Qassim University

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Properties of Structural Materials

CE 205

Lecture #3
Mechanical Properties of Structural Materials
(Tension and Compression Tests)
Dr. Eyad Alsuhaibani

Semester 443
Mechanical Properties
❖ Strength
The material ability to resist distortion/deformation (failure) by stress or force and to maintain its shape.
Strength can be quantified in terms of yield stress or ultimate tensile strength. Both yield stress and
ultimate tensile strength can be determined from tensile test data by plotting a stress strain curve.

Types of Strength:
➢ Tensile strength
➢ Compressive strength
➢ Torsional strength
➢ Shear strength
➢ Flexural (bending) strength
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Stress
❖ Stress is internal forces developed within a structure due to action of external forces.
❖ Stress is the intensity of internal forces per unit area.

Stress (N/m2) Force (N)

𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴 Area (m2)

The metric unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa).

One Pascal is equal to one newton of force per square meter of area (1 N/m2).

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Stress (cont.)
1N
A load of 1 N on each square meter represents 1m 1N
1N
1m 1N
an average stress of 1 N/m2, or 1 Pa 1m

1m
1m
1m
1m
Pa seems too small, so we usually use:

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Type of Stresses:
❖ Tensile stress: is the stress state caused by an applied
load that tends to elongate the material in the axis of
the applied load.
❖ Tensile stress is where material pulled apart.

❖ Examples: tug-of-war, slingshot

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Strain
❖ Strain is a physical change in the dimensions of a body
that results from applying a load.
F
❖ Normal Strain (𝜀 ) is a measure of deformation and
calculated by the ratio of the change in length and the DL
original length.

Change in length
Strain ∆𝐿 Lo Lo
𝜀=
𝐿0 Initial length

• If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain.

F
• If the bar is in compression, the strain is called a compressive strain.
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Unit of Strain

❖ From the strain equation, we can notice that the normal strain is a
dimensionless quantity because it is a ratio of two lengths.

❖ Usually, for most engineering applications (𝜀 ) is very small, so measurements

of strain are in micrometers per meter (μm/m) or (μ/m).

❖ Sometimes for experiment work, strain is expressed as a percent, e.g.,

0.001m/m = 0.1%.

❖ A normal strain of 480 µm for a one-meter length is said:

𝜀 = 480 x 10-6 = 0.00048 = 480 (μm/m) = 0.0480% = 480µ (micros)

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Tension and Compression Tests
❖ Properties of materials under tensile and compressive loads are defined by uniaxial
type of tension and compression tests. These tests:
▪ are the easiest type of tests to evaluate material properties.
▪ represent the condition of principal stresses that are reasons of failures.
▪ give results to be utilized for combined stress situations.

❖ Tests are conducted on Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

using specimens of standard size and shape.

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Tensile Test
❖ It supplies considerable information about the properties of a material.
❖ Primarily used to determine relationship between σ and ε.
❖ The test specimen is installed between the two large grips of the testing
machine and then loaded in tension.
❖ Test specimen (having "standard" shape and size).

DAQ Universal Testing

Machine (UMT) 9
Tensile Strength Test (cont.)

❖ Measuring devices record the deformations and feed data-acquisition

(DAQ) system. Some of measuring devices are:

➢ Extensometer: an instrument for measuring the deformation.

➢ Strain gage: to measure the strain directly.

Strain gages Extensometer

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Tensile Test (cont.)

❖ Direct measurement of strain using electrical-resistance strain gauge:

➢ Consists of very thin wire and works on the principle of

change in electrical resistance on straining
Electrical-resistance
Strain gauge

Typical steel specimen with attached

strain gauge.
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Example 1:
Calculate the strain in a steel wire that is 0.5 m long and extends by 2 mm when
subjected to a tensile force?

Solution:

Elongation (∆𝐿) = 2 mm = 0.002 m

Original length (L) = 0.5 m

∆𝐿 0.002
Strain = 𝜀 = 𝐿
=
0.5
= 0.004

So, the strain in the steel wire = 0.004 or 0.4 %

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Example 2:
A prismatic bar with a circular cross-section is subjected to an
axial tensile force. The measured elongation is 1.50 mm.
Calculate the tensile stress and strain in the bar.

Solution:

Force (F)= 100 kN = 100 x 1000 N = 100,000 N

Diameter = 25 mm = 0.025 m
Area (A) = 𝜋(0.0125)2 = 0.00094 m2
𝐹 100,000
Stress = 𝜎 = = = 203,718,327 Pa = 204 MPa
𝐴 0.00094

∆𝐿 0.0015
Strain = 𝜀 = = = 0.000429 = 429 x 10-6
𝐿 3.5

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 Behavior of Material Under Tension Test:
Elastic behavior: This is the initial mechanical behavior
during which the specimen returns to its original
dimensions upon release of the load. The termination of
elastic behavior is known as “elastic limit” of material.
Plastic behavior: When the load is increased beyond
elastic limit, a part of deformation on the specimen is
permanent and does not disappear upon release of the
load. Such deformation is called “plastic deformation”.

“Elastic limit” is defined as the greatest stress that can be applied without resulting in any permanent
strain upon release of load. It is an important material property in design applications since allowable
stress values in design work are based on the elastic limit. 14
 Behavior of Material Under Tension Test:
➢ Elastic behavior of a metal is not necessarily linear up to elastic
limit. In Fig. 3, the point marking the end of linear relationship is
“proportional limit”. For practical purposes, linear relationship
is assumed to be valid until elastic limit without introducing
serious error.

➢ As in Fig. 4, the transition from elastic to plastic behavior may

be sudden (as in annealed and hot rolled steels). This plastic
behavior is “yielding”, and “yield point” refers to the elastic
limit. The maximum elastic stress that could be carried by a
metal is its “yield strength”.

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Behavior of Material Under Tension Test:
Fundamentals of Elastic Behavior:

❖ In 1678, Robert Hooke showed that a solid

material subjected to a tensile force would
extend in the direction of traction by an
amount that was proportional to load
❖ The above is known as Hooke s law which
expresses the fact that most solids behave like
springs under relatively small loads

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Hooke’s Law
For materials stressed in tension, at relatively low
levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other.
Modulus of Elasticity (N/m2)
Stress (N/m2)

𝜎 =𝐸×𝜀 Strain
Stress
Modulus of Elasticity (E) = (Young's Modulus) =
Strain

Material Modulus of Elasticity, E (GPa)

Aluminum 69
Copper 110
1 GPa = 1000 MPa
Steel 210
Brass 97
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Example 3:
A steel bar of square section, 10 mm x 10 mm and 2 m long extends by 1 mm when a load of 12 kN
is applied. Calculate the modulus of elasticity for steel?

Solution:
Force (F)= 12 kN = 12 x 1000 N = 12000 N Elongation (∆𝐿) = 1 mm = 0.001 m

Sides of the bar = 10 mm = 0.01 m Original length (L) = 2 m

Area (A) = 0.01 x 0.01 = 0.0001 m2 ∆𝐿 0.001
Strain = 𝜀 = 𝐿
=
2
= 0.0005
𝐹 12,000
Stress = 𝜎 = 𝐴 = 0.0001 = 120,000,000 Pa = 120 MPa

𝜎 120
Modulus of Elasticity (E) = = = 240,000 MPa = 240 GPa
𝜀 0.0005

Hence, the modulus of elasticity of steel is 240 GPa

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Behavior of Material Under Tension Test:

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 Behavior of Material Under Tension Test:

❖ Sequence of Tensile Test

(1) Original shape and size of the specimen with no load.
(2) Specimen undergoing uniform elongation.
(3) Point of maximum load and ultimate tensile strength.
(4) The onset of necking (plastic instability).
(5) Specimen fractures. 20
Behavior of Material Under Tension Test:

❖Elasticity
Ability to return to original shape after being deformed by stress

Elastic means reversible!

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Behavior of Material Under Tension Test:

❖Plasticity
Retains new shape after being deformed by stress.

Plastic means permanent!

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Example 4:
The figure shows observations that were made when a 100 mm
length of 10 mm diameter steel bar was loaded in tension.
Calculate the following:
1. the estimated yield stress
2. the ultimate stress
Solution:
Area (A) = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋0.0052 = 7.85 x 10-5 = 0.0000785 m2

𝐹𝑦 = 33 kN (estimated from the end of the linear

section on the graph)

𝐹𝑦 33,000
𝜎𝑦 = = = 420,000,000 Pa = 420 MPa
𝐴 0.0000785

𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑡. = 42.5 kN (the highest point on the graph)

𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑡. 42,500
𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡. = = = 541,000,000 Pa = 541 MPa
𝐴 0.0000785
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Example 5:
From the typical conventional stress–strain diagram for a mild steel specimen shown in the figure,
find the modulus of elasticity?

Solution:

𝜎𝑝𝑙 35
𝐸= = = 29,000 ksi
𝜀𝑝𝑙 0.0012

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 Stress-Strain Curve: Plastic Behavior

❖ Yielding: is a slight increase in stress above the elastic limit

and it result in a breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently.
❖ Strain Hardening: after yielding has ended, any load causing
an increase in stress will be supported by the specimen,
resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes
flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the
ultimate stress, 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡. .
❖ Necking: Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen
elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease in a uniform
manner over the specimen’s entire gage length.

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Stress-Strain Curves for Various Materials

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Stress-Strain Curves for Various Materials

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Ductile vs. Brittle material
❖ Ductile Materials
➢ Undergoes to large strains before its rupture.
➢ They are capable of absorbing shock or energy.
➢ Mild steel or aluminum are typical examples of
ductile materials.

❖ Brittle Materials
➢ Little or no yielding before failure.
➢ Fail (fracture) without exhibiting large strains.
Schematic representations of
➢ Concrete or gray cast iron are typical examples for tensile stress–strain behavior for brittle
brittle materials. and ductile metals loaded to fracture.
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Ductile vs. Brittle material
❖ Ductile Materials: Two common ways to represent ductility are:
Ductility vs Brittleness
➢ Percent elongation=average strain at fracture,
Where specimen’s original gage length is L0 and its length at fracture is Lf.

➢ Percent reduction in area within necking region=average strain at fracture

Where A0 is the specimen’s original cross-sectional area
and Af is the area of the neck at fracture.
Ductile Brittle

Warning before No Warning

fracture

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Offset Method
❖ For some materials (e.g., aluminum), there is no clear yield point. So, we use offset method
to determine the yielding stress

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 Resilience
• Resilience represents the ability of a material to absorb and release energy within the elastic range.
• Modulus of resilience is represented by the area under the stress versus strain curve from zero force
to the elastic limit.

Modulus of Resilience =

1
𝜇𝑟 = × 𝜀𝑒𝑙 × 𝜎𝑒𝑙
2

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Poisson's Ratio, 𝝂:
❖ It has been experimentally found, that if a body is stressed within its
elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain.
❖ When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is
accompanied by lateral contraction.
❖ It is the ratio between the lateral strain to longitudinal strain.

Axial elongation and lateral

−𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝝂= contraction of a prismatic bar in
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 tension: (a) bar before loading, and
(b) bar after loading
The minus sign is inserted in the equation to compensate for the fact that
the lateral and axial strains normally have opposite signs.

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Poisson's Ratio, 𝝂 (cont.):
The value of 𝜈 for most materials varies over a
range of 0.0 ≤ 𝜈 ≤ 0.50.

Material Poisson's Ratio, 𝝂

Aluminum 0.32 to 0.36
Copper 0.31 to 0.34
Brass 0.32 to 0.42
Rubber 0.45 to 0.50
Concrete 0.08 to 0.20
Steel 0.25 to 0.33
Cast iron 0.23 to 0.27

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Example 6:
A round steel bar with an initial diameter of 20 mm and length of 2 m is placed in tension, supporting a load
of 20 kN. If the Young’s modulus of the bar is 200 GPa. (A) what is the length of the bar when supporting the
load? (B) If the Poisson’s ratio of the steel is 0.4, what will the diameter of the bar be when supporting
the load? (assuming it does not yield)?
Solution (A):
Force (F)= 20 kN = 12 x 1000 N = 20000 N Original Length (L) = 2 m = 2000 mm

Area (A) = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋0.012 = 0.000314 mm2 Modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200,000 MPa

𝐹 20,000
Stress = 𝜎 = = = 63661977 Pa = 63.66 MPa
𝐴 0.000314

𝜎 63.66
Strain (𝜀) = = = 0.0003183
𝐸 200000

Elongation (∆𝐿) = 𝜀 × 𝐿 = 0.0003183 × 2 = 0.0006366 m

New length = original length (L) + elongation (∆𝐿) = 2+0.0006366 = 2.0006366 m

Hence, the new length is 2.0006366 m

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Example 6 (cont.):
A round steel bar with an initial diameter of 20 mm and length of 2 m is placed in tension, supporting a load
of 20 kN. If the Young’s modulus of the bar is 200 GPa. (A) what is the length of the bar when supporting the
load? (B) If the Poisson’s ratio of the steel is 0.4, what will the diameter of the bar be when supporting
the load? (assuming it does not yield)?
Solution (B):
Poisson’s ratio of the steel (𝝂) = 0.4

−𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝝂=
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝜎 63.66
From Part (A); Longitudinal Strain (𝜀) = = = 0.0003183
𝐸 200000

−Lateral Strain = Longitudinal strain × ν

−Lateral Strain = 0.0003183 × 0.4 = 0.00012732
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
Change in diameter (∆𝑑) =−Lateral Strain × 𝑑0 = 0.00012732 × 20 = −0.0025464 mm

New diameter = original diameter (D) + change in diameter (∆𝑑) = 20+ −0.0025464 = 19.99745 mm
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Type of Stresses:
❖ Compressive stress: the stress that results from
the shortening in one dimension of an elastic
body due to oppositely directed collinear forces
tending to crush it.

❖ Examples: can crusher, bench vise

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Tensile and Compressive Stresses:

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Compressive Test

❖ Compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing.

❖ A compressive load tends to squeeze or compact the specimen.

❖ Metals and many plastics are more efficient at resisting tensile loads.

❖ Concrete, brick, and some ceramic products are more often used in

applications for their compressive loading properties.

❖ A circular cross-section of the specimen is recommended.

❖ Length to diameter ratio is an important consideration.

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Example 7:
Calculate the stress in a concrete cube of 100 mm side if it is
subjected to a compressive load of 200 kN?

Solution:

Force (F)= 200 kN = 200 x 1000 N = 200,000 N

Side of the cube = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Area (A) = 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01 m2

𝐹 200,000
Stress = 𝜎 = 𝐴 = 0.01
= 20,000,000 Pa = 20 MPa

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Compression Testing
Importance of Compression Testing:
❖ Measure the elastic and compressive fracture properties of brittle materials or low-ductility
materials.
❖ Determine the modulus of elasticity, proportional limit, compressive yield point, and
compressive strength.
Materials behavior Under Compression Test:
❖ Some materials behave nearly the same in compression as they do in tension (Ductile metals)
❖ Other materials behave much differently when subjected to compressive loads compared to
tension loads:
➢ Brittle materials such as concrete or most ceramics.
➢ Very strong in compression when compared to tension.
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Materials Behavior Under Compression Test
For brittle materials:
❖ The compressive strength is relatively easy to obtain, showing marked failure.
❖ The ultimate stresses in compression are much higher than those in tension.
❖ Also, unlike ductile materials, which flatten out when compressed, brittle materials break at the
maximum load.

For ductile materials:

❖ Ductile materials do not exhibit the sudden

fractures that brittle materials present. They
tend to buckle and "barrel out".

Brittle failure. Ductile failure. 41

Compression Testing
Failure Modes for Compression Testing:
❖ For tension testing, the failure starts from the necking and then the specimen pulled into two halves.
❖ For compression testing, material can fail in:
(1) Compression failure (2) Buckling (Mainly happens for long narrow
columns loaded in compression)

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 Stress-strain curves for materials in compression
❖ Ductile metals such as steel, aluminum, and copper have
proportional limits in compression very close to those in tension.

▪The initial regions of their compressive and tensile stress-strain

diagrams are about the same.

❖ After yielding begins, the behavior is quite different:

▪In a tension test, the specimen is stretched, necking may occur,
and fracture ultimately takes place.

▪In compression tests, it swells outward on the sides and

becomes barrel shaped because friction between the specimen
and the end plates prevents lateral expansion.

▪With increasing load, the specimen is flattened out and offers Stress-strain diagram for copper in
compression
greatly increased resistance to further shortening.
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 Thank You!
Any Questions?

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