and
ductility determine the selection of the material.

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THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM STRAIN

To obtain the unit deformation or strain, e, we divide the

elongation d by the length L in which it was measured, thereby
obtaining
d
e
L
The strain so computed, however, measures only the average
value of strain. The correct expression for strain at any position
is dd
e
dL
where dd is the differential elongation of the differential
length dL.

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STRAIN
Under certain conditions, the strain may be assumed constant
and these conditions are as follows:
1.The specimen must be of constant cross-section.
2.The material must be homogeneous.
3.The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
Since strain represents a change in length divided by the
original length, strain is a dimensionless quantity.
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THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
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PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
From the origin O to a point called the proportional limit, the
figure shows the stress-strain diagram to be a straight line.
From this we deduce the well-known relation, first postulated
by Robert Hooke in 1678, that stress is proportional to strain.
Notice carefully that this proportionality does not extend
throughout the diagram; it ends at the proportional limit.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
Other concepts developed from the stress-strain diagram
curve are the following:
1. The elastic limit is the stress beyond which the material
will not return to its original shape when unloaded but will
retain a permanent deformation called permanent set.
2. The yield point is the point at which there is an
appreciable elongation or yielding of the material without any
corresponding increase of load.
3. The yield strength is closely associated with the yield
point.
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PROPORTIONAL LIMIT THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Other concepts developed from the stress-strain diagram

curve are the following:
4. The ultimate stress, or ultimate strength as it is more
commonly called, is the highest ordinate on the stress-strain
curve.
5. The rupture strength is the stress at failure.

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WORKING STRESS AND FACTOR OF SAFETY HOOKE’S LAW: AXIAL AND SHEARING DEFORMATIONS

The working stress, also called the allowable stress, is the The slope of the straight line portion of the stress-strain
maximum safe stress a material can carry. In design, the diagram is the ratio of stress to strain. It is called the modulus
working stress sw should be limited to values not exceeding the of elasticity and is denoted by E:
proportional limit so as not to invalidate the stress-strain 
relation of Hooke’s law on which all subsequent theory is Slope of stress-strain curve = E
e
based. However, since the proportional limit is difficult to
which is usually written in the form
determine accurately, it is customary to base the working
stress on either the yield point or the ultimate strength,
  Ee
divided by a suitable number N, called the factor of safety: Eventually,
In this form,this
it isname
known
was
assuperseded
Hooke’s law.byOriginally,
the phrase Hooke’s
modulus
law
 yp  ult specified
of elasticity.
merely that stress was proportional to strain but
w  or w  Thomas Young in 1807 introduced a constant of
Nyp Nult
proportionality that came to be known as Young’s modulus.

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HOOKE’S LAW: AXIAL AND SHEARING DEFORMATIONS
The units for modulus of elasticity E are identical to the units
for stress s – recall that strain e is a dimensionless quantity. As
an illustration, the modulus of elasticity for steel in SI is
approximately 200x109 N/m2 (200x109 Pa).
A convenient variation of Hooke’s law is obtained by replacing
s by its equivalent P/A and replacing e by d/L.
P d
E
A L
PL L
d or d 
AE E
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HOOKE’S LAW: AXIAL AND SHEARING DEFORMATIONS
Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation, just as axial
forces cause elongations, but with an important difference. An
element subject to tension undergoes an increase in length; an
element subject to shear does not change the length of its
sides, but it undergoes a change in shape from a rectangle to a
parallelogram.
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HOOKE’S LAW: AXIAL AND SHEARING DEFORMATIONS
The equation shown expresses the relation among the total
deformation d, the applied load P, the length L, the cross-
sectional area A, and the modulus of elasticity E. Note that it
is subject to all the restrictions previously discussed in
connection with the equations it combines. For convenience,
let us restate these restrictions:
1. The load must be axial.
2. The bar must have a constant-cross section and
homogeneous.
3. The stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
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HOOKE’S LAW: AXIAL AND SHEARING DEFORMATIONS
The actual shearing strain is found by dividing ds by L. In the
figure, this defines tan g = ds/L. However, since the angle g is
usually very small, tan g ≈ g and we obtain
ds
gs 
L
More precisely, the shearing strain is defined as the angular
change between two perpendicular faces of a differential
element.
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HOOKE’S LAW: AXIAL AND SHEARING DEFORMATIONS Compute the total elongation caused by an axial load of 100
kN applied to a flat bar 20mm thick, tapering from a width of
The relation between shearing stress and shearing strain, 120mm to 40mm in a length of 10 m as shown below. Assume
assuming Hooke’s law to apply to shear, is E = 200 GPa.
  Gg
in which G represents the modulus of elasticity in shear, more
commonly called the modulus of rigidity. The relation between
the shearing deformation and applied shearing forces is then
expressed by
VL
ds 
As G
in which V is the shearing force acting over the shearing area
As.

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A steel wire 30 ft long, hanging vertically, supports a load of
500lb. Neglecting the weight of the wire, determine the
required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20 ksi and the
total elongation is not to exceed 0.20 in. Assume that modulus
of elasticity, E = 29x106 psi.
An aluminium bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2
carries the axial loads applied at the position shown. Compute
the total change in length of the bar if E = 10x106 psi. Assume
the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

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The rigid bar ABC shown is hinged at A and supported by a
steel rod at B. Determine the largest load P that can be applied
at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi and the
vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.
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STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS
There are certain combinations of axially loaded members in
which equations of static equilibrium are not sufficient for a
solution. This condition exists in structures where the reactive
forces or the internal resisting forces over a cross section
exceed the number of independent equations of equilibrium.
Such cases are called statically indeterminate and require the
use of additional relations that depend on the elastic
deformations in the member.
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The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods is horizontal
before the load P is applied. Determine the vertical movement
of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.
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STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS
The cases are so varied that they can best be described by
sample problems illustrating the following general principles:
1. To a free-body diagram of the structure, or a part of it,
apply the equations of static equilibrium.
2. If there are more unknowns than independent equations
of equilibrium, obtain additional equations from the
geometric relations between the elastic deformations
produced by the loads. To define these relations clearly,
you will find it helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates
the magnitudes of the elastic deformations.
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The short concrete post in the figure below is reinforced axially
with six symmetrically placed steel bars, each 600 mm2 in area.
If the applied load P is 1000 kN, compute the stress developed
in each material. Use the following moduli of elasticity: for
steel, Es = 200 GPa; for concrete, Ec = 14 GPa.
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A copper rod is inserted into a hollow aluminum cylinder. The
copper rod projects 0.005 in. as shown. What maximum load P
may be applied to the bearing plate? Use the data in the
following table:
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In the preceding problem, assume the allowable stresses to be
ss = 120 MPa and sc = 6 MPa. Compute the maximum safe axial
load P that may be applied.
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A horizontal bar of negligible mass, hinged at A and assumed
rigid, is supported by a bronze rod 2.0m long and a steel rod
1.0m long. Using the data in the accompanying table, compute
the stress in each rod.
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A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded by a
shell of cast iron 5 mm thick. Compute the load that will
compress the combined bar a total of 0.8 mm in the length of
2m. For steel, E = 200 GPa, and for cast iron, E = 100 GPa.
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THERMAL STRESSES
It is well-known that changes in temperature cause bodies to
expand or contract, the amount of linear deformation, dT,
being expressed by the relation
dT = aL(DT)
where: a = coefficient of linear expansion
L = length
DT = temperature change
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A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetrically
spaced rods as shown below. Each copper rod has an area of
900 mm2; E = 120 GPa; and the allowable stress is 70 MPa. The
steel rod has an area of 1200 mm2; E = 200 GPa; and the
allowable stress is 140 MPa. Determine the largest mass M
which can be supported.
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THERMAL STRESSES
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, as
by the use of expansion joints, no loads or stress will be
induced in the structure. But in some cases it may not be
feasible to permit these temperature deformations; the result
is that internal forces are created to resist them. The stresses
caused by these internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
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THERMAL STRESSES
A general procedure for computing the loads and stresses
caused when temperature deformation is prevented is
outlined in these steps:
1. Imagine the structure relieved of all applied loads and
constraints so that temperature deformations can occur
freely. Represent these deformations on a sketch, and
exaggerate their effect.
2. Now imagine sufficient loads applied to the structure to
restore it to the specified conditions of restraint. Represent
these loads and corresponding load deformations on the
sketch for step 1.
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A steel rod 2.5 m long is secured between two walls. If the
load on the rod is zero at 20°C, compute the stress when the
temperature drops to -20°C. The cross-sectional area of the
rod is 1200 mm2, a = 11.7 mm/(m·°C), and E = 200 GPa. Solve,
assuming (a) that the walls are rigid and (b) that the walls
spring together a total distance of 0.500 mm as the
temperature drops.
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THERMAL STRESSES
A general procedure for computing the loads and stresses
caused when temperature deformation is prevented is
outlined in these steps:
3. The geometric relations between the temperature and load
deformations on the sketch give equations that, together
with the equations of static equilibrium, may be solved for
all unknown quantities.
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A rigid block weighing 12 kips is supported by three rods
symmetrically placed as shown. Assuming the block to remain
horizontal, determine the stress in each rod after a
temperature rise of 100°F. The lower ends of the rods are
assumed to have been at the same level before the block was
attached and the temperature changed. Use the data in the
following table:
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A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched

between two fixed points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb.
What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature will the
stress be zero? Assume a = 6.5 x 10-6 in/(in·°F) and E = 29 x
106 psi.

temperature rise = 100°F

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A steel rod 3 ft long with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is

stretched between two fixed points. The tensile force is 1200
lb at 40°F. Using E = 29 x 106 psi and a = 6.5 x 10-6 in/(in·°F),
calculate (a) the temperature at which the stress in the bar will
be 10 ksi; and (b) the temperature at which the stress will be
zero.

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