AS LEVEL

6 Deformation of solids
6 Deformation of solids

Learning outcomes
By the end of this topic, you will be able to:
6.1 Stress and strain
1 understand that deformation is caused by
tensile or compressive forces (forces and
deformations will be assumed to be in one
dimension only)
2 understand and use the terms load,
extension, compression and limit of
proportionality
3 recall and use Hooke’s law
4 recall and use the formula for the spring
constant k = F/x
5 define and use the terms stress, strain and
the Young modulus
6 describe an experiment to determine the
Young modulus of a metal in the form of a
wire
6.2 Elastic and plastic behaviour
1 understand and use the terms elastic
deformation, plastic deformation and elastic
limit
2 understand that the area under the force–
extension graph represents the work done
3 determine the elastic potential energy
of a material deformed within its limit of
proportionality from the area under the
force–extension graph
4 recall and use Ep = 12 Fx = 12 kx2 for a material
deformed within its limit of proportionality

force applied Starting points

by support
★ When forces are applied to a solid object, its shape or size may change.
★ The change of shape or size is called deformation.
★ The deformation is called a tensile deformation if an object is stretched or a
compressive deformation if the object squeezed/compressed.
★ The load or force that stretches a wire is called a tensile force.
★ Work done = force × displacement in the direction of the force
★ Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position (relative
to other bodies) or shape.
force applied
by load (weight)
6.1 Stress and strain
▲ Figure 6.1 A loaded Hooke’s law
helical spring A helical spring, attached to a fixed point, hangs vertically and has weights attached to
its lower end, as shown in Figure 6.1. As the magnitude of the weight is increased the
spring becomes longer. The increase in length or deformation of the spring is called the
load

extension of the spring and the weight attached to the spring is called the load.
The extension is equal to the extended length – natural/original length.
P The load is the tensile force that causes the extension.

straight line
Note that a force acts on the spring at each end. An upwards force acts on the spring
from the support at the fixed point as well as the load and the spring is in equilibrium.
0 extension Figure 6.2 shows a load against extension for the spring. The section of the line from
▲ Figure 6.2 Extension of the origin to the point P is straight. In this region, the extension of the spring is
a loaded spring proportional to the load. The point P is referred to as the limit of proportionality.
100

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 100 30/05/20 12:47 PM

 The fact that there is a proportional relationship between load and extension is
expressed in Hooke’s law. It should be appreciated that, although we have used a spring
as an illustration, the law applies to any object, provided the limit of proportionality has
not been exceeded, for example a wire.
6
Hooke’s law states that, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded, the
extension of an object is proportional to the applied load.

The law can be expressed in the form of an equation

force F ∝ extension e

6.1 Stress and strain

Removing the proportionality sign gives
F = ke
where k is a constant, known as the spring constant (or force constant).
The spring constant is the force per unit extension, k = F/x.

The unit of the constant is newton per metre (N m–1).

The spring constant is different for each spring or wire.
It should be noted that if a load (compressive force) causes the object to be compressed
then Hooke’s law still applies up to the limit of proportionality. The compression is then
equal to the original length – reduced length.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6A
An elastic cord has an original length of 25 cm. When the cord is extended by
applying a force at each end, the length of the cord becomes 40 cm for forces of
0.75 N. Calculate the force constant of the cord.

Answer
extension of cord = 15 cm, the force causing the extension (the load) is 0.75 N
force constant = 0.75/0.15 (extension in metres)
= 5.0 N m–1

Questions 1 Explain what is meant by the limit of proportionality.

2 Calculate the spring constant for a spring which extends by a distance of 3.5 cm
when a load of 14 N is hung from its end.
3 A steel wire extends by 1.5 mm when it is under a tensile force of 45 N. Calculate:
a the spring constant of the wire
b the tensile force required to produce an extension of 1.8 mm, assuming that the
limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

The Young modulus

The spring constant is different for each specimen of a material that has a different
shape or size. The extension produced by a given force depends on other factors.
For example, the extension of a wire depends on its length and diameter as well as the
type of material. In order to compare materials a quantity is defined which enables the
extensions to be calculated if the dimensions of a specimen of a material are known.
This quantity is called the Young modulus.
When an object has its shape or size changed by forces acting on it, strain is produced
in the object. The strain is a measure of the extent of the deformation. When a tensile
force acts on an object such as a wire or spring the deformation is a change in length.
101

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 101 30/05/20 12:47 PM

 If an object of original length L o is extended by an amount e, the tensile strain (ε) is
defined as
6 strain = extension
original length

ε = e/Lo
Strain is the ratio of two lengths and does not have a unit.
The strain produced within an object is caused by a stress. In our case, we are dealing
6 Deformation of solids

with changes in length and so the stress is referred to as a tensile stress. When a tensile
force F acts normally to an area A, the stress (σ) is given by

force
stress =
area normal to the force

σ = F/A
The unit of tensile stress is newton per square metre (N m–2). This unit is also the unit of
pressure and so an alternative unit for stress is the pascal (Pa).
In Figure 6.2, we plotted a graph of load against extension. Since load is related to stress
and extension is related to strain, a graph of stress plotted against strain would have
the same basic shape, as shown in Figure 6.3. Once again, there is a straight line region
between the origin and P, the limit of proportionality. In this region, changes of strain
with stress are proportional.
stress

0 strain

▲ Figure 6.3 Stress–strain graph

In the region where the changes are proportional, it can be seen that
stress ∝ strain
or, removing the proportionality sign,
stress = E × strain
The constant E is known as the Young modulus of the material.

stress
Young modulus E =
strain

provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

The unit of the Young modulus is the same as that for stress because strain is a ratio and
has no unit. Hence the unit of E is the newton per square metre (N m–2) or the pascal (Pa).
This definition for the Young modulus can be used to derive the expression
E = (F/A) × (L o/e) = (FL o)/(Ae)
This expression is used to determine the Young modulus of a metal.
102

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 102 30/05/20 12:47 PM

 The Young modulus of a metal in the form of a wire may be measured by applying loads
to a wire and measuring the extensions caused. The original length and the cross-
sectional area must also be measured. A suitable laboratory arrangement is shown in
Figure 6.4. A copper wire is often used. This is because, for wires of the same diameter
6
under the same load, a copper wire will give larger, more measurable, extensions than a
steel wire. (Why is this?) A paper flag with a reference mark on it is attached to the wire
at a distance of approximately one metre from the clamped end. The original length L o is
measured from the clamped end to the reference mark, using a metre rule. The diameter
d of the wire is measured using a micrometer screw gauge, and the cross-sectional area A
calculated from A = 14πd2. Extensions e are measured as masses m are added to the mass-

6.1 Stress and strain

carrier. (Think of a suitable way of measuring these extensions.) The load F is calculated
from F = mg. A graph of F (y-axis) against e (x-axis) has gradient EA/Lo, so the Young
modulus E is equal to gradient × (L o/A). This method is only applicable where Hooke’s
law is valid and the graph obtained is a straight line. Care should be taken not to exceed
the limit of proportionality when extending the wire.
paper flag with
clamp wire reference mark

pulley

masses

▲ Figure 6.4 Simple experiment to measure the Young modulus of a wire

Some values of the Young modulus for different materials are shown in Table 6.1.

Young
modulus
WORKED EXAMPLE 6B
material E/Pa
A steel wire of diameter 1.0 mm and length 2.5 m is suspended from a fixed point
aluminium 7.0 × 1010 and a mass of weight 45 N is suspended from its free end. The Young modulus of the
copper 1.1 × 1011 material of the wire is 2.1 × 1011 Pa. Assuming that the limit of proportionality of the
steel 2.1 × 1011 wire is not exceeded, calculate:
glass 4.1 × 1010 a the applied stress
b the strain
rubber 5.0 × 108
c the extension of the wire.
▲ Table 6.1 Young modulus
for different materials Answers
a area = π × (0.5 × 10 –3)2
= 7.9 × 10 –7 m2
stress = force/area
= 45/7.9 × 10 –7
= 5.7 × 107 Pa
b strain = stress/Young modulus
= 5.7 × 107/2.1 × 1011
= 2.7 × 10 –4
c extension = strain × length
= 2.7 × 10 –4 × 2.5
= 6.8 × 10 –4 m
= 0.68 mm

103

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 103 30/06/20 2:54 PM

 Questions 4 A copper wire of diameter 1.78 mm and length 1.40 m is suspended from a fixed
6 point and a mass of weight 32.0 N is suspended from its free end. The Young
modulus of the material of the wire is 1.10 × 1011 Pa. Assuming that the limit of
proportionality of the wire is not exceeded, calculate:
a the applied stress
b the strain
c the extension of the wire.
5 An elastic band of area of cross-section 2.0 mm2 has an original length of 8.0 cm.
6 Deformation of solids

When stretched by a force of 0.40 N, its length becomes 8.3 cm. Calculate the Young
modulus of the elastic.

6.2 Elastic and plastic behaviour

When an object has its shape or size changed by forces acting on it a deformation is said
force

to have been produced. Figure 6.5 shows the force against extension graph for a wire.
E For small forces, when the force is removed, the wire returns to its original length.
P The wire is said to have undergone an elastic deformation.
In an elastic deformation, an object returns to its original shape and size when the
force on it is removed.
0 B extension
▲ Figure 6.5 Force against The point E on Figure 6.5 is referred to as the elastic limit and is usually just beyond
extension graph the point P the limit of proportionality.
The elastic limit is the maximum force that can be applied to a wire/spring such
that the wire/spring returns to its original length when the force is removed.

If the force is increased greatly, the spring will change its shape or size permanently.
The wire/spring is deformed permanently and the deformation is said to be plastic for
points beyond E. The graph in Figure 6.5 follows the dashed line as the force is removed.
At point B the wire has a permanent extension when the force is zero.
In a plastic deformation, an object does not return to its original shape and size
when the force on it is removed.

Elastic potential energy

Work has to be done by the force acting on the object to cause its deformation and hence
produce a strain. The work done to produce the strain is stored in the object as potential
energy. This particular form of potential energy is called strain potential energy, or
simply strain energy. All the stored potential energy is recovered when the force is
removed from the object provided the force applied is within the elastic limit. The stored
potential energy is then called elastic potential energy.
Elastic potential energy (strain energy) is energy stored in an object due to
change of shape or size, which is completely recovered when the force causing
deformation is removed.

The work done by a force that is greater than the elastic limit is stored as potential energy
in the object but the energy is not completely recovered when the force is removed.
Consider the spring shown in Figure 6.1. To produce a final extension e, the force applied
at the lower end of the spring increases with extension from zero to a value F. Provided
the spring is deformed within its limit of proportionality, the extension is directly
proportional to this maximum force and the average force is 12F. The work done W by the
force is therefore
W = average force × extension (see Topic 5.1)
= 12Fe
104

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 104 30/05/20 12:47 PM

 The work done is equal to the elastic potential energy stored in the spring, Ep. Hence for
a spring deformed within its limit of proportionality,

Ep = 12Fe
6
However, the force constant k is given by the equation
F = ke
Therefore, substituting for F,
Ep = 12ke2

6.2 Elastic and plastic behaviour

The energy is in joules if k is in newtons per metre and e is in metres.
A graph of force (y-axis) against extension (x-axis) enables the work done to be found
even when the graph is not linear (see Figure 6.6). We have shown that for a spring
deformed within its limit of proportionality, work done is given by
W = 12Fe
The expression 12Fe represents the area between the straight line on Figure 6.6 and the
x-axis. This relationship only applies when the extension is proportional to the force,
but the work done in deforming is still given by the area under the line if the graph is
curved. This means that work done is represented by the area under the line on a graph
of force (y-axis) plotted against extension (x-axis).
force

1
area 2 Fe

0 e extension
▲ Figure 6.6 Work done is given by the area under the graph.

For any deformation, the area under the force–extension graph represents the
work done.

The work done and hence the elastic potential energy is area under the graph (12Fe).
The force (in N) × extension (in m) gives the work done (energy stored) in J, provided
the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6C
A spring has a spring constant 65 N m –1 and is extended within the limit of
proportionality by 1.2 cm. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in the spring.
Answer
elastic potential energy W = 12 ke2
= 12 × 65 × (1.2 × 10 –2)2
= 4.7 × 10 –3 J

Questions 6 Explain what is meant by extended elastically.

7 A wire has a force constant of 5.5 × 104 N m–1. It is extended within the limit of
proportionality by 1.4 mm. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in the wire.
8 A rubber band has a force constant of 180 N m–1. The work done in extending the
band is 0.16 J. Calculate the extension of the band.
105

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 105 30/05/20 12:47 PM

 SUMMARY
6 » Forces on an object can cause tensile deformation
(stretching) or compressive deformation
(squeezing).
» The limit of proportionality is the point up to which
the force is proportional to the extension.
» Hooke’s law states extension is proportional to
force provided the limit of proportionality is not
6 Deformation of solids
» An elastic deformation occurs when an object
returns to its original shape and size when the
force is removed from it.
» In a plastic deformation, an object does not return
to its original shape and size when the force on it is
removed.
» The elastic limit is the maximum force that can be

exceeded. applied to a wire/spring such that the wire/spring

» The spring constant (force constant) k is the ratio
of force to extension, k = F/x.
» Tensile strain = extension/original length.
» Tensile stress = force/cross-sectional area; stress
has units N m–2 or Pa.
» The Young modulus of a material is defined as
Young modulus = stress/strain; the units of the
Young modulus are N m–2, or Pa.
» The Young modulus of a metal in the form of a
wire can be found by applying loads to a wire and
measuring the extensions caused. The original
length and diameter of the wire are also measured.
The Young modulus is determined using the
gradient of a force-extension graph or directly
from the gradient of the stress/strain curve.
returns to its original length when the force is
removed.
» Elastic potential energy is energy stored in an
object due to change of shape or size that is
completely recovered when the force causing
deformation is removed.
1 1
» Elastic potential energy, Ep = 2Fe = 2ke2 for an object
deformed within its limit of proportionality.
» The area under the force–extension graph
represents the work done. This applies for
forces within the elastic limit and greater than
the elastic limit.

END OF TOPIC QUESTIONS

1 What are the SI base units of the spring constant?
A N B Nm C N m−1 D N m−2
2 A uniform metal wire is fixed at one end so that it hangs vertically from the ceiling.
A load of 5 kg is placed on the lower end and the wire extends. The original length
of the wire was 1.5 m. The diameter of the wire is 0.40 mm and the metal of the
wire has a Young modulus of 2 × 1011 N m−2. What is the extension of the wire?
A 0.07 mm B 0.7 mm C 0.3 mm D 3 mm
3 Fig. 6.7 shows the extension of a wire as forces from 0 to 160 N are applied. What is
the work done extending the wire with forces from 80 N to 160 N?
A 0.48 J B 0.72 J C 1.4 J D 1.9 J
160
force / N

120

80

40

0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

extension / mm

▲ Figure 6.7

106

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 106 30/05/20 12:47 PM

 fixed point 4 A spring has an original length of 12.4 cm. When a load of 4.5 N is suspended from
the spring, its length becomes 13.3 cm. Calculate:
a the spring constant of the spring, 6
b the length of the spring for a load of 3.5 N.
5 The elastic cord of a catapult has a force constant of 700 N m–1. Calculate the
14.2 cm
elastic potential energy stored in the elastic cord when it is extended by 15 cm.
6 Two wires each have length 1.8 m and diameter 1.2 mm. One wire has a Young
modulus of 1.1 × 1011 Pa and the other 2.2 × 1011 Pa. One end of each wire is
attached to the same fixed point and the other end of each wire is attached to the

End of topic questions

same load of 75 N so that each has the same extension. Assuming that the limit of
▲ Figure 6.8 proportionality of the wires is not exceeded, calculate the extension of the wires.

fixed point 7 Explain what is meant by plastic deformation.

8 a Explain what is meant by elastic potential energy (strain energy). [2]
b A spring that obeys Hooke’s law has a spring constant k.
Show that the energy E stored in the spring when it has been extended
1
elastically by an amount x is given by E = 2 kx 2 . [3]
c A light spring of unextended length 14.2 cm is suspended vertically from a
16.3 cm fixed point, as shown in Fig. 6.8.
A mass of weight 3.8 N is hung from the end of the spring, as shown in Fig. 6.9.
The length of the spring is now 16.3 cm.
An additional force F then extends the spring so that its length becomes
17.8 cm, as shown in Fig. 6.10.
3.8 N The spring obeys Hooke’s law and the elastic limit of the spring is not exceeded.
▲ Figure 6.9 i Show that the spring constant of the spring is 1.8  N cm–1. [1]
ii For the extension of the spring from a length of 16.3 cm to a length of 17.8 cm,
fixed point 1 calculate the change in the gravitational potential energy of the
mass on the spring, [2]
2 show that the change in elastic potential energy of the spring
is 0.077 J, [1]
3 determine the work done by the force F. [1]
Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics (9702) Paper 22 Q4 Oct/Nov 2009
17.8 cm
9 a Define, for a wire:
i stress, [1]
ii strain. [1]
b A wire of length 1.70 m hangs vertically from a fixed point, as shown in Fig. 6.11.
F 3.8 N The wire has cross-sectional area 5.74 × 10 –8 m2 and is made of a material that
has a Young modulus of 1.60 × 1011 Pa. A load of 25.0 N is hung from the wire.
▲ Figure 6.10
i Calculate the extension of the wire. [3]
ii The same load is hung from a second wire of the same material. This wire
is twice the length but the same volume as the first wire. State and explain
how the extension of the second wire compares with that of the first wire. [3]
Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics (9702) Paper 21 Q4 May/June 2011
wire
10 a State Hooke’s law. [1]
b The variation with extension x of the force F for a spring A is shown in Fig. 6.12.
The point L on the graph is the elastic limit of the spring.
25.0 N

▲ Figure 6.11

107

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 107 30/05/20 12:48 PM

 8

F /N
L
6
6

4
6 Deformation of solids

0
2 4 6 8 10
▲ Figure 6.12 x /10–2 m
i Describe the meaning of elastic limit. [1]
ii Calculate the spring constant kA for spring A. [1]
iii Calculate the work done in extending the spring with a force of 6.4 N. [2]
spring A
c A second spring B of spring constant 2kA is now joined to spring A, as shown in
Fig. 6.13.
A force of 6.4 N extends the combination of springs.
For the combination of springs, calculate:
spring B i the total extension, [1]
ii the spring constant. [1]
Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics (9702) Paper 21 Q6 Oct/Nov 2011
6.4 N
11 a For the deformation of a wire under tension, define:
▲ Figure 6.13 i stress, [1]
ii strain. [1]
b A wire is fixed at one end so that it hangs vertically. The wire is given an
extension x by suspending a load F from its free end. The variation of F with x is
shown Fig. 6.14.
8
F /N

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
▲ Figure 6.14 x /mm
108

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 108 30/06/20 2:54 PM

 The wire has cross-sectional area 9.4 × 10–8 m2 and original length 2.5 m.
i Describe how measurements can be taken to determine accurately the
cross-sectional area of the wire. [3] 6
ii Determine the Young modulus E of the material of the wire. [2]
iii Use Fig. 6.14 to calculate the increase in the energy stored in the wire
when the load is increased from 2.0 N to 4.0 N. [2]
c The wire in b is replaced by a new wire of the same material. The new wire
has twice the length and twice the diameter of the old wire. The new wire also
obeys Hooke’s law. On a copy of Fig. 6.14, sketch the variation with extensions x
of the load F for the new wire from x = 0 to x = 0.80 mm. [2]

End of topic questions

Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics (9702) Paper 22 Q3 Feb/March 2018
12 a Define the Young modulus of a material. [1]
b A metal rod is compressed, as shown in Fig. 6.15.
rod

F F

L
▲ Figure 6.15
The variation with compressive force F for the length L of the rod is shown in
Fig. 6.16.

151
L /mm

150

149

148

147

146

145
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
F /kN
▲ Figure 6.16
Use Fig. 6.16 to:
i determine the spring constant k of the rod, [2]
ii determine the strain energy stored in the rod for F = 90 kN. [3]
c The rod in b has cross-sectional area A and is made of metal of Young
modulus E. It is now replaced by a new rod of the same original length. The new
rod has cross-sectional area A/3 and is made of metal of Young modulus 2E. The
compression of the new rod obeys Hooke’s law. On a copy of Fig. 6.16, sketch
the variation with F of the length L for the new rod from F = 0 to F = 90 kN. [2]
Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics (9702) Paper 23 Q4 May/June 2018

109

482807_06_CI_AS_Phy_SB_3e_100-109.indd 109 30/05/20 12:48 PM