Conduction by Free Electrons

Presentation 2
Conductivity Range

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Origin of Conductivity in Metals
• Good conductors of electricity
• Contain large number of free electrons
• Due to nature of metallic bonding, the valence electrons from sea
of electrons are free to move within metal
• Explained on the basis of free electron theory; also known as
“Drude Model”
• Drift velocity: Conduction electrons attain average velocity that
depends on the field.
• Drift mobility: Measure of the ease with which charge carriers in
the solid drift under the influence of electric field
• By applying Newton’s second law of motion and concepts such as
mean free time between electron collisions with lattice vibration,
crystal defects etc. fundamental equation governing electrical
conduction in solids can be derived 3
Free Electron Theory

• Electric current density: Net amount of charge flowing across

unit area per unit time

• Electrons experience a coulombic force eEx in x direction

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Concept of Drift Velocity
• It is assumed that as a result of application of an
electric field Ex electrons assume a net velocity in the
direction of field

• Here, Vxi is x direction velocity of ith electron and N is

number of conduction electrons in metals
• n is number of electrons per unit volume of a
conductor (n = N/V)

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Current Density and Drift Velocity
• In time ∆t, electrons move a distance ∆x = Vdx * ∆t, so that
total charge ∆q crossing the area A is enA(∆x)
• Hence, current density in x direction is given by

• Since, the electric field may be changing as Ex = Ex (t), a

time dependent current density can be written as
Jx (t)=

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Motion of Conduction Electrons in
Metals

In absence of electric field In presence of electric field

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Calculation of Drift Velocity

The above expression gives the drift velocity of ith electron which needs
to be averaged for i = 1 to N

Where, is the average free time for N electrons between collisions

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Drift Mobility and Mean Free Time
• Suppose τ is mean free time between collisions
(also known as mean scattering time). Thus,

• Drift velocity linearly varies with electric field

and I is constant of proportionality known
as drift mobility. Thus,

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Example 1
• Calculate drift mobility and mean scattering
time of conduction electrons in copper at room
temperature, given that conductivity of copper
is 5.9 x 105 (ohm cm)-1 . The density of copper is
8.96 g/cc and its atomic mass 63.5 g/mol.
Answer: Mobility = 43.4 cm2 V-1 S-1
Mean free time = 2.5 x 10-14 second

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Example 2
• What is the applied electric field that will
impose a drift velocity 0.1% of mean speed (106
m/s) of conduction electrons in copper? What
is the corresponding current density and
current through Cu wire of diameter 1 mm?
Answers: Electric field = 230 kV/m
Current density = 1.4 x 10 13 A/m2
Current = 1.1 x 10 7 A

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Temperature Dependence of Electrical
Conductivity of Pure Metals
Velocity of moving electron is u. It gets
scattered when it crosses cross
sectional area S of a scattering centre.
Scattering Centre: Vibrating atom,
impurity, vacancy
or some other crystal defect
Mean free path (l) travelled between
one scattering is uτ
If Ns is the concentration of scattering centres in volume Sl;
there is one scattering centre. Thus, (Suτ)Ns = 1
Mean Free Path as a Function of
Temperature
• Atomic vibrations are random and atom covers cross sectional
area of πa2 where a is amplitude of vibration
• If electron’s path crosses this area, it gets scattered
• Therefore, the mean time between scattering is inversely
proportional to the area πa2 that scatters the electrons

• The thermal vibrations of an atom can be considered to be simple

harmonic motion much the same way as that of mass M attached
to a spring. The kinetic energy can be related as

C is temperature
• Thus, Independent constant
Equations Pertaining to Mobility and
Resistivity
• We know that μd = eτ/me
• Thus,

• Thus, resistivity of metals is

• This is known as lattice scattering limited resistivity given as

ρT = AT
Example
• Mean speed of conduction electrons in copper
is 1.5 x 106 m/s and frequency of vibration of
copper atoms at room temperature is about 4
1012 per second. Estimate drift mobility of
electrons and conductivity of Cu. Density of Cu
is 8.96 g/cc and atomic mass is 63.65 g/mol.
Answers: Mobility = 35 cm2/Vs
Conductivity = 4.8 x 105 (Ωcm)-1
Electrical Conductivity of Alloys
• Theory of lattice vibration works well only with
pure metals and not alloys!

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Scattering Phenomena in Alloys
• Scattering can take place by thermal vibrations and
impurity atoms (alloying element) resulting in two
different scattering times τT and τI
• Electrons may be scattered by both the processes. So,
the effective scattering time would actually lesser
than individual scattering times
• Thus,

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Matthiessen’s Rule
• Effective Drift Mobility

μL and μI are lattice scattering limited drift mobility

and impurity scattering limited drift mobility respectively

In Short,

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Temperature Dependence of
Electrical Resistivity of Alloys
• ρT is definitely temperature dependent but ρI is
not
• Scattering may take place from other crystal
defects like dislocation, vacancy, interstitial,
grain boundary etc which affects ρI
• Effective resistivity is given as
ρ = ρT + ρR
ρR = residual resistivity

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What Happens in Real Practice?

Copper

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Effect of Mechanical Deformation
and Heat Treatment in Alloys

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Solid Solutions
• Meaning of solid solution
• Formation of a solid solution
• Examples: Cu - Ni, Ag – Cu, Pt – Pd, Cu – Pd, Ni – Cr
• Applications
Electrical Conductivity/Resistivity
Behaviour of Solid Solution

Effect of Ni content on
resistivity of Cu – Ni alloys

Effect of composition on resistivity

of Cu – Au solid solution
Nordheim’s Rule
• Relates impurity resistivity to atomic fraction X of solute atoms in a
solid solution
• This rule assumes that solute atoms are randomly distributed in a
solid solution causing electron scattering
• At sufficiently large solute content
ρI = CX (1-X)
• C represents Nordheim coefficient indicating the effectiveness of
solute atom in increasing resistivity
• For dilute solutions (1-2% solute content), ρI = CX
• Limitations of Nordheim’s rule: In alloys having elements with
different valency e.g. Cu – Zn alloys, resistivity predicted by
Nordheim’s rule is greater than actual one.
• Ceff has to be considered
Combined Mattheissen and Nordheim
Rule
• ρ = ρmatrix + CX(1-X)
• ρmatrix = ρT + ρR is the resistivity of matrix due to
scattering from thermal vibrations and other
defects in the absence of alloying elements
• C depends on matrix and alloying element
• C for Cu in Au is different than Au in Cu
Practical Applications of Metals and
Alloys
• Cu – metallic conductor
• Al – conductivity half of that of Cu but still popular
• Ag – Highest electrical and thermal conductivity;
natural choice for electrical contacts; cost is
prohibitive
• Practical approach: Alloy Au, Pd, Pt with Ag for
corrosion resistance, Ag – Ni alloys for household
electrical contacts
• Tradeoff between mechanical and electrical
properties of alloys based on models studied so far
Design Aspects
Example
• The alloy 90wt% Au – 10wt% Cu is sometimes used in
low – voltage dc electrical contacts, because pure gold
is mechanically soft and the addition of copper
increases the hardness without sacrificing the
corrosion resistance. Predict the resistivity of the alloy
and compare it with the experimental value of 108
nΩm.
(Given: ρAu = 22.8 nΩm, C = 450 nΩm, Mcu = 63.65
g/mol, MAu = 197 g/mol)
Answer: 108.5 nΩm
Example
• The mean speed of conduction electrons in copper is
about 1.5 x 106 m/s. Its room temperature resistivity
is 17 nΩm and the atomic concentration in the crystal
is 8.5 x 1022 cm-3. If 1at% Au is added to from a solid
solution, what is the resistivity of alloy, the effective
mean free path and the mean free path due to
collisions with Au atoms only?
Answers: ρ = 71 nΩm
Mean free path for pure Cu = 37 nm
Effective mean free path of alloy = 8.8 nm
Mean free path due to collisions with Au
atoms only = 11.5 nm
Reference

• S. O. Kasap - Principles of Electronic Materials

and Devices, Tata McGraw-Hill Publication,
2nd Edition, 2002 (Chapter 2 Electrical and
Thermal Conduction in Solids)

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