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│CHAPTER 5│
Normal Stress
Learning Objectives
Determine normal stress
Define elastic constants and Poisson’s ratio.
Apply Hooke’s Law
Apply factor of safety and the use of allowable stress.
Explain Saint-Venant’s Principle
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1. Normal Stress
= force/area = P/A
The normal stress is usually expressed in pascals (Pa), where one pascal
is equal to one newton per square metre, that is, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. A
pascal is a very small unit of stress, so one can usually expect to see
stresses expressed in kPa (kN/m2) or MPa (MN/m2 or 106N/m2 =
106N/106mm2 = N/mm2).
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Example 1
Solution
= P/A
= 30 x 103 / 600
= 50 N/mm2
= 50 MPa
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2. Hooke’s Law
For many materials, the lower end of the stress-strain curve is a straight
line. This behaviour was recognised by Robert Hooke and stated as
Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law:
=E
E = stress/strain =/
Since strain is dimensionless, E has the same units as stress, e.g. Pa, MPa.
The value of E for a given material is a constant. Materials with a high
modulus of elasticity have a high resistance to elastic deformation, and
are said to be stiff.
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3. Normal Strain
=/L
When the stress and strain are caused by axial loads, we have
P/A = E* ( / L )
Hence, = PL/AE
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4. Tensile Test
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2. Elastic Limit
If the stress is slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve
tends to bend and flatten out. This continues until the stress
reaches the elastic limit.
4. Ultimate Stress
Maximum stress material can support up to failure. At this point
the test piece begins, visibly, to ‘neck’. The material in the test
piece in the region of the ‘neck’ as almost perfectly plastic at this
stage and from thence, onwards to fracture, there is a reduction in
nominal stress.
5. Fracture Stress
Stress in the material based on original cross-sectional area at the
time it breaks. It is also called fracture or rupture strength.
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Aluminum alloy
It is a ductile material, which does not have a yield point. A line drawn
parallel to the linear portion of the stress-strain curve from a strain of
0.002 (i.e. 0.2%) intersects the stress-strain curve. The intersection
point is defined as a yield point.
Concrete
It is a brittle material.
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5. Poisson’s Ratio
When a load is applied along the axis of a bar, axial strain is produced.
At the same time, a lateral (perpendicular to the axis) strain is also
produced. If the axial force is in tension, the length of the bar
increases and the cross-section contracts or decreases. That is, a
positive axial stress produces a positive axial strain and a negative
lateral strain. For a negative axial stress, the axial strain is negative
and the lateral strain is positive.
The value of Poisson’s ratio, , varies from 0.25 to 0.35 for different
metals. For concrete, it may be as low as = 0.1 and for rubber as high
as = 0.5.
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Example 2
Solution
E = /
= 150 x 106/2.1 x 10-3
= 71.429 x 109 Pa
= 71.429 GPa
Example 3
Solution
The deformation,
= L
= L/E
= PL/AE
= 5000*2/[(*0.0252 /4)*3.1 x 109)
= 6.57 x 10-3 m
= 6.57 mm
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Example 4
Solution
l = l / L
= -0.1/200
= -0.0005 m/m
t = t / L
= 0.008/50
= 0.00016 m/m
= - t /l
= -0.00016/-0.0005
= 0.32
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Example 5
A steel bar has the dimensions shown in the following figure. If an axial
force of P = 80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in its
length and the change in the dimensions of its cross section after
applying the load. Take Est = 200 GPa and st = 0.3. The material
behaves elastically.
Solution
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Example 6
Solution
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To find the internal forces P1, P2 and P3, we must cut sections through each
of the component parts, drawing each time the free-body diagram of the
portion of rod located to the right of the section. Expressing that each of
the free bodies is in equilibrium, we obtain successively.
P1 = 400 kN
P2 = -100 kN
P3 = 200 kN
P L
By using i i to determine the elongation of the member:
Ai Ei
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Example 7
Solution
C / B
PL
100 *103 * 800
3.45mm
AE * 62 * 205 *103
B
PL 100 *103 * 600
1.2mm
AE 500 *100 *103
-ve sign indicates shortening of BA.
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6. Allowable Stress
The allowable stress is the maximum stress that is considered safe for a
material to support under certain loading conditions. The stress may
be used to design load-supporting members of structures and machines.
Allowable stress values are determined by tests and from experience
gained from the performance of previous designs under service
conditions. Allowable stress is also sometimes called the working or
design stress.
7. Factor of Safety
The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of some load that represents
the strength for the member to the allowable load for the member.
That is,
For tension member, where the load is equal to stress multiplied by area,
the ratio of the loads is identical to the ratio of stresses. Accordingly,
for a tension member a factor of safety that is based on the ultimate
stress is equal to the ratio of the ultimate stress to the allowable stress.
Thus,
F.S. = u / a
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Example 8
Solution
Areq = P/a
= 650 x 103/69.2
= 9393 mm2
Therefore,
Areq = * (do2 – di2) /4 = 9393 mm2 (1)
do – di = 50 mm (2)
di = 94.6 mm
do = 144.6 mm
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8. Stress Concentrations
The formula = P/A for the stress in an axially loaded bar is based on a
uniform stress distribution over the cross-sectional area of the bar. If
the loads are applied through two rigid plates at the two ends of the bar,
this assumption of uniform stress distribution is reasonable.
But if the load is concentrated at a point, very high local stresses can
appear and the stresses will not be uniformly distributed. The high
local stresses are known as stress concentrations.
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At a point directly under the load, the maximum stress may be several
times the average stress ave = P/A. As we move away from the point of
load application, the maximum stress drops rapidly. At a distance b (b
=the width of the bar) away from the end of the bar, the stress
distribution becomes nearly uniform.
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Revision
Read reference 1 on P.119 – 163.
Read reference 2 on P.435 - 457.
Main Reference
1. Mechanics of Materials, 8th Edition (2011), R.C. Hibbeler, Prentice Hall.
2. Statics and Mechanics of Materials, SI Edition (2004), R.C. Hibbeler,
Prentice Hall
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