TYPES OF LOADING- STATIC, CYCLIC AND IMPACT,

THEORIES OF FAILURE

Prof A P Harsha
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (BHU)
E-mail : apharsha.mec@itbhu.ac.in

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TYPES OF LOADING AND STRESS RATIO
The primary factors to consider when specifying the type of loading to which a machine part is
subjected are the manner of variation of the load and the resulting variation of stress with time.
Stress variations are characterized by four key values, expressed here as normal stresses:
The stress range, σr , is the difference between σmax and σmin

Maximum stress, σmax

Minimum stress, σmin
Mean (average) stress, σm
Alternating stress, σa (stress amplitude)

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 Repeated and reversed stress or pure
Static stress
oscillation

When a part is subjected to a load that is

Static loading can also be assumed when a
applied slowly, without shock, and is held at a
load is applied and is removed slowly and
constant value, the resulting stress in the part
then reapplied, if the number of load
is called static stress. An example is the load
applications is small, that is, under a few
on a structure due to the dead weight of the
thousand cycles of loading.
building materials.
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Repeated and Reversed Stress— Pure Oscillation Fatigue test device

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Parts subjected to repeated applications of loads or to stress conditions
that vary with time over several thousands or millions of cycles fail
because of the phenomenon of fatigue. Materials are tested under
controlled cyclic loading to determine their ability to resist such repeated
loads. The resulting data are reported as the fatigue strength, also called
the endurance strength of the material.
The fatigue test cannot be conducted for unlimited or infinite number of cycles, 106
cycles is considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.

The term called fatigue life, which is frequently used with endurance limit. The fatigue life is
defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete during the test
before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.

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Fluctuating Stress—Pulsating Stress

When a load-carrying member is subjected to an alternating stress with a nonzero mean, the
loading produces fluctuating stress, sometimes called pulsating stress.

Differences among the four

diagrams occur in whether the
various stress levels are positive
(tensile) or negative (compressive).
Any varying stress with a nonzero
mean is considered a fluctuating
stress. Figure also shows the
possible ranges of values for the
stress ratio R for the given loading
patterns

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Example of cyclic loading in which the flat spring is subjected to fluctuating stress
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S-N Diagrams

S-N Curve for Steels

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Fatigue failures are often classified as either low-cycle fatigue(LCF) or high-cycle fatigue(HCF)
because the mechanism of failure is different for each. While no specific dividing line can be defined,
designers often use up to 1000 cycles (103)for LCF and higher numbers of cycles—up to infinite life—as
HCF.
In low-cycle fatigue, local stresses experience high strain levels, approaching or exceeding the
strain at yield of the material.

The endurance limit of a material under high-cycle fatigue loading is determined from tests that apply
cyclic patterns of stress for long periods of time, and data are obtained for the number of cycles to failure
for a given stress level.

As expected, higher stress levels produce failure at fewer numbers of cycles and lower stresses permit
higher numbers of cycles—up to a point. For many common materials used in machinery, a stress level is
reached where a virtually unlimited number of cycles of stress can be applied without fatigue failure.
This stress level is called the endurance limit or fatigue limit of the material.

Components subjected to high-cycle fatigue are designed on the basis of endurance limit
stress. S–N curves, Soderberg lines, Gerber lines or Goodman diagrams are used in the design
of such components.
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 DESIGN FOR CYCLIC LOADING
Se = endurance limit, Pa
Ductile Materials under Cyclic Loading (Refer Fig.2.6, S = ultimate strength in tension, Pa
ut
Page 24, Page 24, Data Handbook) ns = safety factor
σa = alternating stress, Pa
σm = mean stress, Pa
Kf = fatigue stress concentration factor
• The fatigue failure involves
comparison of the stresses to the
strengths.
• The stresses required are the mean
stress and alternating stress
• The strengths considered are
endurance limit and either yield
strength or ultimate strength of the
material.

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• The fatigue diagram for this general case is shown in Fig.
• In this diagram, the mean stress is plotted on the abscissa. The stress
amplitude is plotted on the ordinate.
• The magnitudes of (σm) and (σa) depend upon the magnitudes of maximum
and minimum force acting on the component.
• When stress amplitude (σa) is zero, the load is purely static and the criterion
of failure is Sut or Syt. These limits are plotted on the abscissa.
• When the mean stress (σm) is zero, the stress is completely reversing and the
criterion of failure is the endurance limit Se that is plotted on the ordinate.
• When the component is subjected to both components of stress, viz., (σm) and
(σa), the actual failure occurs at different scattered points.
• There exists a border, which divides safe region from unsafe region for
various combinations of (σm) and (σa).

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Goodman Line
The Goodman line proposes connecting the endurance limit on the
alternating stress axis with the ultimate strength in tension on the mean
stress axis as shown in Fig. by a straight line, or
We will apply following form for the equation of a
straight line,

where a and b are the intercepts of the line

on the X and Y axes respectively.

The starting and ending points for the Goodman and Gerber lines are the
same in Fig., but between these points the Goodman line is linear and the
Gerber line is parabolic.
Refer Handbook, Eq.2.21(a)- 2.21 (e), Page 25 and Page 24, Fig.2.5,2.6
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Soderberg Line
The Soderberg line is given as

The ultimate strength in the Goodman relationship has been replaced with
the yield strength in the Soderberg relationship.

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Yield Line
To complete the possibilities, the yield line is given. It is used to define yielding on the first
cycle, or

Soderberg relationship for torsional loading

Ductile materials in Shear is given as
+=
Refer Handbook, Eq. 2.21 (e), Page 25
n= FoS
σen = Endurance strength
τa = Amplitude of shear stress
τm = Mean shear stress
τen = Endurance strength of material in cyclic torsion
τy = Yield strength of material in shear
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The stress endurance limits of steel for three types of loading can be
approximated as

Approximate endurance limit for various materials.

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