Simple Strain

2-1 INTRODUCTION

Our main concern in the preceding chapter was the strength of a

material, i.e., the relations between load, area, and stress. We now
consider the other major field of strength of materials — the changes in
shape, i.e., deformations, that accompany a loading. Although we limit
ourselves here to axially loaded bars, the principles and methods devel-
oped apply equally well to the more complex cases of twisting or
bending. In particular, we shall learn how to apply the geometric
relations between elastic deformations which, in combination with the
conditions of equilibrium and the relations between loads and deforma-
tions, will enable us to solve statically indeterminate problems.

2-2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

The strength of a material is not the only criterion that must be con-
sidered in designing structures. The stiffness of a material is frequently
of equal importance. To a lesser degree, such properties as hardness,
toughness, and ductility determine the selection of a material. These
properties are determined by making tests on the materials and compar-
ing the results with established standards. Although a complete descrip-
tion of these tests is the province of materials testing and hence will not
be given here, one of the tests (the tension test of steel) and its results
33
34 2 Simple Strain

will be considered because it helps to develop several important basic

concepts
Ifa specimen of structural steel is gripped between the jaws of a
testing machine and the load and the extension in a specified length are
observed simultaneously, we can plot these observations on a graph on
which the ordinates represent load and the abscissae represent extension.
Figure 2- represents such a graph. Notice that we did not plot
1

load against extension; rather, unit load or stress was plotted against
unit elongation, technically known as strain. Only by reducing observed
values to a unit basis can the properties of one specimen be compared
with those of other specimens. The diagram in Fig. 2-1 is called a
stress-strain diagram, the name being taken from the coordinates.

* Actual rupture
,' strength
Stress
Ultimate strength
•x-
"i
Rupture
Yield point strength

\
*- Elastic limit
\ Proportional limit

Strain 6 =£

Figure 2-1. Stress-strain diagram.

Strain

To obtain the unit deformation or strain, would seem obvious

c, it

to divide the elongation 8 by the length L in which it was measured,

thereby obtaining

< = (2-1)
r
The strain so computed, however, measures only the average value of

M
strain. The any position is
correct expression for strain at

.
£
where d8 is the differential elongation of the differential length dL.
Thus, Eq. (2- la) determines the average strain in a length so small that
2-2 Stress-Strain Diagram 35

the strainmust be constant over that length. However, under certain

may be assumed constant and its value computed
conditions the strain
from Eq. (2-1). These conditions are as follows:

1. The specimen must be of constant cross section.

2. The material must be homogeneous.

3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.

Finally, note that since strain represents a change in length divided by

the original length, strain is a dimensionless quantity. However, it is

common to use units of meters per meter (m/m) when referring to

~3
strain. In engineering work, strains of the order of 1.0 X 10 m/m are
frequently encountered.

Proportional limit

From the origin O to a point called the proportional limit, Fig. 2-1
shows the stress-strain diagram to be a straight line. From this we
deduce the well-known relation, first postulated by Robert Hooke* in
1678, that stress is proportional to strain. Notice carefully that this
proportionality does not extend throughout the diagram; it ends at the
proportional limit. Beyond this point, the stress is no longer propor-
tional to the strain. The proportional important because all
limit is
subsequent theory involving the behavior of elastic bodies is based upon
a stress-strain proportionality.* This assumption places an upper limit
on the usable stress a material may carry. This is also our first indica-
tion that the proportional limit, and not the ultimate strength, is the
maximum stress towhich a material may be subjected. We shall return
to this observation later when we discuss working stress and the factor
of safety.
Other concepts developed from the stress-strain curve are the
following: (1) The elastic limit, that is, the stress beyond which the
material will not return to its original shape when unloaded but will
retain a permanent deformation called permanent set. (2) Yield point, at
which there is an appreciable elongation or yielding of the material
without any corresponding increase of load; indeed, the load may
actually decrease while the yielding occurs. However, the phenomenon
of yielding is peculiar to structural steel; other grades of steels and steel

Robert Hooke's famous law Ut tensio sic vis, i.e., "As strain, so force,"
related total strain to total force and did not recognize a limit to this proportionality.
+The stress-strain diagram of many materials is actually a curve on which
there is no definite proportional limit. In such cases, the stress-strain proportionality
is assumed to exist up to a stress at which the strain increases at a rate 50% greater
than shown by the initial tangent to the stress-strain diagram.
 2 Simple Strain

High carbon steel

Cast iron

Strain

Figure 2-2. Comparative stress-strain diagrams for different materials.

alloys or other materials do not possess it, as is indicated by the typical

stress-strain curves of these materials shown in Fig. 2-2. These curves,
incidentally, are typical for a first loading of materials that contain
appreciable residual stressesproduced by manufacturing or aging
processes. After repeated loading, these residual stresses are removed
and the stress-strain curves become practically straight, as can be
demonstrated in the testing laboratory. (3) Yield strength, closely
associated with yield point. For materials which do not have a well-
defined yield point, yield strength is determined by the offset method.
This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the
stress-strain curve, this line being started at an arbitrary offset strain,
usually of 0.2% or 0.002 m/m. As shown in Fig. 2-3, the intersection of
this line with the stress-strain curve is called the yield strength. (4)
Ultimate stress, or ultimate strength as it is more commonly called,
which is the highest ordinate on the stress-strain curve. (5) Rupture
For structural steel it is somewhat lower
strength, or the stress at failure.
than ultimate strength because the rupture strength is computed by
dividing the rupture load by the original cross-sectional area which,
although convenient, is incorrect. The error is caused by a phenomenon
known as necking. As failure occurs, the material stretches very rapidly
and simultaneously narrows down, as shown in Fig. 2-4, so that the
rupture load is actually distributed over a smaller area.* If the rupture
area is measured after failure occurs, and divided into the rupture load,
the result is a truer value of the actual failure stress. Although this is
considerably higher than the ultimate strength, the ultimate strength is

commonly taken as the maximum stress of the material.

•For reasons that are explained in Art. 13-4, the actual failure is caused by
shear, resulting in the cuplike rupture shown.
2-2 Stress-Strain Diagram 37

^ Yield strength

J k-o. 2<fo offset

Strain

Figure 2-3. Yield strength determined by offset method.

rsr
Figure 2-4. Necking, or narrowing, of steel specimen at failure.

Working stress and factor of safety

The working stress is defined as the actual stress the material has
when under load. It is almost synonymous with allowable stress, which is
the maximum safe stress a material may carry. In actual design, the
allowable stress aw should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit so as not to invalidate the stress-strain relation of
Hooke's law on which all subsequent theory is based. However, since
the proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, it is customary
to base the allowable stress on either the yield point or the ultimate
strength, divided by a suitable number N, called the factor of safety:

o\.. = yp
or aM = , (2-2)
N,yp

The yield point is selected as the basis for determining ow in structural

steel because it is the stress at which a prohibitively large permanent set
may occur. For other materials, the allowable stress is usually based on
the ultimate strength.
Many must be considered in selecting the allowable stress.
factors
This selection should not be made by the novice, as will became
apparent in a moment; usually the allowable stress is set by a group of
experienced engineers and embodied in various building codes and
specifications. A short discussion of the factors governing the selection
of an allowable with the observation that in many materials
stress starts
the proportional limit about one-half the ultimate strength. To avoid
is

accidental overloading, an allowable stress of one-half the proportional

limit is usually specified for dead loads gradually applied. The term
38 2 Simple Strain

dead loads generally refers to the weight of the structure or to loads

which, once applied, are not removed. An allowable stress set in this
way corresponds to a factor of safety of 4 and is recommended for
materials that are known to be quite uniform and homogeneous. For
other materials, like wood, in which unpredictable nonuniformities
(such as knotholes) may occur, larger factors of safety are desirable. The
dynamic effect of suddenly applied loads also requires higher factors of
safety. As a rule, factors of safety are not directly specified; rather,
allowable stresses are set for different materials under different condi-
tions of use, and these stresses are used by the designer.

2-3 HOOKE'S LAW: AXIAL DEFORMATION

Let us return now to a consideration of the straight-line portion of the

stress-strain diagram in Fig. 2-1. The slope of that line is the ratio of
stress to strain. It is called the modulus of elasticity and is denoted by E:
o
slope of stress-strain curve = E =—

which is usually written in the form

a - Ee (2-3)

In this form it is known as Hooke's law. Originally Hooke's law

specified merely that stress was proportional to strain, but Thomas
Young in 1807 introduced a constant of proportionality that came to be
known as Young's modulus. Eventually this name was superseded by
the phrase modulus of elasticity.
From Hooke's law, Eq. (2-3), it can be seen that the units for
modulus of elasticity E are identical to the units for stress o — recall that
strain c is a dimensionless quantity. As an illustration, the modulus of
elasticity for steel is approximately 200 X 10
9
N/m2 (200 X 109 Pa).
Using the SI prefix G (read as "giga") to denote multiples of 109 this ,

can be expressed as 200 GN/m 2 (200 GPa).

A convenient variation of Hooke's law is obtained by replacing a
by its equivalent P/A and replacing c by 5/L, so that Eq. (2-3)
becomes

^=£-*
A L
or

Equation (2-4) expresses the relation among the total deformation

6, the applied load P, the length L, the cross-sectional area A, and the
2-3 Hooke's Law: Axial Deformation 39

modulus of elasticity E. The unit of deformation 8 has the same unit as

length L, since the units of o and E, being equivalent, cancel out of the
equation. Note that Eq. (2-4) is subject to all the restrictions previously
discussed in connection with the equations it combines. For con-
venience, let us restate these restrictions:

1. The load must be axial.

2. The bar must have a constant cross section and be homoge-

neous.

3. The stress must not exceed the proportional limit.

Shearing deformation

Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation, just as axial forces

cause elongations, but with an important difference. An element subject
to tension undergoes an increase in length; an element subject to shear
does not change the length of its sides, but undergoes a change in shape
from a rectangle to a parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 2-5.
The action may be visualized for the present as equivalent to the
infinitesimal sliding of infinitely thin layers past each other, thereby
resulting in the total shearing deformation 8S in the length L. The actual
action is more complex than that pictured and will be discussed more
fully in Art. 9-9.
The average shearing strain is found by dividing 8 by L. In Fig.
S

2-5, this defines tan y = 8J L. However, since the angle y is usually

very small, tan y «
y and we obtain

Y- (2-5)

More precisely, the shearing strain is defined as the angular change

between two perpendicular faces of a differential element.
The relation between shearing stress and shearing strain, assuming
Hooke's law to apply to shear, is
t - Gy (2-6)

/
r*i
/
/
/
/
/ /
/ 7 / L
/
/
/

Figure 2-5. Shear deformation.

40 2 Simple Strain

in which G represents the modulus of elasticity in shear, more com-

monly called the modulus of rigidity. The relation between the shearing
deformation and applied shearing forces is then expressed by

*' <2
"7>
' He
in which V is the shearing force acting over the shearing area A s Note
.

the similarity of this result with Eq. (2-4).

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

201. Compute the total elongation caused by an axial load of 100

kN applied to a flat bar 20 mm thick, tapering from a width of 120 mm
to 40 mm in a length of 10 m as shown in Fig. 2-6. Assume E = 200 x
10
9
N/m 2 .

20 mm thick
20 mm 60 mm
P= 1
kN
100

Figure 2-6.

Solution: Since the cross-sectional area is not constant, Eq. (2-4) does

not apply directly. However, it may be used to find the elongation in a

differential length for which the cross-sectional area is constant. Then
the total elongation is the sum of these infinitesimal elongations.
At section m-n, the half width v (mm) at a distance x (m) from
the left end is found from geometry to be
y - 20 60-20
10
or v = (4x + 20) mm
and the area at that section is

A = 20(2>>) = (160.x -I- 800) mm :

At section m-n, in a differential length dx, the elongation may be

found from Eq. (2-4):

5 = PL dS = (100 x \(P)dx
AE (160.x -I- 800)(10~ 6 )(200 x 10
9
)

0.500 dx
160jc + 800
 .

2-3 Hooke's Law: Axial Deformation 41

from which the total elongation is

10 dx _ 0.500
r
o
2400
- (3.13 X 10" 3 ) In—
800
^= 3.44 X 10" 3 m = 3.44 mm Ans.

202. Two steel bars AB and BC support a load P - 30 kN as

of AB is 300 mm area of BC is 500 mm
2 2
shown Area
in Fig. 2-7a. ; . If
E= 200 GPa, compute the horizontal and vertical components of the
movement of B.

3 m

P= 30 kN
(a) (b)

Figure 2-7.

Solution: We begin by computing the deformations produced in each

bar by P. From statics, we obtain PAB = 50 kN (tension) and

?bc = 40 kN (compression). The corresponding deformations are

3
x
8 = PL 8ab
J
AB
— (50 10 )(5000)
AE (300 x 10" 6 )(200 x 10
9
)
= 4.17 mm lengthening
3
(40 X 10 )(4000)
8nr
'BC
~
9
(500 x 10" 6 )(200 x 10 )

= 1 .60 mm shortening
To analyze the effect of these deformations on the movement of B,
imagine first that bars AB and BC are disconnected at B so that they
undergo the deformations pictured (greatly exaggerated) in Fig. 2-7b.
To refasten the bars, rotate them about A and C to meet at B"
However, the arcs generated in these rotations are so small that they
may be effectively replaced by straight lines drawn perpendicular to AB
and BC, respectively; these lines, intersecting at B\ determine the
42 2 Simple Strain

B ^bc
=1 -60 mm

Figure 2-8.

effective final position of 5. The deformations 8AB and 55C are drawn to
a larger scale in Fig. 2-8, in which the total movement of B is the vector
BB ' or 8 directed as shown.
From Fig. 2-8 it is evident that the horizontal component of 8 is

$h
m 8B c ~ 1-60 mm rightward Arts.

However, 8h is also equal to the algebraic sum of the horizontal

components of 8AB and the unknown length x, so that
8h = x sin — 8AB cos

from which

1.60 = x(\ ) - 4.17(f), x = 8.23 mm

This value of x is used to determine y, i.e., 8V which
, is the sum of
the vertical components of 8AB and x:
8V = 8AB sin + x cos
= 4.17(f) + 8.23(f)
= 9.09 mm down Arts.

If we return to Fig. 2-7b, we may now compute the magnitude of

the angle through which bars AB and BC rotate. We obtain

X 8.23
U
<*ab
= = 1.65 x 10" 3 rad = 0.0945°
Lab 5000
and
9.09
OL D/~
l
/K
= y = 2.27 x 10~ 3 rad = 0.130°
BC 4000
2-3 Hooke's Law: Axial Deformation 43

These rotations are so small that it is justifiable to assume that the

directions of 8AB and 8BC coincide with the original directions of bars
AB and BC.

PROBLEMS

203. During a stress-strain test, the unit deformation at a stress

of 35 MN/m was observed to be 167 X 10" m/m and at a stress of
2 6

140 MN/m was 667 X 10" 6 m/m. If the proportional limit was 200
2
it

MN/m what the modulus of elasticity? What the strain corre-

2
, is is

sponding to a stress of 80 MN/m ? Would these results be valid 2

the if

proportional limit were 150 MN/m Explain.

2
.

Arts. E = 210 X 109 N/m2 € = 381 X 10~ 6 m/m ;

204. A uniform bar of length L, cross-sectional area A y

and unit
mass p suspended vertically from one end. Show that its total
is

elongation is 8 = pgL /2E. If the total mass of the bar is M, show also
2

that 8 = MgL/2AE.
205. A
rod having a cross-sectional area of 300
steel
2
and a mm
length of 150 m
is suspended vertically from one end. It supports a

tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850
kg/m 3 and E = 200 X 103 2
MN/m
find the total elongation of the rod.
,

{Hint: Use the results of Problem 204.) Arts. 8 = 54.3 mm

206. A steel wire 10 m long, hanging vertically supports a tensile
load of 2000 N. Neglecting the weight of the wire, determine the
required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 140 MPa and the total
elongation is not to exceed 5 mm. Assume E = 200 GPa.
207. A steel tire, 10 mm thick, 80 mm wide, and of 1500.0 mm
inside diameter, is heated and shrunk onto a steel wheel 1500.5 mm in
diameter. If the coefficient of static friction is 0.30, what torque is

required to twist the tire relative to the wheel? Neglect the deformation
of the wheel. Use E= 200 GPa. Ans. T- 75.0 kN m •

160 mm
2
208. An aluminum
bar having a cross-sectional area of
carries the axial loads at the positions shown in Fig. P-208. If E — 70
GPa, compute the total deformation of the bar. Assume that the bar is
suitably braced to prevent buckling.

35 kN 15 kN 30 kN 10 kN

L— 0.8 4* 1.0—4-0.6-J
m m m
Figures P-208 and P-209.
 *

44 2 Simple Strain

209. Solve Problem 208 if the magnitudes of the loads at the ends
are interchanged, i.e., if the load at the left end is 10 kN and that at the

right end is 35 kN. Ans. 8 = 1.61 mm (contraction)

210. An aluminum tube is fastened between a steel rod and a
bronze rod as shown in Fig. P-210. Axial loads are applied at the
positions indicated. Find the value of P that will not exceed a maximum
overall deformation of 2 mm or a stress in the steel of 140 MN/m2 in ,

MN/m 120 MN/m Assume

2 2
the aluminum of 80 , or in the bronze of .

that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling and that

Es = 200 x 10
3
MN/m Ea = 2
, 70 X 10
3
MN/m 2
, and Eb = 83 X 3
10
MN/m 2
.

Bronze Aluminum Steel

A =450 mm 2 A = 600 mm 2
A - 300 mm 2

3P AP IP

-0.6 m— •1.0

Figure P-210.
m 0.8 m A

211. The rigid bars shown in Fig. P— 21 1 are separated by a roller

at and pinned at A and D. A steel rod at B helps support the load of
C
50 kN. Compute the vertical displacement of the roller at C.
Ans. 2.82 mm

///////
E = 200 X 10 9 N/m 2
A = 300 mm 2

L = 3m |50kN
2 m f 2 m
> 3 m 1.5 m rf
Figure P-211.

212. A uniform concrete slab of mass is to be attached, as M

shown in Fig. P-212, to two rods whose lower ends are initially at the
same level. Determine the ratio of the areas of the rods so that the slab
will remain level after it is attached to the rods. Ans. A a /A s = 8.57
2-3 Hooke's Law: Axial Deformation 45

/////

Aluminum
/////
E = 70 GPa
Steel
L = 6m
£ = 200 GPa lm
L = 3 m 5 m- ««-H

Figure P-212.

213. The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in
Fig.P-213, is horizontal before the load P is applied. If the load P= 50
kN, determine its vertical movement.

/////

/////
Aluminum
Steel
L =4m
L =3m A = 500 mm 2
A = 300 mm 2
E = 70 GPa
£ = 200 GPa

-•-2 m-*; 3 m

Figure P-213.

214. The rigid bars AB and CD shown in Fig. P-214 are sup-
ported^by pins at A and C and the two rods. Determine the maximum
force Pwhich can be applied as shown if its vertical movement is
limited to 5 mm. Neglect the weights of all members.
Ans. P- 76.3 kN
^/Aluminum
L =2m
A = 500 mm 2
E = 70 GPa
3m 5
Steel
L =2m
A = 300 mm 2
E = 200 GPa

Figure P-214.
46 2 Simple Strain

A round bar of length L tapers uniformly from a diameter

215.
D one end to a smaller diameter d at the other. Determine the
at
elongation caused by an axial tensile load P.
Arts. 8 = APL/mEDd
216. A uniform slender rod of length L and cross-sectional area
A is rotating in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis through one end.
If the unit mass of the rod is p, and it is rotating at a constant angular
velocity of w rad/s, show that the total elongation of the rod is

f*>
2
L 3 /3E.
217. As shown in Fig. P-217, two aluminum rods AB and BC,
hinged to rigid supports, are pinned together at B to carry a vertical
load P = 20 kN. If each rod has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm 2 and
70 x 10 MN/m compute the elongation of each rod and the
3 2
E ,

horizontal and vertical displacements of point B. Assume a = 30° and

9 m 30°. Ans. 8h - 0.412 mm; 8V = 3.57 mm

Figures P-217 and P-218.

218. Solve Problem 217 if rod AB is of steel, with E=

200 X 103
MN/m 2
. Assume a = 45° and = 30°; all other data remain un-
changed.
A round bar of length L, tapering uniformly from a diame-
219.
ter Done end to a smaller diameter d at the other, is suspended
at
vertically from the large end. If p is the unit mass, find the elongation
caused by its own weight. Use this result to determine the elongation of
a cone suspended from its base.
2
Pg L (D + d) pgL 2d 2
Ans. 8 =
6E(D - d) 3ED(D - d)
 2-4 Poisson's Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial Deformations 47

• 2-4 POISSON'S RATIO: BIAXIAL AND

TRIAXIAL DEFORMATIONS

Another type of elastic deformation is the change in transverse dimen-

sions accompanying axial tension or compression. Experiments show
that if a bar is lengthened by axial tension, there is a reduction in the
transverse dimensions. Simeon D. Poisson showed in 1811 that the ratio
of the unit deformations or strains in these directions is constant for
stresses within the proportional limit. Accordingly this ratio is named
after him; it is denoted by v and defined by

„=-^=-ii (2-8)
c c

where €x is the strain due only to stress in the X direction, and c^ and cz
are the strains induced in the perpendicular directions. The minus sign
indicates a decrease in transverse dimensions when €x is positive, as in
the case of tensile elongation.
Poisson's ratio permits us to extend Hooke's law of uniaxial stress
to the case of biaxial stress. Thus, if an element is subjected simulta-
neously to tensile stresses in the X and Y directions, the strain in the X
direction due to the tensile stress ox is ax /E. Simultaneously the tensile
stress oy will produce lateral contraction in the X direction of the
amount vay / E, so the resultant unit deformation or strain in the X
direction will be

2 " 9>
'--E-"-k <

Similarly the total strain in the Y direction is

«,=5-4 < 2 - 10 >

If desired, Eqs. (2-9) and (2-10) can be solved to express the

stresses in terms of the strains as follows:

(<x + V€y )E (€, + P€X )E

A further extension of the above discussion results in the following

expressions for strains caused by simultaneous action of triaxial tensile
stresses:

1 r
*x - *(Oy + «J]

V|k - v(o
z + "*)]
(2-12)

-v(ax +
«z '

-it- ",)]
48 2 Simple Strain

All the above equations are valid for compressive effects also; it is only
necessary to assign positive signs to elongations and tensile stresses,
and, conversely, negative signs to contractions and compressive stresses.
An important relation* between the constants £", G, and v for a
given material is expressed by

C (2 " ,3)
=2(TT7)
which is useful for computing values of v when E and G have been
determined. Common values of Poisson's ratio are 0.25 to 0.30 for steel,
approximately 0.33 for most other metals, and 0.20 for concrete.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

220. A specimen of any given material is subjected to a uniform

triaxial stress. Determine the theoretical maximum value of Poisson's
ratio.

Solution: If we add the three relations in Eq. (2-12), we obtain

«x + S + c
*
=
~TZ< < -
+ °y + °^ (a)

For a uniform triaxial stress, we have €x = c^ = ez = c, and ox =

o - oz - o. Hence Eq. (a) reduces to

-c-»(|)
Since both c and a must be of the same sign, it follows that
(1 - 2v) must be positive; that is,

1 - 2v £
from which

v ^\ Ans.
221. A
aluminum shaft of 80-mm diameter fits concentri-
solid
Compute the minimum internal diameter of
cally in a hollow steel tube.
the steel tube so that no contact pressure exists when the aluminum
shaft carries an axial compressive load of 400 kN. Assume v = \ and
EQ - 70 X 109 N/m 2 .

Solution: The axial compressive stress in the aluminum is

3
P 400 x 10
= ox = = -79.6 MN/m,, 2
~A 2

J(0.080)
•This relation is proved in Art. 9-11
2-4 Poisson's Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial Deformations 49

For uniaxial stress, the transverse strain is

ax^ i/-79.6xio6 \
r
[* --*--'?] S--JI 70x10* J
- 379 x 10- 6 m/m
Therefore, the required diametrical clearance is

[5 = cL] 6, = (379 X 10" 6 )(80) - 0.0303 mm

The required internal diameter of the tube is found by adding this
clearance to the original diameter of the aluminum shaft, thus giving

D= 80 + 0.0303 = 80.0303 mm Arts.

PROBLEMS

222. A solid cylinder of diameter d carries an axial load P. Show

that its change in diameter is 4Pv /mEd.
^223^) A rectangular aluminum block is 100 mm long in the X
direction, 75 mm wide in the Y direction, and 50 mm thick in the
Z direction. It is subjected to a triaxial loading consisting of a uniformly
distributed tensile force of 200 kN in the X direction and uniformly
distributed compressive forces of 160 kN in the Y direction and 220 kN
in the Z direction. If v =\ and E = 70 GPa, determine a single
distributed loading in the X direction that would produce the same Z
deformation as the original loading. Arts. 410 kN tension
224. A welded steel cylindrical drum made of 10-mm plate has
an internal diameter of 1.20 m. By how much will the diameter be
changed by an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa? Assume that Poisson's
ratio is 0.30 and E - 200 GPa.

225. A 50-mm-diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of 2 mm

just fits in a rigid hole. Find the tangential stress if an axial compressive
load of 10 kN is applied. Assume v = 0.30 and E = 200
X 10
9
N/m2 Neglect the possibility of buckling.
.

226. A 150-mm-long bronze tube, closed at its ends, is 80 in mm

diameter and has a wall thickness of 3 mm. It fits without clearance in
an 80-mm hole in a rigid block. The tube is then subjected to an
internal pressure of 4.00 MN/m 2
Assuming v = \ and E — 83
.

X 10
3
MN/m 2
, determine the tangential stress in the tube.
Arts. 8.89 MN/m2
227. A 200-mm-long aluminum tube, closed at its ends, is 100
mm in diameter with a wall thickness of 2 mm. If the tube just fits

between two rigid walls at zero internal pressure, determine the longitu-
dinal and tangential stresses at an internal pressure of 4.00
2
MN/m .

= 70 X 10 N/m
9
Assume v \ and E = 2
.
50 2 Simple Strain

2-5 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS

There are certain combinations of axially loaded members in which the

equations of static equilibrium are not sufficient for a solution. This
condition exists in structures where the reactive forces or the internal
resisting forces over a cross section exceed the number of independent
equations of equilibrium. Such cases are called statically indeterminate
and require the use of additional relations which depend upon the
elastic deformations in the members. The cases are so varied that they
can best be described by sample problems illustrating the following
general principles:

1. To a free-body diagram of the structure, or a part of it, apply

the equations of static equilibrium.

2. If there are more unknowns than independent equations of

equilibrium, obtain additional equations from the geometric relations
between the elastic deformations produced by the loads. To define these
relations clearly, you will find it helpful to draw a sketch that ex-
aggerates the magnitudes of the elastic deformations.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

228. The short concrete post in Fig. 2-9 is reinforced axially with
six symmetrically placed steel bars, each 600 mm 2
in area. If the applied
load P is 1000 kN, compute the stress developed in each material. Use

300 mm

Bearing
N
plate

*c=<5,

Figure 2-9. Reinforced concrete post.

2-5 Statically Indeterminate Members 51

the following moduli of elasticity: for steel, E =

s
200 X 10
9
N/m2 ; for
concrete, Ec - 14 X 10
9
N/m 2
.

Solution: As shown in Fig. 2-9, the applied load and the resisting
forces on any transverse section m-n form a collinear system. From
equilibrium, we have
[2F=0] P, + Pc =lxl0 N 6
(a)

Since no other equations of static equilibrium are available to

indicate in what proportion the load is distributed to each material, we
consider the elastic deformation of the structure. By symmetry, it is

evident that the bearing plate causes the steel and concrete to deform
equally. Hence, applying 8 = oL/E to these equal deformations, we
obtain

»-« (fi-(f),
from which, by canceling out the equal lengths of steel and concrete and
substituting the moduli of elasticity, we have the following relation
between the stresses:

°s - y° c
=
l4"
ac
= c O
Equation (b) may be called the governing relation for stress. Note
that depends only upon the fact that both materials deform equally.
it

This relation is independent of the loads or areas and remains valid

provided the proportional limit of neither material is exceeded.
We may now use P = aA to rewrite Eq. (a):
a,[6(600 X 10" 6 )] + ac {[(300 X 300) - 6(600)] X 10" 6 } = 1 X 10
6

a,(3.6 X 10" 3 ) + ac (86.4 X 10~ 3 ) = 1 X 10

6

whence, replacing as by 14.3ac from Eq. (b), we obtain

14.3ac (3.6 X 10" 3 ) + ac (86.4 X 10" 3 ) = 1 X 10

6

ac = 7.25 X 106 N/m2 - 7.25 MN/m2 Arts.

and from Eq. (b)

as = 14.3ac = 104 MN/m 2

Arts.

229. In the preceding problem, assume the allowable stresses to

be as = 120 MN/m 2
and oc = 6 MN/m 2
. Compute the maximum safe
axial load P which may be applied.

Solution: The unwary student may substitute the allowable stresses

only in the equation of static equilibrium. This would be incorrect
because would not consider the equal deformations of the materials.
it

From Eq. (b) in the preceding problem, we saw that equal deformations
52 2 Simple Strain

produce the following governing relation between the stresses:

os - 14.3af

From this relation we note that if the concrete were stressed to its

limit of 6 MN/m 2
, the corresponding stress in the steel would be

os - (14.3)6 = 85.8 MN/m 2

Therefore, the steel could not be stressed to its limit of 120 MN/m2
without overstressing the concrete. The actual working stresses are
thereby determined to be ac = 6 MN/m 2
and os = 85.8 MN/m 2
. These
values are substituted in the equation of static equilibrium [Eq. (a) in
the preceding problem] to obtain

/>=/>, + />
c
= as A s + oc A c
6 3
= (85.8 x 6
10 )(3.6 x 1(T 3 ) + (6x 10 )(86.4 x 1(T )
= 827 kN Ans.
230. A copper rod is inserted into a hollow aluminum cylinder.
The copper rod projects 0.130 mm as shown in Fig. 2-10. What
maximum load P may be applied to the bearing plate? Use the data in
the accompanying table.

COPPER ALUMINUM
2
Area (mm ) 1200 1800
E (GPa) 120 70
Allowable stress (MPa) 140 70

Bearing
plate
I
^ ~
1*"

250 mm
Aluminum
cylinder

AV^vA '

Figure 2-10.

Solution: To find the governing relation between the stresses, we

consider the elastic deformations, which are shown exaggerated in
Fig. 2-10. We obtain

[Se = 8a 4- (0.130 x I0" 3 )m]

(fHf). + «"*>* 10" 3

)

of (0.25) o (0.25)
x 10" 3 )
fl

9
+ (0.130
120 x 10 70 x 109
2-5
—
Statically Indeterminate Members 53

from which
oc = \J\aa + (62.4 X 10
6
)
(a)

From this stresses, we note that using aa = 70

governing relation for the
MPa copper to 182 MPa. Therefore copper governs,
will overstress the
and the corresponding stress in the aluminum is determined from Eq.
(a) to be

(140 X 10
6
) - 1.71aa + (62.4 X 10
6
) aa = 45.4 MPa
The total safe load is given by
P=P C + Pa = oc A c + oa A a
whence, substituting the working stresses just determined, we obtain
6
P- (140 x 6
10 )(1200 X 10" 6 ) + (45.4 x 10 )(1800 X 10" 6 )
= 250 kN Arts.

231. A horizontal bar of negligible mass, hinged at A in

Fig. 2-1 la and assumed rigid, is supported by a bronze rod 2 m long

//s/y//

LU
Bronze 2m

Steel lm
0.6 mn 1.0 m 0.8 m
r

50 kN
(a)

Original
Ps ^b f position
1.0 m 0.8 mi
1
i. r 1" I

Final
position 50 kN

(b)
Figure 2-11.
54 2 Simple Strain

and a steel rod 1 m long. Using the data in the accompanying table,
compute the stress in each rod.

STEEL BRONZE
2
Area(mm ) 600 300
E (GN/m 2 ) 200 83
Proportional limit (MN/m 2 ) 240 140

Solution: The free-body diagram of the bar in Fig. 2- lib shows it to

be statically indeterminate to the first degree; that is, there is one more
unknown force than can be found from the equations of static
equilibrium. A moment summation about A gives one relation between
the forces in the rods:

[LMA - 0] 0.6P5 + \.6Pb = 2.4(50 x 10

3
) (a)

Another relation between these forces is obtained from the elastic

deformations of the rods. From the similar triangles formed in Fig.
2-1 lb (recall that the horizontal bar is assumed rigid), we obtain

A.
0.6
4
1.6
or —(
0.6\
—
AE]
\
S
=-L(Ik\
\.6\AE) b
1 ^(1) 1 ^(2)
0.6 (600)(200) 1.6 (300)(83)
whence
J»,-3.61/»„ (b)
Note that the areasneed not be expressed in square meters, since the
~
conversion factor of 10 6 appears on both sides of the equation and
thus will cancel out. Similarly the factor 109 in the moduli of elasticity is
not shown in the foregoing equation since it also cancels.
Solving Eq. (a) and (Z>), we obtain
P =
s
115 kN
Pb = 31.9 kN

Computing the stresses,

^
*s
= J15 ii 10^ =192xl06
600 x 10" 6

= 192 MN/m 2
Arts.

_£_2!£xjo> xloSN/m2
At 300 X 10" 6
= 106 MN/m 2
Ans.

Since both stresses are less than the proportional limits, the
answers may be accepted. If the steel stress, for example, had exceeded
the proportional limit, the results would not have been valid and a
 -

2-5 Statically Indeterminate Members 55

redesign would be required. Perhaps the simplest redesign would be to

making it less rigid. It may be
increase the length of the steel rod, thus
noted here that generally the most rigid parts of an indeterminate
structure carry the most load. This is a fundamental principle in the
theory of indeterminate structures and is known as the principle of
ridigities.*

PROBLEMS

A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded

by a shell of cast iron 5 mm thick. Compute the load that will compress
the combined bar a total of 1 mm in the length of 2 m. For steel,
E = 200 X 109 N/m2 and for cast iron, E = 100 X 109 N/m2
, .

Ans. P= 240 kN
233. A reinforced concrete column 250 mm in diameter is de-
signed to carry an axial compressive load of 400 kN. Using allowable
stresses of ac = 6 MPa and os = 120 MPa, determine the required area
of reinforcing steel. Assume that Ec ^ 14 GPa and Es = 200 GPa.
Ans. A s = 1320 mm
2

234. A timber block 250 mm square is reinforced on each side by

a steel plate 250 mm wide and mm thick. Determine the thickness
t / so
that the assembly will support an axial load of 1200 kN without
exceeding a maximum timber stress of 8 MN/m2 or a maximum steel
stress of 140 MN/m 2
. For timber, E= 10 X 10
3
MN/m 2
; for steel,
E= 200 X 10
3
MN/m 2
.

L235S A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetri-

cally spaced rods as shown in Fig. P-235. Each copper rod has an area
of 900 mm 2
E = 120 GPa; and the allowable stress is 70 MPa. The
;

steel rod has an area of 1200

2
mm
E — 200 GPa; and the allowable
;

stress is 140 MPa. Determine the largest mass M which can be sup-
ported. Ans. M = 22.3 X 10 kg 3

Copper Steel Copper

160 mm 240 mm 160 mm

7777777V

Figures P-235 and P-236.

See J. I. Parcel and G. A. Maney, Statically Indeterminate Stresses, 2nd ed.

Wiley, New York, 1936, p. 109.

 •

56 2 Simple Strain

236. In Problem 235, how should the length of the steel rod be
changed so that each material will be stressed to its allowable limit?
The lower ends of the three bars in Fig. P-237 are at the
237.
same homogeneous 18 Mg block is attached. Each
level before the rigid

steel bar has an area of 600 mm and E = 200 GN/m

2 2
For the bronze .

bar, the area is 900 mm and E = 83 GN/m

2 2
Find the stress developed.

in each bar. Arts. os - 124 MN/m 2

; ob = 32.0 MN/m 2

//////

•//( s/s. s
N CO
B c B
o
u *0>

CD
p PQ 1 p
•—
ii
GO I
•^ ^

18 Mg
Figure P-237.

The rigid platform in Fig. P-238 has negligible mass and

238.
rests on two aluminum bars, each 250.00 mm long. The center bar is
steel and is 249.90 mm long. Find the stress in the steel bar after the

center load P — 400 kN is applied. Each aluminum bar has an area of

1200 mm and E = 70 GPa. The steel bar has an area of 2400 mm and
2 2

E = 200 GPa.

S77
Figure P-238.

Three steel eye-bars, each 100

239. by 25 mm
in section, are mm
to be assembled by driving 20-mm-diameter drift pins through holes
drilled in the ends of the bars. The center-line spacing between the holes
is 10 m in the outer two bars but is 1.25 mm shorter in the middle bar.
2-5 Statically Indeterminate Members 57

Find the shearing stress developed in the drift pins. Neglect local
deformation at the holes and use Es = 200 GPa.
Ans. r = 66.2 MPa
240. As shown P-240, three steel wires, each 30
in Fig. in mm 2

area, are used to lift a mass M. Their unstretched lengths are 19.994 m,
19.997 m, and 20.000 m. (a) If M
= 600 kg, what stress exists in the
longest wire? (b) If M
= 200 kg, determine the stress in the shortest
wire. Use E = 200 GN/m
2
.

/////////;

M
Figure P-240.

( 2AX~ The assembly P-241 consists of a rigid bar AB

in Fig.
(having negligible mass) pinned at O
and attached to the aluminum rod
and the steel rod. In the position shown, the bar AB is horizontal and
there is a gap A = 4 mm between the lower end of the aluminum rod
and its pin support at D. Find the stress in the steel rod when the lower
end of the aluminum rod is pinned to the support at D.
Ans. ar = 174 MPa

rO.b m—
*--* 1.2 m
A C B
7^7
Steel Aluminum
A = 300 mm2 A = 400 mm 2
E = 200 GPa E = 70 GPa
L= 1.5 m

DS. A = 4 mm

Figure P-241.
 V

58 2 Simple Strain

242. A
homogeneous rod of constant cross section is attached to
unyielding supports.It carries an axial load P applied as shown in Fig.

P-242. Prove that the reactions are given by R = Pb/L and R 2 = l

Pa/ L. (Note that these reactions are equivalent to those of a simply

supported beam carrying a concentrated load.)

/ /

/ ^2
/
/ • •
/ r _ <
3"" " '

Figure P-242.

243. A homogeneous bar with a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2

is attached to rigid supports. It carries the axial loads P = x
25 kN and
P2 = 50 kN, applied as shown in Fig. P-243. Determine the stress in the

segment BC. (Hint: Use the results of Problem 242, and compute the
reactions caused by P, and P2 acting separately. Then use the principle
of superposition to compute the reactions when both loads are applied.)

B P x C P2

*0.60 EQ; 1.20 m 0.90 m-

Flgure P-243.

244. The bar shown in Fig. P-244 is firmly attached to unyield-

ing supports. Find the stress caused in each material by applying an
axial load P = 200 kN.
Ans. oa = 62.8 MN/m2 ; as = 120 MN/m 2

245. Refer to Problem 244. What maximum load P can be

applied without exceeding an allowable stress of 70 MPa for aluminum
or 120 MPa for steel? Can a larger load P be carried if the length of the
aluminum rod changed, the length of the
is steel portion being kept the
same? If so, determine this length.

200 mm-»4- 300 mm-

Aluminum
Steel
E 70 GPa E - 200 GPa
A 900 mm 2
A = 1200 mm 2
Figures P-244 and P-245.
2-5 Statically Indeterminate Members 59

246. A rod is composed of three segments shown in Fig. P-246

and carries the axial loads P =x
120 kN and P2 = 50 kN. Determine the
stress in each material if the walls are rigid.
Ans. as - 122 MN/m2
247. Solve Problem 246 if the left wall yields 0.60 mm.

<*- 600 mm 400 mm 300 mm*

Bronze Aluminum Steel

A = 2400 mm 2 A = 1200 mm2 A = 600 mm 2

E= 83 GPa E = 70 GPa E = 200 GPa

Figures P-246 and P-247.

248. A steel tube 2.5 mm thick just fits over an aluminum tube
2.5 mm thick. If the contact diameter is 100 mm, determine the contact
pressure and tangential stresses when the outward radial pressure on the
aluminum tube is p = 4 MN/m 2
. Here, E = s
200 X 10
9
N/m 2 , and
Ea = 70 X 109 N/m 2 .

Ans. pc = 2.96 MN/m 2

; os = 59.2 MN/m2 ; aa = 20.8 MN/m2
249. In Problem 248, assume that there is a radial clearance of
0.01 mm between the tubes before the internal pressure of 4 MN/m 2
is

applied to the aluminum tube. Solve for the contact pressure and
tangential stresses.

250. In the assembly of the bronze tube and steel bolt shown in
Fig. P-250, the pitch of the bolt thread is 0.80 and the cross-sec- mm
tional area of the bronze tube is 900
2
and of the steel bolt is 450 mm
mm 2
The nut is turned until there is a compressive stress of 30
.
2
MN/m
in the bronze tube. Find the stress in the bronze tube if the nut is then
given one additional turn. How many turns of the nut will reduce this
stress to zero? Take E as in Problem 246.
Ans. ab = 75.4 MN/m 2
; 1.66 turns

Figure P-250.
60 2 Simple Strain

As shown in Fig. P-251, a rigid beam with negligible mass

251.
is pinned at O and supported by two rods, identical except for length.

Determine the load in each rod \\ P — 30 kN.

Ans. PA = 9.10 kN; PB = 11.94kN

-* -2m •+• \5 m- — *~ -•-1.5 m—+•

i o )
777770
L- 1.5 in
\r L-
A
77777
B
/7? //
Figure P-251.

252. As shown in Fig. P-252, a rigid beam with negligible mass

ispinned at one end and supported by two rods. The beam was initially
horizontal before the load P was applied. Find the vertical movement of
P if P = 120 kN. Ans. 2.92 mm

\\\w

\\\\\
Steel

A = 600 mm 2 Aluminum
E = 200 GPa A = 900 mm 2
L = 4m E = 70 GPa
L = 3m

>
3 m 2 m
1 m

Figure P-252.

253. A rigid bar of negligible mass, pinned at one end, is sup-

ported by a steel rod and a bronze rod as shown in Fig. P-253. What
maximum load P can be applied without exceeding a stress in the steel
of 120 MN/m 2
or in the bronze of 70 MN/m 2
?
2-5 Statically Indeterminate Members 61

Steel / // / /
A = 900 mm 2
Bronze
E = 200 GPa A = 300 mm 2
L =3m E = 83 GPa
L = 2m

lml
U— 2 m—* 3 m-
^1
Figure P-253.

254. Shown in Fig. P-254 is a section through a balcony. The

total uniform load of 600 kN is supported by three rods of the same

area and material. Compute the load in each rod. Assume the floor to
be rigid, but note that it does not necessarily remain horizontal.
Arts. PB = 183 kN
zz zy
///// B

6 m 6 m
5 m
2m
4 m

k— 3 m
*
600 kN
Figure P-254.
3 m-

255. Three rods, each with an area of 300

2
jointly support mm ,

the load of 10 kN, as shown in Fig. P-255. Assuming there was no slack
or stress in the rods before the load was applied, find the stress in each
rod. Here, Es = 200 X 10 N/m and Eb = 83 X 10 N/m
9 2 9 2
.

Figure P-255.
62 2 Simple Strain

Three bars, AB, AC, and AD, are pinned together to sup-
256.
port a load P = 20 kN as shown in Fig. P-256. Horizontal movement is
prevented at joint A by the short horizontal strut AE. Determine the
stress in each bar and the force in the strut AE. For the steel bar,
A - 200 mm 2 and E - 200 GPa. For each aluminum bar, A = 400
mm 2
and E= 70 GPa. Ans. PAE =\80N
257. Refer to the data in Problem 256, and determine the maxi-
mum value of P that will not exceed an aluminum stress of 40 MPa or a
steel stress of 120 MPa.

AJuminum\30 Aluminum

Figures P-256 and P-257.

2-6 THERMAL STRESSES

It is well known that changes in temperature cause bodies to expand or

contract, the amount of the linear deformation, 5 r being expressed by
,

the relation

6T = aL(lT) (2-14)

in which a is the coefficient of linear expansion, usually expressed in

units of meters per meter per degree of temperature change, L is the
length, and AT is the temperature change. Substituting these units in
Eq. (2-14) shows the dimensional unit of 8 T to be the same as that of
the length L.
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, as by
the use of expansion joints, no load or
stress will be induced in the
structure.But in some cases it may not be feasible to permit these
temperature deformations; the result is that internal forces are created
which resist them. The stresses caused by these internal forces are
known as thermal stresses.
A general procedure for computing the loads and stresses caused
when temperature deformation is prevented is outlined in these steps:

Imagine the structure relieved of all applied loads and con-

1.

straints so thattemperature deformations can occur freely. Represent

these deformations on a sketch, and exaggerate their effect.
2-6 Thermal Stresses 63

2. Now imagine sufficient loads applied to the structure to res-

tore it to the specified conditions of restraint. Represent these loads and
corresponding load deformations on the sketch for step 1.

3. The geometric relations between the temperature and load

deformations on the sketch give equations which, together with the
equations of static equilibrium, may be solved for all unknown quanti-
ties.

The following examples illustrate these steps applied in several

different types of problems.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

258. A steel rod 2.5 m long is secured between two walls. If the
load on the rod is zero at 20 °C, compute the stress when the tempera-
ture drops to -20°C. The cross-sectional area of the rod is 1200 mm2 ,

a = 11.7 /tm/(m °C), and E = 200 GN/m2 Solve, assuming (a) that
•
.

the walls are rigid and (b) that the walls spring together a total distance
of 0.500 mm as the temperature drops.

v-
3-^-P
[•-4
Figure 2-12. Rigid walls.

Solution:

Imagine the rod is disconnected from the right wall.

Part a.

Temperature deformations can then freely occur. A temperature drop

causes the contraction represented by 8 T in Fig. 2-12. To reattach the
rod to the wall will evidently require a pull P to produce the load
deformation 8P . From the sketch of deformations, we see that 8 T = 8P ,
or, in equivalent terms,

/Arr7W PL oL

whence
a = Ea(AT) = (200 X \(f)(UJ X 10" 6 )(40) = 93.6 X 10
6
N/m2
= 93.6 MN/m2 Arts.

Note that L cancels out of the above equation, indicating that the stress
is independent of the length of the rod.
 2 Simple Strain

r
Yield-'
Figure 2-13. Nonrigid walls.

Part b. When the walls spring together, Fig. 2-13 shows that the
free temperature contraction is equal to the sum of the load deformation
and the yield of the walls. Hence
8T = 8P -I- yield

whence, replacing the deformations by equivalent terms, we obtain

aL(AT) - —+
oL
yield

or

g(2 5)
'

(11.7
V
x 1(T 6 A A ; =
)(2.5)(40) Q
+ (0.5
V
x 10" 3
)
'
9
200 X 10

from which we obtain

o = 53.6 MN/m 2
Arts.

Notice that the yield of the walls reduces the stress considerably,
and also that the length of the rod does not cancel out as in Part a.

259. A rigid block having a mass of 5 Mg is supported by three

rods symmetrically placed, as shown in Fig. 2-14. Determine the stress
in each rod after a temperature rise of 40° C. The lower ends of the rods
are assumed to have been at the same level before the block was

"_"

Steel Steel
L = 0.5 m L = 0.5m

Figure 2-14. Free-body diagram.

2-6 Thermal Stresses 65

attached and the temperature changed. Note that symmetry dictates

that the block will remain horizontal. Use the data in the accompanying
table.

EACH STEEL ROD BRONZE ROD

Area(mm2) 500 900
9 9
E (N/m2) 200 X 10 83 X 10
a [/xm/(m* >C)] 11.7 18.9

Solution: With the block detached, the original lower position of the
rods is as shown in Fig. 2-15. With the rods free of any constraint, a
temperature cause the temperature deformations 8 T and 8 T in
rise will
the steel and bronze, respectively. When the rods are attached to the
rigid block after the temperature change has occurred, assume their
final horizontal level to be as shown. To attach them to the block, it will
be necessary to pull their expanded ends through the load deformations
8P and 8P by means of the loads Ps and Pb in the steel and bronze,
respectively. The free-body diagram of the block in Fig. 2-14 represents
the equal and opposite effects of the forces exerted by the rods upon the
block.
From the deformations shown in Fig. 2-15, we obtain the follow-
ing geometric relation between the deformations:

$ts + 8pM " 8n + $pb

or

(« la
Mt§L=^ a
Mi§),

Original

'T b
T
6P
"P<
Vi±
mm
Ps Final
/ level
Figure 2-15. Deformations.
66 2 Simple Strain

whence, substituting the given data, we have

6
(11.7 X 1(T )(0.5)(40)
y
(500 X 10" 6 )(200 X 10 )

P (\)
= (18.9 x 10" 6 )(1)(40) +
(900 x 10" 6 )(83 x 10
9
)

Simplifying the above equation, we obtain

Ps - 2.6SPb = 104 X 10
3
N (a)

Another relation between Ps and Pb is obtained from the free-

body diagram in Fig. 2-14.

[2 Y = 0] 2PS + Pb = (5000)(9.81) = 49.05 X 103 N (b)

Solving Eqs. (a) and (b) yields

Ps = 37.0 kN
Pb = -25.0 kN
The negative sign for Pb means that the load Pb acts oppositely to that
assumed; that is, the bronze rod is actually in compression and suitable
provision must be made to prevent buckling.
The stresses are

P 37.0 X 103
°*
500 X 10" 6
= 74.0 MN/m 2
(tension) Ans.
3
25.0 X 10
900 x 10~ 6
= 27.8 MN/m 2
(compression) Ans.

260. Using the data in Problem 259, determine the temperature

rise necessary to cause all the applied load to be supported by the steel
rods.

Solution: Instead of trying to use the results obtained in the solution

of Problem 259, we apply the three steps outlined in Art. 2-6. Imagine
the rods disconnected from the block and hanging freely, as in
Fig. 2-16. A temperature rise causes the temperature deformations 5 r
and 8 T .

Since the bronze rod is to carry no load, the final level of the steel
rods must coincide with the unstressed expanded length of the bronze.
If the rods are to be at the same final level, the steel rods must go

through a load deformation 8 P caused by the pulls Ps each of which ,

must be equal to one-half of the weight, or j(5000)(9.81) = 24.53 kN.

2-6 Thermal Stresses 67

Bronze

Steel Steel

. Original
/ level
1""
IP. $T ^p^ Final
8P */
;
level

Figure 2-16. Bronze rod supporting no load.

From Fig. 2-16, the geometric relation between the deformations

IS

8T = 6> 4- 8i

which can be written as

(aLAr) t = (aLAr) s +(^[-

whence

(18.9 X l(T 6 )(l)(Ar) = (11.7 x 10- 6 )(0.5)(Ar)

(24.53 X \tf){0.5)
10" 6 )(200 9
(500 x x 10 )

Ar=9.4°C Ans.
It is evident that a greater temperature rise will cause the bronze to
push against the rigid block, thereby causing compression of the bronze.
This confirms the result obtained in Problem 259, where the tempera-
ture rise was given to be 40° C.

PROBLEMS

261. A rod with a cross-sectional area of 150

steel
2
is mm
stretched between two fixed points. The tensile load at 20°C is 5000 N.
What will be the stress at — 20°C? At what temperature will the stress
be zero? Assume a - 11.7 jum/(m- °C) and E= 200 X 10
9
N/m 2 .

Ans. a = 127 MN/m T = 2

; 34.2°C
262. A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a
tensile load of 5000 N at 20° C. If the allowable stress is not to exceed
130 MN/m 2
-20°C, what is the minimum diameter of
at the rod?
Assume a = 11.7 jum/(m- °C) and E = 200 GPa.
68 2 Simple Strain

263. Steel railroad rails 10 m long are laid with a clearance of

3 mm at a temperature of 15°C. At what temperature will the rails just

touch? What stress would be induced in the rails at that temperature if

there were no initial clearance? Assume a= 11.7 jLtm/(m-°C) and

E - 200 GPa.
264.At a temperature of 90°C, a steel tire 10 mm thick and 75
mm wide that is to be shrunk onto a locomotive driving wheel 1.8 m in

diameter just fits over the wheel, which is at a temperature of 20°C.

Determine the contact pressure between the tire and wheel after the
assembly cools to 20° C. Neglect the deformation of the wheel caused by
the pressure of the tire. Assume a=
11.7 jum/(m-°C) and E =
200 x 10 N/m
9 2
.

265. At 130°C, a bronze hoop 20 mm thick whose inside diame-

ter is 600 mm just fits snugly over a steel hoop 15 mm thick. Both hoops
are 100 mm wide. Compute the contact pressure between the hoops
when the temperature drops to 20 °C. Neglect the possibility that the
inner ring may buckle. For steel, E= 200 GPa and a = 11.7 jitm/
(m- °C). For bronze, E- 83 GPa and a = 19 jum/(m •
°C).
Ans. p - 2.86 MN/m 2

266. At 20 °C, a rigid slab having a mass of 55 Mg is placed upon

two bronze rods and one steel rod as shown in Fig. P-266. At what
temperature will the stress in the steel rod be zero? For the steel rod,
A = 6000 mm 2 E = 200 X 109 N/m2 and a = 11.7 jum/(m-°C). For
, ,

each bronze rod, A = 6000

2
mm
E - 83 X 109 N/m2 and a =
, ,

o
19.0/im/(m- C). Ans. T = 129°C

55 Mg

a
2
250 mm
PQ

;/?/;//, (7777 rrr

^rT7
50 mm
T
Figure P-266.

267.At 20° C, there is a gap A = 0.2 mm between the lower end

of the bronze bar and the rigid slab supported by two steel bars, as
shown in Fig. P-267. Neglecting the mass of the slab, determine the
stress in each rod when the temperature of the assembly is increased to
100°C. For the bronze rod, A = 600 2
mm
E = 83 x 109 N/m 2 and , ,
2-6 Thermal Stresses 69

800 mm

Figure P-267.

a = 18.9 /xm/(m- °C). For each steel rod, A = 400 mm E =2

, 200 X 10
9

N/m 2
, and a - 1 1.7 /xm/(m °C). •

268.An aluminum cylinder and a bronze cylinder are centered

and secured between two rigid slabs by tightening two steel bolts, as
shown in Fig. P-268. At 10°C no axial load exists in the assembly. Find
the stress in each material at 90 °C. For the aluminum cylinder, A =
1200 mm 2 E = 70 X 10 N/m and a = 23 /im/(m°C). For the
9 2
, ,

bronze cylinder, A = 1800 mm E = 83 X 10 N/m2 and a = 19.0

2 9
, ,

/im/(m- °C). For each steel bolt, A = 500 mm £ = 200 X 109 N/m2
2
, ,

and a - 1 1.7 jum/(m- °C). Ans. as = 33.7 MN/m

2

269. Resolve Problem 268 assuming there is a 0.05 gap mm

between the right end of the bronze cylinder and the rigid slab at 10°C.

20 20 mm
-75 mm*- —100 mm-*

C"
^

Alum.
Bronze
C=: = J-
Figures P-268 and P-269.

270. A steel cylinder is enclosed in a bronze sleeve; both simulta-

neously support a vertical compressive load of 250 kN which is applied
to the assembly through a horizontal bearing plate. The lengths of the
cylinder and sleeve are equal. Compute (a) the temperature change
that will cause a zero load in the steel, and (b) the temperature change
that will cause a zero load in the bronze. For the steel cylinder,
70 2 Simple Strain

A = 7200 mm 2
, E = 200 GPa, and a = /xm/(m°C). For the
11.7

bronze sleeve, A = 12 X 10
3
mm 2
, £= 83 GPa, and a = 19.0 /im/(m-

271. A bronze sleeve is slipped over a steel bolt and is held in

place by a nut that is tightened "finger-tight." Compute the temperature
change which will cause the stress in the bronze to be 20 MPa. For the
steel bolt, A = 450 mm E 2
,
- 200 GPa, and a -
/xm/(m- °C). For
1 1.7

the bronze sleeve, A = 900 mm E = 2

, 83 GPa, and a = 19.0 jLtm/(m-
°C).

272. For the sleeve-bolt assembly described in Problem 271,

6
assume the nut is tightened to produce an initial stress of 15 X 10
N/m in the bronze sleeve. Find the stress in the bronze sleeve after a
2

temperature rise of 70°C. Ans. 38.2 MN/m 2

273. The composite bar shown in Fig. P-273 is firmly attached

to unyielding supports. An axial load P = 200 kN is applied at 20°C.
Find the stress in each material at 60°C. Assume a = 11.7 fim/(m-°C)
for steel and 23.0 jnm/(m °C) •
for aluminum.
Ans. oa = 18.7 MN/m 2
; os = 181 MN/m 2

200 mm-H 300 mm

Aluminum
Steel
E = 70 X 10
9
N/m2 E= 200 X 10
9
N/m 2
A = 900 mm 2
A = 1200 mm 2

Figures P-273 and P-274.

274. At what temperature will the aluminum and steel segments

in Problem 273 have numerically equal stresses?

275. A composed of the three segments shown in

rod is

Fig. P-275. If P and P2 are each zero, compute the

the axial loads x

stress induced in each material by a temperature drop of 30 °C if (a) the

walls are rigid and (b) the walls spring together by 0.300 mm. Assume
a = 18.9 jLtm/(m°C) for bronze, 23.0 /xm/(m-°C) for aluminum, and
11.7fim/(m • °C) for steel.

Ans. (a) ^=118 MPa; (b) oa = 40.0 MPa

800 mm 500 mm- 400 mm-*-'

Bronze Aluminum Steel

A = 2400 mm* A = 1200 mm 2
A = 600 mm 2

E 83 X 10
9
N/m 2 E -
70 X 10
9
N/m 2 E - 200 X 10
9
N/m 2
Figures P-275 and P-276.
2-6 Thermal Stresses 71

276. Solve Problem 275 if P and P2

l
each equal 50 kN and the
walls yeld 0.300 mm when the temperature drops 50°C.

(_27Ls The bar AB is pinned at O and connected to two rods

rigid
as shown in P-277. If the bar AB is horizontal at a given
Fig.
temperature, determine the ratio of the areas of the two rods so that the
bar AB will be horizontal at any temperature. Neglect the mass of bar
AB. Arts. A s /A a - 0.516

3m 4 m
O,
Ai )JB
s?77?7
-t Sp-&r>St,
Aluminum Steel
E = 70 GPa £ = 200 GPa
o
a = 23.0/im/(m. C) a =11.7Mm/(m«°C)
L= 8m L= 8m

Figure P-277.

278. A rigid horizontal bar of negligible mass is connected to two

rods as shown in Fig. P-278. If the system is initially stress-free,

determine the temperature change that will cause a tensile stress of

60 MPa in the steel rod.

/////

Steel

3m A = 900 mm 2
E = 200
GPa
a =11.7Mm/(m-°C)

2 m 3m

P Bronze

2m A = 1200 2mm
E = 83 GPa
a = 18.9 Mm/(m • °C)
r
7T7
Figure P-278.
72 2 Simple Strain

279. For the assembly shown in Fig. P-279, determine the stress
in each of the two vertical rods if the temperature rises 40°C after the
load P = 50 kN is applied. Neglect the deformation and mass of the
horizontal bar A B.
Ans. os = 134 MPa (tension); oa = 11.3 MPa (compression)

L£ t^y

/////
Steel
Aluminum 600 mm 2
m A
=
4
A =900 mm 2 E 200 X 10 9 N/m 2
=
E = 70 X 10 9 N/m 2 3 m
a = 11.7/im/(m.°C)
a =23.0/um/(m-°C)

3 m

Figure P-279.
H-* 3 m
l
P= 50 kN

The lower ends of the three steel rods shown in Fig. P-280
280.
are at the same level before the force P = 600 kN is applied to the
horizontal rigid slab. For each rod, A = 2000 mm a = 11.7 /xm/
2
,

(m- °C), and E = 200 X 10 N/m Determine the relationship between

9 2
.

the force in rod C and the change in temperature AT, measured in

degrees Celsius. Neglect the mass of the rigid slab.

// /// // ///
B C
// U/
A
6 m 6 m
5 m
2m

3 m 3m
P = 600 kN
Figure P-280.

281. Four steel bars jointly support a mass of 15 Mg as shown in

Fig. P-281. Each bar has a cross-sectional area of 600 2
Find the mm .

load carried by each bar after a temperature rise of 50°C. Assume

a = .7 /im/(m °C) and E = 200 X 10 N/m
•
9 2
1 1 .

Ans. PA = PD = 21.5 kN; PB = Pc = 67.3 kN

2-6 Thermal Stresses 73

Figures P-281 and P-282.

282. Solve Problem 28 1 if bars A and D are steel and bars B and
C are aluminum. For aluminum, a — 23.0 /im/(m- °C) and E = 70 X
10
9
N/m 2 .

SUMMARY

Axial loads cause uniform stress- distribution that is computed by

*= (i-i)
£
and elongations determined from

«-§ (2-4)

Remember that Eq. (2-4) is valid only for homogeneous materials of

constant cross section, axially loaded to stresses below the proportional
limit.

Axial loads cause changes in lateral dimensions which are de-

termined by Poisson's ratio. For cases in which such lateral deforma-
tions are restricted, Hooke's law for biaxial or triaxial stresses must be
used.
Structures that are composed of two or more materials or are
statically indeterminate are solved by applying the equations of static
equilibrium in combination with additional equations obtained from the
geometric relations between the elastic deformations.
Thermal stresses are computed by determining the relations be-
tween the thermal deformations

8T m aL(±T) (2-14)

and the elastic deformations which are used, in combination with the
equations of static equilibrium, to solve the various problems that may
be encountered.