PDT201 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER 2

STRESS AND STRAIN DUE TO AXIAL

LOADING

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 CONTENT
1) Deformation

2) Strain

3) The Tension and Compression Test

4) The Stress–Strain Diagram

5) Hooke’s Law

6) Poisson’s Ratio

7) Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member

8) Thermal Stress

9) Inelastic Axial Deformation

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.1 Deformation
 Whenever a force is applied to a body, it
will tend to change the body’s shape and
size. These changes are referred to as
deformation, and they may be either
highly visible or practically unnoticeable.

 Deformation of a body can also occur

when the temperature of the body is
changed.

 The deformation of a body will not be

uniform throughout its volume, and so
the change in geometry of any line
segment within the body may vary
substantially along its length.
Before After
 For example, a line segment may
elongate if it is oriented in one direction,
whereas it may contract if it is oriented in
another direction.
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.2 Strain
 Loads will cause all material bodies to deform and, as a result, points in a body
will undergo displacements or changes in position.

 Normal strain is a measure per unit length of the elongation or contraction of a

small line segment in the body. If we define the average normal strain using the
symbol εavg (epsilon), then,
L  L0 L 
 avg   
L0 L0 L0

 Strain is the geometrical quantity that is measured using experimental

techniques. Once obtained, the stress in the body can then be determined from
material property relations.

Undeformed Deformed
body L0 body
L

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.1
When force P is applied to the rigid arm ABC, point C displaces vertically
downward through a distance of 0.3 mm. Determine the normal strain developed
in wire CD.

(Ans: εCD = 0.001)

Solution

Thus, normal strain in wire CD is,

C 0.3
 CD    0.001
LCD 300
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.3 The Tension and Compression Test
 The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without
undue deformation or failure.

 One of the most important tests to perform in this regard is the tension or
compression test.

Tensile test machine

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.3 The Tension and Compression Test
 To perform a tension or compression test, a specimen of the material is made
into a “standard” shape and size. Commonly, it has a constant circular cross
section with enlarged ends, so that failure will not occur at the grips.

 The testing machine is designed to read the load required to maintain this
uniform stretching.

 At frequent intervals during the test, data is recorded of the applied load P, as
read on the dial of the machine or taken from a digital readout.

 The elongation δ = L – L0 between the punch marks on the specimen may be

measured using either a calliper or a mechanical or optical device called an
extensometer.

 This value of δ (delta) is then used to calculate the average normal strain in the
specimen.

 Sometimes, however, this measurement is not taken, since it is also possible to

read the strain directly by using an electrical-resistance strain gauge.

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

2.3 The Tension and Compression Test

Typical steel specimen with attached strain gauge

Electrical–resistance strain gauge

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.4 The Stress–Strain Diagram
1) Conventional Stress–Strain Diagram

 We can determine the nominal or engineering stress by dividing the applied

load P by the specimen’s original cross-sectional area A0. This calculation
assumes that the stress is constant over the cross section and throughout
the gauge length. We have,
P

A0

 The nominal or engineering strain is found by dividing the change in the

specimen’s gauge length, δ, by the specimen’s original gauge length L0.
Here the strain is assumed to be constant throughout the region between
the gauge points. Thus,


L0

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.4 The Stress–Strain Diagram

Conventional and true stress-strain diagrams for ductile material (steel) (not to scale)
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.4 The Stress–Strain Diagram
a) Elastic Behaviour
The curve is actually a straight line throughout most of this region, so that the
stress is proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be
linear elastic. The upper stress limit to this linear relationship is called the
proportional limit, σpl. If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the
curve tends to bend and flatten out as shown. This continues until the stress
reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this point, if the load is removed, the
specimen will still return back to its original shape.

b) Yielding
A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of
the material and cause it to deform permanently. This behaviour is called
yielding. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point,
σY, and the deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation. Once the yield
point is reached, the specimen will continue to elongate (strain) without any
increase in load. When the material is in this state, it is often referred to as
being perfectly plastic.

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.4 The Stress–Strain Diagram
c) Strain Hardening
When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the
specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until
it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress, σu. The rise in
the curve in this manner is called strain hardening.

d) Necking
Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area
will decrease. This decrease is fairly uniform over the specimen’s entire gauge
length; however, just after, at the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area will
begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen. As a result, a
constriction or “neck” tends to form in this region as the specimen elongates
further until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress, σf.

Necking Failure of a ductile material

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.4 The Stress–Strain Diagram
2) Stress-Strain Behaviour of Ductile and
Brittle Materials

 Ductile material is material that can be

subjected to large strains before it
fractures. Ductility can be measured by:

L f  L0
Percent elongation  100%
L0
A0  A f
Percent reduction of area  100%
A0

 In most metals, however, constant

yielding will not occur beyond the elastic
range. One metal for which this is the
case is aluminium. Actually, this metal
often does not have a well-defined yield Yield strength for an
point , and consequently it is standard aluminium alloy
practice to define a yield strength using
a graphical procedure called the offset
method (0.2%).
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.4 The Stress–Strain Diagram
 Brittle material is material that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are
referred to as brittle materials.

Tension failure of
a brittle material

Stress-strain diagram for

a methacrylate plastic
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.4 The Stress–Strain Diagram
 Which material is more ductile?

Engineering tensile stress, σ

Smaller percent elongation

Larger percent elongation

Engineering tensile strain, 

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.5 Hooke’s Law
 The stress–strain diagrams for most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain within the elastic region.

 This fact is also known as Hooke’s law and may be expressed mathematically
as,
  E
Here E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus.


E


Linear portion of the stress strain curve

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.2
A steel bar 100-mm long and having a square cross section 20 mm on an edge is
pulled in tension with a load of 89,000 N, and experiences an elongation of 0.10
mm. Assuming that the deformation is entirely elastic, calculate the elastic
modulus of the steel.

(Ans: E = 223 x 109 N/m2)

Solution

The cross-sectional area, A0 of bar is,

   
A0  20 10 3 m  20 10 3 m  4 10 4 m 2

The elastic modulus, E of the steel is,

F
 A0
E  
Fl0

89,000 N  100 103 m


222. 5

 10 9
N m 2


 l A0 l 4 10 4 m 2 0.10 103 m  
l0

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.3
A cylindrical specimen of a titanium alloy having an elastic modulus of 108 GPa
and an original diameter of 3.9 mm will experience only elastic deformation when
a tensile load of 2000 N is applied. Compute the maximum length of the
specimen before deformation if the maximum allowable elongation is 0.42 mm.
(Ans: l0 = 271 mm)
Solution

The original length, l0 of specimen is,

2
d 
lE  0 
l l lE  2  lEd
2
l0     0
   F F 4F
   
E  A0 


0.42 10 m 108 10
3 9
 
N m 2   3.9 103 m 
2

42000 N 
 0.271m
 271mm
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.4
An aluminum rod, shown in the figure below, has a circular cross section and is
subjected to an axial load of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress–strain diagram is
shown in the figure, determine the approximate elongation of the rod when the
load is applied. Take Eal = 70 GPa.

(Ans: ∆L = 18.3 mm)

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.4
Solution

In order to find the elongation of the rod, we must first obtain the strain. This is
done by calculating the stress, then using the stress–strain diagram. The normal
stress within each segment is,

 AB
P 10 103 N
 
   31.83 MPa
A  0.01 m 2

 BC
P
 
10 103 N    56.59 MPa
A  0.0075 m 2

From the stress–strain diagram, the material in segment AB is strained elastically

since σAB < σY = 40 MPa. Using Hooke’s law,

 AB 31.83106 Pa
 AB    0.0004547
Eal 7010 Pa
9

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.4
Solution (cont.)

The material within segment BC is strained plastically, since σBC > σY = 40 MPa.
From the graph, for σBC = 56.59 MPa, εBC ≈
̂ 0.045 mm/mm . The approximate
elongation of the rod is therefore,

L   L
 0.0004547600 mm   0.0450400 mm 
 18.3 mm

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.6 Poisson’s Ratio
 When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only does it
elongate, but it also contracts laterally.

 Strains in the longitudinal or axial direction and in the lateral or radial direction
are, respectively,
 '
 long  and  lat 
L r

 Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of longitudinal to lateral strain or

mathematically stated as,

 lat
v
 long

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.5
Consider a cylindrical specimen of some hypothetical metal alloy that has a
diameter of 8.0 mm. A tensile force of 1000 N produces an elastic reduction in
diameter of 2.8 x 10−4 mm. Compute the modulus of elasticity for this alloy, given
that Poisson's ratio is 0.30.
(Ans: E = 170.5 GPa)
Solution
Therefore, the elastic modulus is;

 F F 4F 4F 4 Fv
E    E 
 z A0 z  
d
2
 d
2
 zd 0 2 d 0 d
 z  0  z 0

 2

41000 N 0.30
x d  8 103 m 2.8 107 m 
z    
v d 0v  1.705 1011 Pa
 170.5 GPa

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.6
A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown in the figure below. If an axial
force of P = 80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in its length and the
change in the dimensions of its cross section after applying the load. The
material behaves elastically. Given Est = 200 GPa and vst = 0.32.

(Ans: δz = 120 μm, δx = -2.56 μm, δy = -1.28 μm)

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.6
Solution

The normal stress in the bar is,

80103  N
 16.0106 Pa
P
z  
A 0.1 m 0.05 m 

Given, the elastic modulus of A-36 steel Est = 200 GPa, and so the strain in the z
direction is,
z 16.0106 Pa
z  
Est 20010 Pa
6
 8010 6


The axial elongation of the bar is therefore,

 z   z Lz  80106 1.5 m  120 μm

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.6
Solution (cont.)

Given, the Poisson’s ratio of A-36 steel, vst = 0.32. The lateral contraction strains in
both the x and y directions are,

 x   y  vst  z  0.3280 10 6   25 .6 μm m

Thus, the changes in the dimensions of the cross section are,

 x   x Lx  25.6106 0.1 m   2.56 μm

 y   y Ly  25.610 6 0.05 m   1.28 μm

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.7 Elastic Deformation
 Objectives: To determine the elastic displacement (δ) of a member subjected to
axial loads.

 Consider the bar shown below, which has a cross-sectional area that gradually
varies along its length L. The bar is subjected to concentrated loads at its ends
and a variable external load distributed along its length.

 Using the method of sections, a differential element (or wafer) of length dx and
cross-sectional area A(x) is isolated from the bar at the arbitrary position x.

 The stress and strain in the element are,

P x  d
 and 
Ax  dx
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.7 Elastic Deformation
 Provided the stress does not exceed the proportional limit, we can apply
Hooke’s law; i.e.,
  E
Px   d 
 E x  
Ax   dx 
Px dx
d 
Ax E x 

 For the entire length L of the bar, we must integrate this expression to find δ.
This yields,
L P  x dx
 
0 A x E  x 

 In many cases, the bar will have a constant cross-sectional area A, material E,
external and internal force P throughout its length. Hence,

PL

AE
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.7 Elastic Deformation
Sign Convention

 The force and displacement to be positive if they cause tension and

elongation, respectively.

 The force and displacement to be negative if they cause compression and

contraction, respectively.

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.7 Elastic Deformation
Notation

 Double subscript notation is used to indicate the relative displacement.

However, if the displacement is to be determined relative to a fixed point, then
only a single subscript will be used.

 Examples:

1) Displacement of end B relative to end A:

PLBA
B 
ABA EBA

2) Displacement of end C relative to end A:

C  C B   B
PLCB PLBA
 
ACB ECB ABA EBA
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.7
The 20-mm-diameter A-36 steel rod is subjected to the axial forces shown. Given
E = 200 GPa. Determine the displacement of end C with respect to the fixed
support at A.

(Ans: δC = -0.318 mm)

Solution

The cross-sectional area, A of the rod is,

A  r 2   0.01 m   3.142 10 4 m 2

2

To find the internal forces P1 and P2, pass sections through each of the component
parts, drawing each time the free-body diagram of the portion of rod located to the
right of the section. Each of the free bodies is in equilibrium, thus,
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.7
Solution (cont.)

P1 = 40 kN

P2 = -60 kN

Therefore, the displacement of end C is,

C  C B   B


1
AE
      
40 103 400   60 103 600


 
 20 106 Nmm
AE
 0.318 mm
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.8
Rigid beam AB rests on the two short posts shown in the figure below. AC is made
of steel and has a diameter of 20 mm, and BD is made of aluminium and has a
diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement of point F on AB if a vertical
load of 90 kN is applied over this point. Take Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa.

(Ans: δF = 0.225 mm)

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.8
Solution

1) Internal Force: The compressive forces acting at the top of each post are
determined from the equilibrium of member AB shown in the figure. These
forces are equal to the internal forces in each post.

2) Displacement: The displacement of the top of each post is,

A 
PAC LAC

   
 60 103 N0.300 m 
 286 106
m 
Post AC:    
AAC Est  0.010 m  200 10 N m
2 9 2

 0.286 mm  By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.8
Solution (cont.)

B 
PBD LBD

   
 30 103 N0.300 m 
 102 10 
6
m 
Post BD:    
ABD Eal  0.020 m  70 10 N m
2 9 2

 0.102 mm 

A diagram showing the centerline displacements at A, B, and F on the beam is

shown in the following figure. By proportion of the blue shaded triangle, the
displacement of point F is therefore,
 400 mm 
 F  0.102 mm  0.184 mm    0.225 mm 
 600 mm 

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.8 Thermal Deformation
 A change in temperature can cause a
body to change its dimensions. Generally,
if the temperature increases, the body will
expand, whereas if the temperature
decreases, it will contract.

 The displacement of a member having a

length L can be calculated using the
formula,
T  TL
where,
α = Linear coefficient of thermal
expansion
∆T = The algebraic change in temperature Most traffic bridges are designed with
of the member expansion joints to accommodate the
thermal movement of the deck and thus
L = The original length of the member avoid any thermal stress.
δT = The algebraic change in the length of
the member or thermal deformation

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.8 Thermal Deformation

Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materials

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.9
The A-992 steel bar shown in the figure below is constrained at a fixed support A
when T1 = 25ºC. The length of bar AB, L = 0.75 m. If the temperature is raised to
T2 = 52ºC, determine the thermal displacement developed in the bar.

(Ans: δT = 0.24 mm)

Solution

The thermal displacement of bar is,

 T  TL
 
 12 106 C 52 C 25C 0.75 m 
 2.43 10 4 m
 0.24 mm

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.8 Thermal Deformation
 The thermal deformation, δT and the deformation from the redundant support, δP
must be compatible.

  T   P  0
PL
 T L  0
AE

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.10
The A-36 steel bar shown in the figure below is constrained to just fit between two
fixed supports when T1 = 30ºC. If the temperature is raised to T2 = 60ºC, determine
the average normal thermal stress developed in the bar.

(Ans: σ = 72 MPa)

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.10
Solution

Equilibrium: The free-body diagram of the bar is

shown in the figure below. Since there is no external
load, the force at A is equal but opposite to the force at
B,
   Fy  0; FA  FB  F

The problem is statically indeterminate since this force

cannot be determined from equilibrium.

Compatibility: Since δA/B = 0, the thermal displacement

δT at A that occurs, is counteracted by the force F that
is required to push the bar δF back to its original
position. The compatibility condition at A becomes,

   A/ B  0  T   F

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.10
Solution (cont.)

Load-Displacement: Applying the thermal and load–displacement relationships,

we have,
  F L 
0  TL   
 AE 
Thus, from the data on the inside back cover,
F  TAE
      
 12 106 C 60C  30C0.010 m  200 106 kN m 2
2

 7.2 kN

Since F also represents the internal axial force within the bar, the average normal
compressive stress is thus,

F 7.2 kN
   72000 kPA  72 MPa
A 0.010 m 2

Note: From the magnitude of F, it should be apparent that changes in temperature

can cause large reaction forces in statically indeterminate members.
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.11
The rigid beam shown is fixed to the top of the three posts made of A992 steel and
2014-T6 aluminum. The posts each have a length of 250 mm when no load is
applied to the beam, and the temperature is T1 = 20ºC. Determine the force
supported by each post if the bar is subjected to a uniform distributed load of
150 kN/m and the temperature is raised to T2 = 80ºC.

(Ans: Fst = -16.4 kN, Fal = 123 kN)

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.11
Solution (cont.)

Equilibrium: The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in the figure. Moment
equilibrium about the beam’s center requires the forces in the steel posts to be
equal. Summing forces on the free-body diagram, we have,

   Fy  0;
 
2 Fst  Fal  90 103 N  0 ...(1)

Compatibility: Due to load, geometry, and material symmetry, the top of each
post is displaced by an equal amount. Hence,

   st   al
By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 Example 2.11
Solution (cont.)

The final position of the top of each post is equal to its displacement caused by the
temperature increase, plus its displacement caused by the internal axial
compressive force. Thus, for the steel and aluminum post, we have,

   st   st T   st F
   al   al T   al F

So, it gives,

  st T   st F   al T   al F

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 Example 2.11
Solution (cont.)

Load-Displacement: Using the material properties on the inside back cover, we

get,
Fst 0.250 m 
   
 12 106 / C 80C  20C 0.250 m  
  
 0.020 m 2 200 109 N m 2 
Fal 0.250 m 
   
  23 106 / C 80C  20C 0.250 m  
  
 0.030 m 2 73.1 109 N m 2 
 
Fst  1.216Fal  165.9 103 ...(2)

Solving equation 1 and 2 simultaneously yields,

Fst  16.4 kN Fal  123 kN

The negative value for Fst indicates that this force acts opposite to that shown in
the figure. In other words, the steel posts are in tension and the aluminum post is
in compression.

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak

 2.9 Inelastic Axial Deformation
 A member may be designed so that the loading causes the material to yield and
thereby permanently deform. Such members are often made from a highly
ductile metal such as annealed low-carbon steel.

 A material that exhibits this behaviour is referred to as being elastic perfectly

plastic or elastoplastic.

A bar that is subjected to an axial load P

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak
 2.9 Inelastic Axial Deformation
 If the load causes an elastic stress σ = σ1 to be developed in the bar, then
equilibrium requires P    1dA   1 A. Furthermore, the stress σ1 causes the bar to
strain ε1 as indicated on the stress–strain diagram.

 If P is now increased to Pp such that it causes yielding of the material, that is, σ
= σY, then again Pp    Y dA   Y A . The load Pp is called the plastic load since it
represents the maximum load that can be supported by an elastoplastic
material. For this case, the strains are not uniquely defined. Instead, at the
instant σY is attained, the bar is first subjected to the yield strain εY.

 After which, the bar will continue to yield (or elongate) such that the strains ε2,
then ε3, etc., are generated. Since our “model” of the material exhibits perfectly
plastic material behaviour, this elongation will continue indefinitely with no
increase in load.

 In reality, however, the material will, after some yielding, actually begin to strain-
harden so that the extra strength it attains will stop any further straining. As a
result, any design based on this behaviour will be safe, since strain-hardening
provides the potential for the material to support an additional load if necessary.

By Muhammad Ikman Ishak