1

TOPIC 8
Physics of Matters
8.1 Stress and strain
8.2 Young’s Modulus
8.3 Heat Conduction
8.4 Thermal expansion
 Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
8.1 Stress and Strain
(a) Distinguish between stress and strain for tensile and
compression force.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1, MQF LOD1)
(Tutorial : C3&C4, CLO3,PLO4, CTPS3, MQF LOD6)
(b) Analyse the graph of stress-strain for a metal under
tension.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1, MQF LOD1)
(c) Explain elastic and plastic deformation.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1, MQF LOD1)
(d) Analyse graph of force-elongation, F-ΔL for brittle
and ductile materials.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1, MQF LOD1)
8.2 Young’s modulus
(a) Define and use Young’s Modulus.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1, MQF LOD1)
(b) Apply strain energy from force-elongation
graph.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1, MQF LOD1)
(c) Apply strain energy per unit volume from stress-
strain graph.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1, MQF LOD1)
2
 Have you go and try this ?

Sky Tower Malacca

or

Sky walk Penang 3

China ZhangJiaJie Glass Bridge

Would you like to challenge yourself with this one ? 4

 8.0 Introduction
When looking at a force problem, you're probably used to being
concerned only about how the object moves after being affected
by the forces acting on it. What you probably haven't thought
too much about is how the structure of the object might be
affected by that same force. A common example of this happens
with bridges. When people or vehicles move over a bridge, their
weight creates a downwards force. The bridge doesn't change
position due to this weight, but it can bend.

Although solid may be thought as having a definite shape and volume, it’s possible to change its shape
and volume by applying external forces. A sufficiently large force will permanently deform or break an
object, but otherwise, when the external forces are removed, the object tends to return to its original
shape and size. This is called elastic properties.
The elastic properties of a material is an important criteria to determine the strength of the material.
The elastic properties of a material are discussed in terms of stress and strain.
To help ensure that a bridge can hold the amount of weight that it was designed to withstand without
breaking under heavy traffic, it undergoes something called a stress test.

5
8.1 Stress and strain 6

Stress () is defined as force acting per unit cross sectional area.

Mathematically, we can write this as:
A long bar clamped at one end is
stretched by the amount of e
𝑭 under the action of a force.

𝝈=
𝑨
𝑙
: Force perpendicular to the cross
section.
Figure 1
A: Cross sectional area
SI unit for stress is kg m‒1s‒2 or N m‒2 or Pa (Pascal)
The amount of stress applied to an object will determine the level of strain the object
experiences, where strain is the amount of deformation an object undergoes due to
stress.
Strain () is defined as ratio of the change in length to the original
length. . 7
Figure 2
Mathematically, we can write this as:

∆𝑳 ∆𝑳
𝜺=
𝑳𝒐 ∆𝑳

: amount of elongation or compression 𝑳𝑳 𝒐 𝑳𝒐

: original length 𝑳
No unit for strain.
Note:
can be written as
can be written as
Amount of elongation, or
Amount of compression,
where is the final length Tensile Compression
Depending on how force is applied to the object, it can undergo different types of
stress and strain.

Two of the most common types are tensile and compressive stress and
strain.

When an object is under tension it is experiencing an increase in length. A

rubber band being stretched out is a common example of an object experiencing
tensile stress and strain.

The opposite of tension is compression, where an object is undergoing a

decrease in length. If you've ever squeezed a rubber ball or a pet's squeak toy
in your hands, you were creating a compressive stress and strain in the
object.
Any object is capable of experiencing tensile and compressive stress and strain, but
not all react to that stress to the same degree.

8
 Graph of stress‒strain for a metal under tension
9
Stress, (Pa)
Elastic Plastic 𝑨
deformation deformation ⃗
𝑭
Once stress is Permanent deformed by stress
removed returns to
original size/shape
D 𝑳𝒐 ∆𝑳
E A : proportionality limit
C B : elastic limit
B C : yield point
Elastic but no longer linear A
Elastic limit is
D : point of maximum stress
reached when the
(force)
c
sti

graph line start to

ela

curve.
nd

E : fracture (breaking) point

raa
ne

OP : permanent strain when

Li

stress is removed.
O P Strain, OAB: elastic deformation
CDE: plastic deformation
 Elastic deformation:
1) Elastic deformation occurs when an object can return to its original length or size
after being distorted.
2) Point O to point B is known as elastic deformation.
Point Explanation
OA o Stress increase linearly with strain until point A. Point A is the proportionality
(proportionality
limit.
limit ) o The straight line graph (OA) obeys Hooke’s Law which states “Below the
proportionality limit, the restoring force, is directly proportional to the
extension”

The negative sign indicates that the restoring force is in the opposite direction
to increasing extension.

B o This is the elastic limit of the material.

o Beyond this point, the material is permanently stretched and will never regain
(elastic its original shape and length.
limit) o If the stress is removed, the material has a permanent extension OT.
10
Plastic Deformation
1) Occur when an object has been deformed beyond its elastic limit.
2) At this stage, the object can be extended by a large amount with a small addition
of force.
3) After the force (stress) is removed, the object cannot regain its original length or
shape.
4) Point CDE is known as plastic deformation.
Point Explanation
C  The yield point marked a change in the internal structure of the material.
(yield  The plane (layer) of the atoms slide across each other resulting in a
point) sudden increase in extension and the material thins uniformly.
 When stress increases, strain increases rapidly.
D  Stress on the material is maximum and is known as breaking stress
(point of (force).
maximum  This is sometimes called the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).
stress)  After this point, the material will thin and “necks” are formed.
E  This is the point where the material breaks or fractures.
(fracture) 11
 Graph of stress‒strain for various materials
12

Stress ,  Ductile materials

o undergo plastic deformation
before breaking.
Steel o Example: steel, copper,
aluminium.

Glass Brittle materials

Copper o do not undergo or show very
Aluminium little plastic deformation
before breaking.
Bone o Example : glass, bone,
concrete.
O Strain, ε
 Graph of force‒elongation (F─) for brittle and ductile material
A brittle material A ductile material
Force, (N) Force, (N)
Elastic
deformation
Elastic Plastic
Maximum deformation deformation
fracture
force The fracture of a brittle C
material is sudden with little Maximum
or no plastic deformation. force
D
fracture
Brittle material
(glass, bone, AB Ductile
concrete) A material
(steel,
aluminium)

O elongation,(m) O P
elongation, (m)
13
 8.1 STRESS & STRAIN

EXAMPLE 1
A wire with a length of 1m, is lengthened by 0.6 mm
when a load with a mass of 20 kg is hung on it. If the
diameter of the wire is 2mm, calculate the

(a) Stress
(b) Strain
(c) Force constant of the wire

14
 8.1 STRESS & STRAIN

Given: m  20 kg d  2 mm  2  103 m
e  0.6 mm  0.6  103 m
𝐿l𝑜o  1 m ∆ 𝐿

F
(a) Stress,  
A
mg

d2
4

4(20)(9.81)

 (2 10 )
3 2

  6.25 107 Pa
15
 8.1 STRESS & STRAIN

(b) 𝑭 =𝒌 ∆ 𝑳
(c)
∆𝑳
𝜺= mg
𝑳𝒐 k
∆e𝐿
0.6 10 -3
 ¿
( 20)(9.81)
1 0.6 𝑋 10 −3
  6  104
k  3.27  105 N m 1

16
 8.1 STRESS & STRAIN

EXAMPLE 2
A material has a breaking strain of 0.075. If a wire has
an original length of 0.50 m, calculate the extension of
the material as it breaks.

Solution

17
8.2 Young’s Modulus 18

Measures resistance of material to change its shape when a force is applied to

it.
Young’s modulus, is defined as the ratio of the tensile stress to the
tensile strain if the proportionality limit has not been exceeded.

Mathematically, we can write this as:

𝝈
𝒀=
𝜺 𝑳𝒐
𝑭
𝑨 𝑭 𝑳𝒐
𝒀= 𝒀= ∆𝑳
∆𝑳 𝑨∆ 𝑳
𝑳𝒐 𝑭
Scalar quantity ; SI unit is kg m‒1s‒2 or N m‒2 or Pa (Pascal)
19
Young’s modulus, is the gradient of the stress-strain graph in the elastic
region, where Hooke’s law is obeyed.
Value of Young’s modulus is
large for a stiff material ‒
Limit of proportionality slope (gradient) of graph is
steep, difficult to deform.

Gradient = Young’s modulus Small slope– Young’s Large slope–

modulus is small, Young’s
material is flexible, modulus is large,
easy to stretch, large material is stiff,

Stress,

Stress,
strain for little stress. hard to stretch,
little strain for
large stress.

Strain, Strain,
Young’s modulus is a property of material, does not depend to the length,
weight or shape of the material but it depend to the type of material.
Table below shows the approximate values of Young’s modulus for various
materials.

Material
Aluminium
Bone
Brass
Copper
Steel
Glass
Lead
Concrete
Tungsten
Diamond

20
Relationship between force constant, and Young’s
modulus,
From the statement of Hooke’s law and definition of Young modulus, thus

Hooke’s law: 𝐹 =𝑘 ∆ 𝑳 ⋯ (1)

Young’s modulus :
𝑭 𝑳𝒐
𝒀= ⋯ (𝟐)
𝑨∆ 𝑳
into :
𝒌(∆ 𝑳) 𝑳𝒐
𝒀=
𝑨(∆ 𝑳)
𝒀𝑨 where
𝒌= : force constant : Young’s modulus
𝑳𝒐 : cross sectional area : original length 21
 Strain energy,
o When a wire is stretched by a load (force), work is done on the wire and strain
22
(elastic potential) energy is stored within it.
o Consider the force-extension graph of this wire until the proportionality limit
( Hooke’s law) as shown in Figure below.

Force (N)
Limit of proportionality
The total work done, in stretching the wire from
F
0 to is given by
Area under graph force-elongation

0 ∆𝑳 elongation (m)
Work done is stored as strain energy thus 23
𝟏
𝑼= 𝑭 ∆ 𝑳
𝟐
where
: strain energy (unit : J)
: Force (unit : N) 𝑳𝒐
: elongation or compression (unit : m) ∆𝑳

𝐿 ⃗
𝑭

strain energy can also calculated from graph

force‒elongation :

Strain energy, = Area under graph

 Strain energy per unit volume
24
From the definition:
Tensile stress Tensile strain

Therefore:
𝑨

𝑳𝒐
 Strain energy per unit volume,
25
𝑼 𝟏 where
= (𝝈𝜺) : strain energy per volume (unit : J m‒3)
𝑽 𝟐 : Stress (unit : N m‒2 @ Pa)
: strain ( no unit)

Stress, (Pa)

From stress-strain graph, Strain energy per

unit volume is given by

SI unit for strain energy per volume is

0
𝜀 Strain, J m−3
 8.2 YOUNG’S MODULUS

EXAMPLE 3
A wire has a mass 5.3 g and length 2.50m. A force of 50 N can
extend it by 2.3 mm. Determine

(a) the Young’s Modulus for the metal of the wire

(b) the strain energy stored in the stretched wire

[ Density of the metal of the wire = 2.7x103 kg m-3 ]

26
 8.2 YOUNG’S MODULUS

(a)From: Y  ¿
𝑭 𝑳𝒐
 𝑨∆ 𝑳
50(2.5)
 7 3
7.85 10 (2.3 10 )

Y  6.9  1010 Pa

𝟏
(b) Strain energy, 𝑼 = 𝑭 ∆ 𝑳
𝟐
1
 (50)(2.3 103 )
2
U  5.8  102 J
27
 8.2 YOUNG’S MODULUS
EXAMPLE 4
Bone has a Young’s modulus of about 18Pa. Under compression, it can
withstand a stress of about 160 Pa before breaking. Assume that a
femur (thighbone) is 0.50 m long, and calculate the amount of
compression this bone can withstand before breaking.

Solution
Given : 18 Pa ; ; m Find :
𝟔
𝝈 𝝈 𝟏𝟔𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎
𝒀 = → 𝜺= = =𝟎 . 𝟎𝟎𝟖
𝜺 𝒀 𝟏𝟖 ×𝟏𝟎 𝟗

∆𝑳 −𝟑
𝜺= → ∆ 𝑳=𝜺 𝑳𝒐 =𝟎 .𝟎𝟎𝟖 ( 𝟎 .𝟓 )=𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐦 =𝟒 𝐦𝐦
𝑳𝒐 28
8.3 Heat Conduction
At the end of this topic, students should be able to :
a) Define heat conduction
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1)
b) Solve problem related to rate of heat transfer,
𝑄
=− 𝑘𝐴 ( )
∆𝑇
𝑡 area (maximum
through a cross-sectional 𝐿 two insulated
object in series).
(Tutorial : C3&C4, CLO2,PLO2)
c) Analyse graph of temperature – distance , (T-L) for
heat conduction through insulated and non-insulated
rods (maximum two insulated object in series).
(Tutorial : C3&C4, CLO2,PLO2)

29
8.3 Heat Conduction
At the end of this topic, students should be able to :
a) Define heat conduction
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1)
b) Solve problem related to rate of heat transfer,
𝑄
=− 𝑘𝐴 ( )
∆𝑇
𝑡 area (maximum
through a cross-sectional 𝐿 two insulated
object in series).
(Tutorial : C3&C4, CLO2,PLO2)
c) Analyse graph of temperature – distance , (T-L) for
heat conduction through insulated and non-insulated
rods (maximum two insulated object in series).
(Tutorial : C3&C4, CLO2,PLO2)

30
8.4 Thermal Expansion
At the end of this topic, students should be able to :

a) Define coefficient of linear expansion, α, area

expansion,β and volume expansion, γ.
(Lecture : C1&C2,CLO1, PLO1)

b) Solve problems related to thermal expansion of linear,

area and volume (include expansion of liquid in a
container).
Δ 𝐿=𝛼 𝐿𝑜 Δ𝑇 ,∆ 𝐴=𝛽 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇 ,∆𝑉=𝛾𝑉 𝑜 ∆𝑇 ,𝛽=2𝛼,𝛾=3𝛼
(Tutorial : C3&C4, CLO2,PLO2)

31
INTRODUCTION
Temperature & Heat are closely related concepts in our
everyday understanding which depends on our sensory
perceptions.
Temperature (T)
 is defined as a relative measurement of hotness or
coldness.

 a scalar quantity that is same for any 2 systems in

thermal equilibrium.
 Unit of temperature = °C, °F, or K

32
8.3 Heat conduction
Heat

 is the energy transferred from one object to another

because of a difference in temperatures between
the two objects .
 Heat flows from higher temperature to lower
temperature.

 Unit of heat is Joule (J) , kg m2 s–2 33

 Heat conduction
is defined as a process whereby heat is transferred through a
solid from a region of high temperature to a region of lower
temperature.
Low
High temperature
temperature
conduction

34
 Rate of heat Conduction
Consider a rod of conducting material with
uniform cross sectional area, A & length x.
A
Heat flow
Ti Tf
Hot cold
x
Assume no heat loss through the sides surface of the
rod and Ti > Tf (heat only flow through Thot to Tcold )

When the rod in steady condition, the rate of heat

flows is constant along the rod

35
Experiments show that the rate of
heat flow is given by the relation

𝑄
𝑡
=− 𝑘𝐴
∆𝑇
𝐿 ( )
or

𝑄
𝑡
=− 𝑘𝐴
𝐿(
𝑇 𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖
)
36
 where, 𝑄
- Rate of heat flow or heat current
𝑡
∆ 𝑇 - Temperature gradient
𝐿
k - Thermal conductivity
- Temperature difference per
∆ 𝑇- Difference in temperature unit length
∆ 𝑇=𝑇 𝒇 − 𝑇 𝒊
Note :
(– ) sign in the equation shows that heat always flow in
the direction of decreasing temperature.
 Unit for rate of heat flow, 𝑄
Watt (W), J s–1 𝑡

37
The rate of heat flow, 𝑄 through the rod
depends on 3 factors, 𝑡
𝑄
1) 𝛼 𝐴 (cross sectional area)
𝑡
𝑄 ∆𝑇
2) 𝛼 (temperature gradient)
𝑡 𝐿
or temperature difference per unit length

𝑄
3) 𝑡 is dependent upon the type of
material of the rod
(ex.temperature
NOTE : The Cooper or iron)
change, T is the same in the
kelvin and celsius scales.
38
Thermal conductivity, k
-- is the characteristic of heat conducting ability of a
material.
− Indicator of how fast a material able to conduct heat.

-- is defined as a rate of heat flows perpendicularly

through the unit cross sectional area of a solid, per unit
temperature gradient along the direction of heat flow
OR
𝑄 -- Unit for k :
𝑡 W–1 m–1 K–
𝑘=− 1
@ W m–1
𝐴
∆𝑇
𝐿 ( ) °C–1
-- scalar quantity

39
Table below shows the value of k for various
substances
-- the greater the value of k for a material the more
rapidly it will conduct heat.
Substance Thermal
conductivity, k
(W m-1 K-1)
Silver 420
Good
Copper 380 conducto
Steel 40 r

Glass 0.84 poor

Brick 0.84 conducto
r / good
Wood 0.1 insulator

40
 Heat Conduction through Jointed rods

-- Consider 2 uniform rods of similar cross-sectional area,

A but different lengths and thermal conductivities
jointed in series.

X Heat flow Y
Tx Ty
kx ky

lx ly
-- Tx > Ty – heat flows through the rods from the hotter
end Tx towards the cooler end at Ty .
-- When the rods are in steady state, rate of heat flows
along both rods are the same.

𝑄 𝑄 Solution key
( ) 𝑥=( ) 𝑦
𝑡 𝑡 for jointed
41
rods
 Jog Your Mind ( 1 )

How blankets and coats help

you to keep warmer in cold
weather?

When you sleep under a blanket in the

winter or wear a warm coat out-side, the
blanket or coat is not a source of energy.
It serves as a layer of material with low
thermal conductivity in order to reduce
the transfer of energy away from your
body by heat. The primary insulating
medium is the air trapped in small
pockets within the material.
42
 Conduction along a well Insulated rod
-- No heat loss through the side
A(T2) B(T1) surface of the rod because is
covered with insulator.

x
T (°C) -- all the heat flow from the hot end
of A to the cold end of B.
T2
-- temperature varies linearly
with distance along the rod.
Decreasing of temperature is
uniform.
T1
l (m)
0 L

43
 Conduction along non - insulated rod

A B
-- Heat is lost to the
T2 T1 surrounding from the sides
of the rod
x
T (°C)
-- temperature – distance
T2 graph is a curve. The
decreasing of temperature
is not uniform.
-- loss of heat at A > loss of
heat at B
T1
L (m)
0 L

44
Conduction along an insulated
combination rods in series Since rods are insulated, no
heat loss to surrounding.
T (°C) Temperature varies
T3 linearly with distance
(straight line graph).
Values of k are different,
( )
(1) 𝛥 𝑇
𝐿 thus the temperature
(2) gradients are different for
T1 both rods.
( )
𝛥𝑇
𝐿 L (m)
T2
T3 k1 k2 T1
Greater k ,
( ) ( ) → line (1)
-- if k1 > k2 , -- 𝛥 𝑇 < 𝛥𝑇
𝐿 1 𝐿 2
gently slope

( ) ( ) → line (2)
-- if k1 < k2 , --
𝛥𝑇
𝐿 1
>
𝛥𝑇
𝐿 2
Smaller k , steeper slope

45
Conduction along a non insulated combination rods in series

T (°C)
Heat loss to surrounding. Temperature
T3 decreases non uniformly with distance
(curve line graph). Values of k are
different, thus the curves are different
T2 for both rods.

T1
L (m)

T3 k1 k2 T1

T2

46
 Jog Your Mind ( 2 )
Because of kmetal > kplastic
A plastic ice-cube tray and a metal
ice-cube tray are removed from the
same freezer, at the same initial 𝑄 𝛥𝑇
=𝑘 𝐴
temperature. However, when your 𝑡 𝐿
hands touch both, the metal one
feels cooler. Why ? 𝑄
𝑘𝛼
𝑡

𝑄
The rate of heat flow, 𝑡 will be increased due to
increasing thermal conductivity, k.

Increasing heat flow means heat

easier to absorb and easier to release.

47
 Jog Your Mind ( 3 )

Stainless steel cooking pans are preferred with

an extra copper bottom. Why ?

Because of ksteel < kcopper , copper can absorb heat

easier (to cook the meal) while steel release heat
slower (so that the meal will stay warmer in longer
time).
@

Thermal conductivity of copper is greater that that of

steel. So the heat conducted through copper is more
and the food gets cooked easily.

48
 Example 5

Calculate the rate of heat flow through a glass window 3.0 m2 in area
and 3.2 mm thick if the temperature at the inner and outer surfaces
are 15°C and 38°C respectively.
[ given kglass = 0.84 W m–1 K–1 ]

Solution

Given: A = 3.0 m 2 ; L = 3.2 × 10–3 m

Ti = 38 °C ; Tf = 15 °C ;
ΔT = Tf – Ti = 15 – 38 = – 23 °C
𝑄 ∆𝑇
Using : =− 𝑘 𝐴
𝑡 𝐿
 23
  ( 0 .84 ) (3)
3 .2  10  3
49
 1 . 81  10 4 W
Example 6

A well insulated aluminium bar has 40 cm length and cross-sectional

area 3.0 cm2. one of the ends is maintained at a temperature of 130 oC
while its other end is kept at a temperature of 10 oC. If the bar is in
steady state condition, find

(a) The temperature gradient along the bar

(b)The temperature at a distance 10 cm from the end that is maintained

at 130 oC.

(c) The rate of heat flow through the bar.

(Kal uminium = 240 W m–1 K–1 )

50
Solution

Given: A = 3 ×10-4 m 2 ; L = 40 × 10–2 m

Ti = 130 °C ; Tf = 10 °C
(a) The temperature gradient along the bar is

∆ 𝑇 𝑇 𝑓 − 𝑇 𝑖 10 − 130
= =
𝐿 𝐿 0.4
  3 0 0 o C m 1
(b) If Tx is temperature at 10 cm from the end that is
maintained at 130 °C. then

∆𝑇 (𝑇 𝑓 −𝑇 𝑖) − 𝑇 𝑥 +130
− =− = =300
𝐿 𝐿 0.1
 Tx  130  30
T x  100 o C 51
(c) The rate of heat flow through the bar is

𝑄 ∆𝑇
=− 𝑘 𝐴
𝑡 𝐿
  ( 240 ) ( 3  10  4 )  300 

 21 . 6 W

52
Example 7 Ts

100°C Aluminum copper 80°C

5 mm 10 mm

2 metal bars with similar cross sectional area 1 mm 2 are joined in

series and insulated. The length of each rod is 5 mm & 10 mm
respectively. At steady state, the temperatures at their ends are shown
in figure above. Calculate :
(a) the temperature at their adjoint end.
(b) the rate of heat flow

[ kAl = 200 W m–1 K–1 ; kCu = 400 W m–1 K–1]

53
Solution
Assume temperature at adjoint end is Ts
At steady state :
𝑄 𝑄
( ) 𝐴𝑙=( )𝐶𝑢
𝑡 𝑡
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝐴𝑙 𝑇𝐶𝑢− 𝑇𝑠
−𝑘𝐴𝑙 𝐴 =−𝑘𝐶𝑢 𝐴
𝐿𝐴𝑙 𝐿𝐶𝑢
𝑇𝑠 −100 80− 𝑇𝑠
200 −3
=400 −3
5×10 10×10
𝑇𝑠 −100=80− 𝑇𝑠

2 𝑇𝑠=180
𝑇𝑠=90° 𝐶 54
(b) Rate of heat flow

𝑄 𝑇𝐶𝑢−𝑇𝑠
=− 𝑘𝐶𝑢 𝐴
𝑡 𝐿𝐶𝑢
−6 80 − 90
¿ − 400 (1× 10 ) −3
10 × 10

¿ 0.4 𝑊

55
Example 8
60oC

Copper Steel 0°C

100°C
A = 5.0 cm2 A = 5.0 cm 2

100 cm L
Figure 13.1
Refer to figure 13.1 , when the rod achieve steady condition,
determine
(a) The length, L of the steel rod,
(b) The rate of heat flow through both
rods.
[ kcopper = 380 Wm–1K–1 ; ksteel = 46 Wm–1K–1]

56
Solution
a) Rate of heat flow through the copper rod is given by

𝑄 ∆𝑇
=− 𝑘 𝐴
𝑡 𝐿
𝑄
𝑡
=− ( 380 ) 𝐴 (
60− 100
100 )
Rate of heat flow through the steel rod is given by

Equating 2 equation
𝑄
𝑡
=− ( 46 ) 𝐴 (
0 − 60
𝐿 )
 60  100   0  60 
 380 A     46  A  
 100   L 
L  1 8 . 2 cm
57
b)
𝑄 ∆𝑇
=− 𝑘 𝐴
𝑡 𝐿

𝑄
𝑡 (
=− ( 380 ) ( 5 ×1 0− 4 )
60 −100
100 )
 7 . 6W

58
8.4 Thermal Expansion

-- Most materials expand when heated and

contract when cooled.
Thermal Expansion – the change in the dimensions of a
body accompanying a change in temperature.

-- For solids, thermal expansion occurs through :

linear (length) , area and volume depending on
the geometrical shape of the material.
59
-- Liquid and gas will only experience volume expansion.

railroad tracks are built so that they can
slide toward and away from each other on
hot and cold days, making sure that they do
not bend out of shape because of
overheating.
Joints such as this one are used
in bridges to accommodate
thermal expansion.

-- Rising of temperature will cause the molecules to be active in

motion and push the adjacent molecules to the side which
causes the material to expand.
60
1) Linear Expansion
Suppose a rod of material has a length L0 at some initial temperature T0 .

L  L  Lo
When the temperature changes by ∆T, the length changes by ∆L.

Experiments show that :  L  L 0  T

61
 expressed in equation :
 L   L 0  T [ Linear Thermal
Expansion ]
where 
: coefficient of linear expansion
[ unit : K–1 @ C°–1 ]
 is fractional change in length per
degree change in temperature.
L  L  Lo T  T  To
final length Initial length final temperature Initial
Temperature

Note:
Its final length L after a change in temperature :
L  Lo  L
L  Lo  Lo  T
L  L0 (1   T )
62
 2) Area Expansion

-- 2 dimensional expansion which occurs when a material

is heated.

Assume that :
Initial area = Ao Change in area = ∆ A
Final area after heated = A
Change in temperature = ∆ T = Tf – Ti
Experiments show that :  A  Ao  T

63
 expressed in equation :
[ Area Thermal
 A   Ao  T Expansion ]
where
β : coefficient of area expansion
[ unit β : K–1 @ C°–1 ]
is fractional change in area per degree change in temperature.
Note: Its final area, A after a change in
temperature is given by A  A o  A
A  Ao   Ao  T )
A  Ao ( 1    T )
Relation between  and 

  2 * Limit for isotropic expansion ( uniform expansion

in all dimensions )

64
 Check your conceptual knowledge

When the lid of a glass jar is tight, holding the lid under hot water
for a short time will often make it easier to open. Why ?

Answer…..

The lid of the jar undergo area thermal expansion. Area of the lid of
glass jar increasing (rise in temperature) after being heated by hot
water for a short time, make it easier to open.

65
3) Volume Expansion -- 3 dimensional expansion which
occurs when a material is heated.

Assume that :
Initial volume = Vo
Change in volume = ∆V

Final volume after heated = V

Change in temperature = ∆ T = Tf – Ti

Experiments show that :  V  Vo  T

66
expressed in equation :
 V  V o  T [ Volume Thermal
Expansion ]

where  : coefficient of volume expansion

 –1 @ C°–1 ]
[ unit : K
 is fractional change in volume per degree change in temperature.
Note: Its final volume V after a change in
temperature is given by
V  Vo   V
V  Vo  Vo T 
V  Vo ( 1    T )
Relation between  and    3
67
As Table below indicates, each substance or material has its own characteristic coefficient of
expansion. For a solid, the coefficient of volume expansion is approximately three times the
linear expansion coefficient (This assumes that the coefficient of linear expansion of the
solid is the same in all directions.)
change in
temperature on
the Celsius
scale equals the
change on the
Kelvin scale.
( 𝜶) (𝜸 )

Example:
 Expansion of liquid in a container
Thermal expansion of liquid depends on the
expansion of the container that it fills.

The liquid in a container overflow or not when

temperature rises depends on the change in
volume of both the liquid and the container.
When temperature increases, both the liquid &
container expand.

69
If they were to expand by same amount, there
would be no overflow.
However, γliquid > γsolid , thus liquid expands much
more than the container and liquid will spill out
from the container.
Overflow volume (isipadu yang
melimpah keluar dari bekas) is the
amount of liquid expansion minus
amount of container expansion.

Voverflow  Vliquid  Vcontainer

70
 Example 9
We can conceptualize the situation by imagining that the ends
An electronic device has been poorly designed so of both bolts expand and move toward each other as the
temperature rises.
that two bolts attached to different parts of the
device almost touch each other in its interior, as in The sum of the changes in length of the two bolts must equal
Figure below. The steel and brass bolts are at the length of the initial gap between the ends.
different electric potentials and if they touch, a
m
short circuit will develop, damaging the device. If
the initial gap between the ends of the bolts is m
5.0 m at 27 °C, at what temperature will the bolts
touch? m
Given: and −6
5.0 ×10
∆ 𝑇=
( 19× 10−6 ) ( 0.030 ) +(11 ×10 −6 )(0.010)

∆ 𝑇=7.4 ℃

Temperature at which the bolts touch is

 Example 10 (b) How significant is the change in volume of the flask?

A volumetric flask made of Pyrex is calibrated

at 20.0°C. It is filled to the 100-mL mark with ∆ 𝑉 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘 =𝛾 𝑉 𝑜 ∆ 𝑇
35.0°C acetone. (a) What is the volume of the ¿ 3 𝛼 𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑒𝑥 𝑉 𝑜 ∆ 𝑇
acetone when it cools to 20.0°C?
¿ 3 (3.20 ×10 −6 )(100)(20 − 35)
Given: coefficient of linear expansion for Pyrex, ; mL
coefficient of volume expansion for
contract as temperature drops
acetone,
∆ 𝑉 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 =𝛾 𝑉 𝑜 ∆ 𝑇
¿ (1.5 ×10− 4 )(100)( 20− 35)
mL
𝑉 =𝑉 𝑜 (1+𝛾 ∆ 𝑇 ) contract as temperature drops

𝑉 =100 𝑚𝐿(1+1.50 × 10− 4 (20 − 35)) The significant volume change of flask is
∆𝑉 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘 − 0.0144
mL ¿ = ×100 %=6.4 %
∆ 𝑉 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 −0.225

about 6.4% of the change in the acetone’s

volume
- End of Chapter 8 -

73