PART II

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Books for Reference

1. Strength of materials, by Beer and Johnston

2. Strength of materials, by F L Singer & Andrew Pytel
3. Strength of Materials, by B.S. Basavarajaiah & P. Mahadevappa
4. Strength of Materials, by Ramamruthum
5. Strength of Materials, by S S Bhavikatti

1
 COURSE CONTENT IN BRIEF

❑ Simple stresses and strains

❑ Statically indeterminate problems and thermal stresses
❑ Stresses on inclined planes
❑ Stresses due to fluid pressure in thin cylinders

6. Simple stresses and strains

The subject strength of materials deals with the relations

between externally applied loads and their internal effects on
the bodies. Now a days the bodies are no longer assumed to be
rigid and there are deformations in it, however it is small.

Strength of materials or mechanics of materials involves

analytical methods for determining the strength, stiffness
(deformation characteristics), and stability of various load
carrying members.

Alternatively the subject may be called the mechanics of solids.

2
 AXIAL LOADING – NORMAL STRESS STRESS

Direct or Normal Stress:

Intensity of resisting force perpendicular or normal to the

section is called the normal stress.
Normal stress may be tensile or compressive.

Tensile stress: Stresses that cause pulling on the surface of

the section, (particles of the materials tend to pull apart
causing extension in the direction of force).
Compressive stress: Stresses that cause pushing on the
surface of the section, (particles of the materials tend to push
together causing shortening in the direction of force).

6. Simple stresses and strains

STRESS:
No engineering material is perfectly rigid and hence, when a
material is subjected to external load, it undergoes
deformation.
While undergoing deformation, the particles of the material
offer a resisting force (internal force). When this resisting
force equals applied load the equilibrium condition exists
and hence the deformation stops.
These internal forces maintain the externally applied forces
in equilibrium.
The internal force resisting the deformation per unit area is
called as stress or intensity of stress.
Internal resisting force R
Stress = =
Resisting cross sectional area area A

3
 Linear Strain

P
=
2P P A
=
P
= stress = = 2 
A 2A A = =
  2L L
=
L
= normal strain =
L

Universal
testing
Machine:

4
 STRESS

SI unit for stress

N/m2 also designated as a Pascal (Pa)
Pa = N/m2

kilopascal, 1kPa = 1000 N/m2

megapascal, 1 MPa = 1×106 N/m2
= 1×106 N/(106mm2) = 1N/mm2
1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
gigapascal, 1GPa = 1×109 N/m2
= 1×103 MPa
= 1×103 N/mm2
9

AXIAL LOADING – NORMAL STRESS STRESS

P P Consider a uniform bar of cross

sectional area A, subjected to a tensile
force P.
R
Consider a section AB normal to the
direction of force P

A B Let R is the total resisting force acting

on the cross section AB.
Then for equilibrium condition,
R R=P
Then from the definition of stress,
P normal stress = σ = R/A = P/A
P
Symbol: σ = Normal Stress
10

5
 STRAIN

STRAIN :
When a load acts on the material it will undergo deformation.
Strain is a measurement of deformation produced due to the
application of external forces.

If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the

bar will changes in length. If the bar has an original length L
and change in length by an amount δL, the linear strain
produced is defined as,
L Change in length
Linear strain,  = =
L Original length

Strain is a dimensionless quantity.

11

34
Stress-Strain Test

Cup and cone

fracture for a
Ductile
Material

Machine used to test tensile test Test specimen with

specimen tensile load

12

6
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

In order to compare the strength of various materials it is

necessary to carry out some standard form of test to establish
their relative properties.

One such test is the standard tensile test in which a circular

bar of uniform cross section is subjected to a gradually
increasing tensile load until failure occurs.
Measurement of change in length over a selected gauge length
of the bar are recorded throughout the loading operation by
means of extensometers.

A graph of load verses extension or stress against strain is

drawn as shown in figure.

13

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Proportionality limit

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel

14

7
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel showing upper yield point
and lower yield point and also the elastic range and plastic range

15

Stress-strain Diagram

Limit of Proportionality :
From the origin O to a point called proportionality limit the
stress strain diagram is a straight line. That is stress is
proportional to strain. Hence proportional limit is the maximum
stress up to which the stress – strain relationship is a straight
line and material behaves elastically.

From this we deduce the well known relation, first postulated

by Robert Hooke, that stress is proportional to strain.
Beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to strain
PP
P = = Load at proportionality limit
A Original cross sectional area

16

8
 Stress-strain Diagram

Elastic limit:
It is the stress beyond which the material will not return to its
original shape when unloaded and it will retain a permanent
deformation called permanent set. For most practical purposes
it can often be assumed that points corresponding proportional
limit and elastic limit coincide.
Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains
are not totally recoverable. There will be thus some permanent
deformation when load is removed.

PE Load at elastic limit

E = =
A Original cross sectional area

17

Stress-strain Diagram
Yield point:
It is the point at which there is an appreciable elongation or
yielding of the material without any corresponding increase of
load.
PY
Y =
Load at yield point
= Original cross sectional area
A
Ultimate strength:
It is the stress corresponding to
maximum load recorded during
the test. It is stress corresponding
to maximum ordinate in the
stress-strain graph.
PU
U = =
Maximum load taken by the material
Original cross sectional area
A
18

9
 Stress-strain Diagram

Rupture strength (Nominal Breaking stress):

It is the stress at failure.
For most ductile material including structural steel breaking stress
is somewhat lower than ultimate strength because the rupture
strength is computed by dividing the rupture load (Breaking load)
by the original cross sectional area.

PB
B = =
load at breaking (failure)
Original cross sectional area
A

True breaking stress = load at breaking (failure)

Actual cross sectional area

Cup and cone fracture for

a Ductile Material ►

19

Ductile Materials: Stress-strain Diagram

The capacity of a material to allow large plastic deformations is a

measure of ductility of the material.
The capacity of a material to allow large extension i.e. the ability to
be drawn out plastically is termed as its ductility. Material with high
ductility are termed ductile material.
Example: Low carbon steel, mild steel, gold, silver, aluminum
A measure of ductility is obtained by measurements of the
percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area, defined as,

increase in gauge length (up to fracture) ×100

Percentage elongation =
original gauge length

Reduction in cross sectional area

Percentage reduction in of necked portion (at fracture) ×100
area =
original area

20

10
 Brittle Materials : Stress-strain Diagram

A brittle material is one which exhibits relatively small

extensions before fracture so that plastic region of the tensile
test graph is much reduced.
Example: steel with higher carbon content, cast iron, concrete,
brick

Stress-strain diagram for a typical

brittle material
21

Hooke’s Law:
For all practical purposes, up to certain limit the relationship
between normal stress and linear strain may be said to be
linear for all materials

stress (σ) α strain (ε)

stress (σ)
constant
strain (ε) =

Thomas Young introduced a constant of proportionality that

came to be known as Young’s modulus.
stress (σ)
E = Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
strain (ε) =

22

11
 HOOKE’S LAW

Young’s Modulus is defined as the ratio of normal stress to

linear strain within the proportionality limit.

stress (σ) P L PL
E = strain (ε) =  =
A L A L

The value of the Young’s modulus is a definite property of a

material

From the experiments, it is known that strain is always a very

small quantity, hence E must be large.
For Mild steel, E = 200GPa = 2×105MPa = 2×105N/mm2

23

Malleability: A property closely related to ductility, which

defines a material’s ability to be hammered out in to thin
sheets
Homogeneous: A material which has a uniform structure
throughout without any flaws or discontinuities.

Isotropic: If a material exhibits uniform properties throughout

in all directions ,it is said to be isotropic.

Anisotropic: If a material does not exhibit uniform properties

throughout in all directions ,it is said to be anisotropic or
nonisotropic.

24

12
 Working stress: It is obvious that one cannot take risk of loading a
member to its ultimate strength, in practice. The maximum stress to
which the material of a member is subjected to in practice is called
working stress.
This value should be well within the elastic limit in elastic design
method.
Factor of safety: Because of uncertainty of loading conditions,
design procedure, production methods, etc., designers generally
introduce a factor of safety into their design, defined as follows
Maximum stress
Factor of safety =
Allowable working stress
or
Yield stress (or proof stress)
Allowable working stress

25

Q.6.2

A specimen of steel 20mm diameter with a gauge length of

200mm was tested to failure. It undergoes an extension of
0.20mm under a load of 60kN. Load at elastic limit is
120kN. The maximum load is 180kN. The breaking load is
160kN. Total extension is 50mm and the diameter at
fracture is 16mm.
Find:
a) Stress at elastic limit
b) Young’s modulus
c) % elongation
d) % reduction in area
e) Ultimate strength
f) Nominal breaking stress
g) True breaking stress

26

13
 Solution:
a) Stress at elastic limit,
Load at elastic limit
σE =
Original c/s area
P 120k N
= E = = 3 8 1 .9 7 N = 3 8 1 .9 7 M P a
A 3 1 4 .1 6 m m 2 mm2

b) Young’s Modulus, (consider a load which is within the elastic

limit)
60 kN
 PA 314 .16 mm 2 = 190 .98 = 190980 N
E= = =
 L 0 .20 mm 1  10 − 3 mm 2
L 200 mm
= 190980 MPa
= 190 .98GPa
27

c) % elongation,

Final length at fracture – original length

% elongation =
Original length
50
=  100 = 25 %
200

Original c/s area -Final c/s area at fracture

d) % reduction in area =
Original c/s area

314 .16 −   16
2

= 4  100 = 36 %
314 .16

28

14
e) Ultimate strength,

Maximum load 180 kN

Ultimate strength = = = 572 .96 N / mm 2
Original c/s area 314 .16 mm 2
( MPa )

f) Nominal breaking Breaking load 160 kN

= = 509 .29 MPa
Strength = Original c/s area 314 .16

g) True breaking Breaking load

Strength =
c/s area at fracture
160k N
= = 7 9 5 .3 8 M P a
2 0 1 .0 6 m m 2

29

Q 6.1 Illustrative Problems

A composite bar consists of an aluminum section rigidly

fastened between a bronze section and a steel section as
shown in figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions
indicated. Determine the stress in each section.

Aluminum
Bronze Steel
A= 180 mm2
A= 120 mm2 A= 160 mm2
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

300mm 400mm 500mm

30

15
 To calculate the stresses, first determine the forces in each
section.
To find the Force in bronze section,
consider a section bb1 as shown in the figure

b
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze

b1

For equilibrium condition algebraic sum of forces on LHS of

the section must be equal to that of RHS

31

b
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze

b1
4kN 4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze (= )

Force acting on Bronze section is 4kN, tensile

Stress in Bronze
Force in Bronze section
section =
Resisting cross sectional area of the Bronze section
4kN 4  1000 N
= 1 2 0 m m 2 = 1 2 0 m m 2 = 3 3 . 3 3 N / m m = 33.33MPa
2

(Tensile stress)
32

16
 Force in Aluminum section

4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

Aluminum

4kN 13kN 9kN

(= 2kN 7kN )
Aluminum

Force acting on Aluminum section is 9kN,

(Compressive)

33

Force in steel section

4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

steel

7kN

4kN 13kN 2kN

steel 7kN

Force acting on Steel section is 7kN, ( Compressive)

34

17
Stress in Aluminum Force in Al section
section =
Resisting cross sectional area of the Al section
9kN 9  1000 N
= 2
= 2
= 50 N / m m 2 = 50MPa
180m m 180m m
Compressive stress

Stress in Steel section = Force in Steel section

Resisting cross sectional area of the Steel section
7kN 7  1000 N
= 1 6 0 m m 2 = 1 6 0 m m 2 = 4 3 . 7 5 N / m m = 43.75MPa
2

(Compressive stress)

35

Q.6.3

A composite bar consists of an aluminum section rigidly

fastened between a bronze section and a steel section as
shown in figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions
indicated. Determine the change in each section and the
change in total length. Given
Ebr = 100GPa, Eal = 70GPa, Est = 200GPa

Aluminum
Steel
Bronze A= 180 mm2
A= 160 mm2
A= 120 mm2
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

300mm 400mm 500mm

36

18
 From the Example 1, we know that,
Pbr = +4kN (Tension) Deformation due to
Pal = -9kN (Compression) compressive force is
shortening in length, and is
Pst = -7kN (Compression) considered as -ve

stress (σ) P/A PL

E = = = =
strain (ε) L / L A L
PL
Change in length = L =
AE
Change in length of 4000 N  300 m m
bronze =  Lbr =
120 m m 2  100  10 3 ( N / m m 2 )
= 0.1mm
37

Change in length of − 9000 N  400 m m

aluminum section = Lal = = -0.286mm
180 m m 2  70  10 3 ( N / m m 2 )
Change in length of − 7000 N  500 m m
steel section = L st = = -0.109mm
160 m m 2  200  10 3 ( N / m m 2 )

Change in total
length =  L b r +  L a l +  L s t = +0.1 – 0.286 - 0.109
= -0.295mm

38

19
 Q.6.4

An aluminum rod is fastened to a steel rod as shown. Axial

loads are applied at the positions shown. The area of cross
section of aluminum and steel rods are 600mm2 and 300mm2
respectively. Find maximum value of P that will satisfy the
following conditions.
a)σst ≤ 140 MPa Take
b)σal ≤ 80 MPa Eal = 70GPa
c)Total elongation ≤ 1mm, Est = 200GPa

2P Aluminum 4P 2P
Steel

0.8m 2.8m

39

To find P, based on the condition, σst ≤ 140 MPa

Stress in steel must be less than or equal to 140MPa.

Hence, σst =
Pst 2 P
= 140MPa = = = 140 N / m m 2
Ast A st
1 4 0  Ast
P= = 2 1 0 0 0 N = 2 1k N
2

2P Aluminum 4P Steel 2P
2P 4P 2P
2P 2P Tensile

40

20
 To find P, based on the condition, σal ≤ 80 MPa

Stress in aluminum must be less than or equal to

80MPa.
Hence, σal = Pal 2P
= = = 80 N / m m 2
= 80MPa Aal Aa l
8 0  Aal
P= = 24000 N = 24k N
2

2P Aluminum 4P Steel 2P

2P 4P 2P

2P 2P Compressive
41

To find P, based on the condition, total elongation ≤ 1mm

Total elongation = elongation in aluminum + elongation in

steel.
 PL   PL 
1mm =  + 
 AE  a l  AE  st
 − 2 P La l   + 2 P L st 
1mm =   +  
 Aa l E a l   A st E st 

 − 2 P  800   + 2 P  2800 
1mm = + 3 
 600  70  10   300  200  10 
3

P = 18.1kN

Ans: P = 18.1kN (minimum of the three values)

42

21
 Expression for the total extension of the tapered bar of circular
cross section
As shown in the figure, when subjected to an axial tensile load
,W

W W
A B
Diameter
d1 L
Diameter
d2

43

Consider an element of length, dx at a distance x from A

W W
A
B
d1 x d2
dx
( ) d1
2

Diameter at x, = d 1 + d 2 − d 1  x c/s area at x, = = (d 1 + k x )
2
4 4
L
= d1 + k  x
 
 PL   Wdx 
Change in length over a =  = 
length dx is  AE  dx   (d + kx)2  E 
4 
1

 
Change in length over a L Wdx 
=  
length L is 0
  (d + kx)2  E 
 
4 
1

44

22
 Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
 
 Wdx 
Change in length over a =
L
 
length L is 0
  (d + kx)2  E 
 
4 
1

 dt  Put d1+kx = t,
L
 W 
=  k 
0
  (t )2  E  Then k dx = dt
 
4 
L L
4W  t − 2 +1  4W  − 1  − 4W  
L
1
=  = =
   
 Ek  − 1  0  Ek  t  0  Ek  ( d 1 + k x)  0
4WL WL
= =
 Ed 1 d 2  d 1 d 2  E
4
45

Q.6.6

A two meter long steel bar is having uniform diameter of 40mm

for a length of 1m, in the next 0.5m its diameter gradually
reduces to 20mm and for remaining 0.5m length diameter
remains 20mm uniform as shown in the figure. If a load of
150kN is applied at the ends, find the stresses in each section
of the bar and total extension of the bar. Take E = 200GPa.

150kN
150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm

46

23
 150kN 2 3
1 150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm
If we take a section any where along the length of the bar, it is
subjected to a load of 150kN.
150kN
1 = = 119.37 MPa
 40 2
4
150kN 150kN
2 =   2 , max . = = 119.37 MPa
d 2  40 2
4 4
150kN
 2,min. = = 477.46 MPa
 20 2
4
150kN
3 = = 477.46 MPa
 20 2
4
47

150kN 2 3
1 150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm
If we take a section any where along the length of the bar, it is
subjected to a load of 150kN.
150  1000
l1 =
(
  40 2  E
4
)
= 0.597 mm

4 PL 4  150  500
l 2 = = = 0.597 mm
Ed1d 2   E  40  20
150  500
l3 =
(
  20 2  E
4
)
= 1.194mm
to ta l,  l = 2 . 3 8 8 m m
48

24
 Expression for the total extension of the tapered bar AB of
rectangular cross section and uniform thickness, as shown in
the figure, when subjected to an axial tensile load ,W.

W W d2
d1
A B
b
L b

49

W W d2
d1
A B
b
b
x dx
Consider an element of length, dx at a distance x from A

= d1 +
(d 2 − d 1 )  x c/s area at x, = ( d 1 + k x )b
depth at x, = d1 + k  x
L
 PL   W dx 
Change in length over a length dx is =   =  
 A E  d x  1 k x )b  E
( d + 
 Wdx  P
(lo g e d 2 − lo g e d 1 )
L
Change in length over a length L is =   (d
0
1 + k x )b  E
 =
 b E k
2 . 302  P  L
= (log d 2 − log d 1 )
b  E  (d 2 − d 1 )

50

25
 Q.6.8

Derive an expression for the total extension produced by self

weight of a uniform bar, when the bar is suspended vertically.

Diameter
d

51

P1 = wt.of the bar below the section,

= volume × specific weight
= (π d2/4)× x × 
element
= A× x ×
dx dx Extension of the element due to
weight of the bar below that,
P1
x
 PL  P1 d x ( A  x   ) d x
=   = AE =
 A E  dx AE

Diameter d L
L ( A  x   ) dx   x 2   L2
Hence the total extension entire bar = 
0 AE
=  =
 2E 0 2E
The above expression can also be written as:

 L2 A ( A L  )  L 1 P L Where, P = (AL)×
=  = =  = total wt. of the bar
2E A 2 AE 2 AE

52

26
53

27