11

Strength, Elasticity and Toughness

of Wood

11.1 Information or
applied load
.
d eformahon = a constant
The strength of a material such as wood refers to
its ability to resist applied forces that could lead The value of this constant will vary with size of
to its failure, while its elasticity determines the the sample, hence it is necessary to express load
amount of deformation that would occur under in terms of the cross-sectional area over which it
the same applied forces. These forces may be is applied, and deformation in terms of the initial
applied slowly at constant rate whereby we length of the sample, namely:
refer to the inherent resistance of the material
as its static strength, or they may be applied load (N)
- - - - - - - - - = s t r e s s (N/mm 2 )
exceptionally quickly, when we refer to the resis- cross-sectional area (mm 2 )
tance of the material as its dynamic strength.
In the application of design to the structural (stress is denoted by CT)
use of timber it is necessary to design against and
both static failure and excessive deflection, the deformation ( mm)
latter a manifestation of the elastic properties of . . I I h = strain ( unitless)
ongma engt ( mm)
wood. Either of these two parameters may be the
limiting factor in a particular design. Addition- (strain is denoted by E)
ally, it is frequently necessary to carry out hence
impact testing of a prototype component in stress ( O")
order to determine that there is sufficient resis- - - - - = a constant
tance in the designed structure to the application strain (c)
of dynamic loads. = modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity (also known as
Young's modulus) is denoted by E and
11.2 General principles
expressed in units of N/mm 2 .
E is a material constant characterising one
The application of a small load to a sample of
piece of wood. It will be similar for other sam-
wood will cause that sample to deform; the appli-
ples from the same part of the tree but, as will be
cation of additional small loads will cause further
described later, it will vary between different
deformation of the sample, and it will be found
species. E is frequently referred to as the stiffness
that the increments in deflection are proportional
of wood, a popular term which conveys an
to the increments in load. This is illustrated in the
appropriate image. Strictly speaking, the term
lower half of the load-deformation graph illu-
stiffness is the product of the modulus and the
strated in Figure 11.1 as a straight line and can
second moment of area (I): that is, stiffness = EI.
be expressed as
However, in the remainder of this chapter the
applied load ex: deformation popular use of the term will be used to denote E.

102
H.E. Desch et al., Timber Structure, Properties, Conversion and Use
© J.M. Dinwoodie 1996

In the straight-line graph in Figure II.la wood
will behave in a truly elastic fashion, and the
removal of any applied load will result in zero
deformation, that is loading follows the graph
upwards, while unloading follows the graph
back to zero, that is all the deformation is reco-
verable. In comparing different timbers, that
with the highest slope will have the highest
stiffness.
However, above a certain level of loading
known as the limit of proportionality, depar-
ture from linearity occurs such that for each
increment of load there is a more than propor-
tional increment in deformation. If an applied
load above the limit of proportionality is
removed, the sample will not return to zero
deformation, but follow a line lying parallel to
the initial linear region and terminating on the
horizontal axis at some finite deformation. Thus,
permanent deformation has been induced in the
sample which will take the form of cell crushing,
if the load has been applied in longitudinal com-
pression, or cell-wall rupture, if a longitudinally
applied tensile load has been applied (Figure
ll.lb).
Load
Load to failure
Limit of proportionalit.v
Deformation
(a)
Figure 11.1 Load-deformation curves for pieces of wood loaded to (a) below, and (b) above the limit of proportionality
but below the failing load. On unloading in (a) no permanent deformation occurs; on unloading in (b) some permanent
deformation will have occurred
Strength, Elasticity and Toughness of Wood 103
The application of additional load will result
initially in more permanent deformation and
finally in failure of the sample. The stress level
(load divided by cross-sectional area) at which
failure occurs is deemed to be the strength of
the wood, and the value of this will depend on
the mode of stress application, for example, ten-
sion or compression.
The limit of proportionality also varies with
mode of stress application. In longitudinal tensile
stressing the limit occurs at about 60-65 per cent
of the failure stress, while in longitudinal com-
pressive stressing the limit is much lower at 30-
50 per cent (Figure 11.2).
The linear behaviour below the limit of pro-
portionality will be obtained only at fairly fast
rates of loading. At low rates of load application
there will be an effect of time under load as
discussed in section II .5. 7: this will induce a
measure of non-linearity into the graph.
Dynamic loading, where the rate of load appli-
cation is exceptionally quick, is carried out to
determine the toughness or impact resistance
of the material. Unlike strength, which is a mea-
sure of the resistance of wood to an applied
Load
permaneut tltjormation
(b)