LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

The words “stress” and “strain” are used interchangeably in popular culture
in a psychological sense: “I’m feeling stressed” or “I’m under a lot of strain.”
In engineering, these words have specific, technical meanings. If you tie a
steel wire to a hook in the ceiling and hang a weight on the lower end, the
wire will stretch. Divide the change in length by the original length, and you
have the strain in the wire. Divide the weight hanging from the wire by the
wire’s cross sectional area, and you have the tensile stress in the wire. Stress
and strain are ratios.

2.1 Normal Stress

Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area or unit strength.
It is the force on a member divided by area, which carries the force,
commonly express in psi or N/mm2 (MPa).

The symbol for normal stress is σ, the lower case Greek letter sigma.

𝑷
𝝈=
𝑨

where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in 𝑚𝑚2 . The
maximum stress in tension or compression occurs over a section normal to the load.

If the normal force (P) “pulls” on the cross sectional area (A), it is referred to as tensile stress,
whereas if it “pushes” on the A, it is called compressive stress.

Procedure for Analysis:

For axially loaded members, application of this equation requires the following steps.

1. Internal Loading
 Section the member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at the point where the normal
stress is to be determined and use the necessary free-body diagram and force equation of
equilibrium to obtain the internal axial force P at the section.
2. Average Normal Stress
 Determine the member’s cross-sectional area at the section and calculate the average normal
stress.
 It is suggested that be shown acting on a small volume element of the material located at a
point on the section where stress is calculated. To do this, first draw on the face of the element
coincident with the sectioned area A. Here acts in the same direction as the internal force P
since all the normal stresses on the cross section develop this resultant. The normal stress on
the other face of the element acts in the opposite direction.

2.1.1 Example #1
A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN.
Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 𝑀𝑁/ 𝑚2 .

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

Given:
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐷𝐼 = 100 𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑃 = 400 𝑘𝑁 =400,000 N
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = 120 𝑀/𝑁 𝑚2 = 120𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 120 𝑁/ 𝑚𝑚2

Required:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐷𝑂 = ?
Solution:
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎= →𝐴=
𝐴 𝜎

1 𝑃 1 400,000𝑁
𝜋(𝐷𝑂 2 − (𝐷𝐼 2 ) = → 𝜋[𝐷𝑂 2 − (100𝑚𝑚)2 ] =
4 𝐴 4 𝑁
120
𝑚𝑚2

Final Answer:
𝑫𝑶 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎

2.1.2 Example #2
The bar ABCD in Fig. (a) consists of three cylindrical steel segments with different lengths and
cross-sectional areas. Axial loads are applied as shown. Calculate the normal stress in each
segment.

Free body diagram:

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

We begin by using equilibrium analysis to compute the axial force in each segment of the bar
(recall that equilibrium analysis is the first step in stress analysis). The required free body
diagrams (FBDs), shown in Fig. (b), were drawn by isolating the portions of the beam lying to the
left of sections 1 and 2, and to the right of section 3. From these FBDs, we see that the internal
forces in the three segments of the bar are 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 4000 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇), are 𝑃𝐵𝐶 = 5000 𝑙𝑏 (𝐶), and are
𝑃𝐶𝐷 = 7000 𝑙𝑏 (𝐶) where (T) denotes tension and (C) denotes compression.

The axial force diagram in Fig. (c) shows how the how the internal forces vary with the distance x
measured along the bar from end A. Note that the internal forces vary from segment to segment, but
the force in each segment is constant. Because the internal forces are discontinuous at points A, B, C,
and D, our stress calculations will be valid only for sections that are not too close to these points.

The normal stresses are:

𝑃𝐴𝐵 4000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊 (𝑻)
𝐴𝐴𝐵 1.2 𝑖𝑛.2

𝑃𝐵𝐶 5000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = = = 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊 (𝑪)
𝐴𝐵𝐶 1.8 𝑖𝑛.2

𝑃𝐶𝐷 7000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝐶𝐷 = = = 𝟒𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊 (𝑪)
𝐴𝐶𝐷 1.6 𝑖𝑛.2

2.2 Normal Strain

Normal strain is a measure per unit length of the elongation or contraction of a small line segment
in the body. The symbol for strain is ε, the lower case Greek letter epsilon. If the original length of
the wire, 𝐿 = 40 𝑖𝑛. and the change in length ∆𝐿 = 0.017 𝑖𝑛. (also written 𝛿 = 0.017 𝑖𝑛.), then strain
∆𝑳 𝜹 0.017 𝑖𝑛.
𝜺= = = = 0.000425. This is a small number, so sometimes the strain number is
𝑳 𝑳 40 𝑖𝑛.
multiplied by 100 and reported as a percent: .000425=0.0425%. You may also see strain reported
in microstrain: 0.000425×106=425 microstrain. Strain is usually reported as a percent for highly
elastic materials like rubber.

2.2.1 Example #1
A 6 inch long copper wire is stretched to a total length of 6.05 inches. What is the strain?
Given:
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐿𝑂 = 6 𝑖𝑛.
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝐿𝐹 = 6.05 𝑖𝑛.
Required:
Strain, 𝜀 = ?
Solution:
The change in anything is the final dimension minus the initial dimension. Here, the change in
length is the final length minus the initial length:
∆ 𝐿 = 𝐿𝐹 − 𝐿𝑂 = 6.05 𝑖𝑛. −6 𝑖𝑛.

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

Strain is:
∆𝐿 0.05 𝑖𝑛.
𝜀= = = 0.0083
𝐿 6 𝑖𝑛.
Final Answer:
𝜺 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟑

2.3 Stress and Strain Diagram

If we hang a bucket from the wire and gradually fill the bucket with water, the weight will gradually
increase along with the stress and the strain in the wire, until finally the wire breaks. We can plot the
stress vs. strain on an x-y scatter graph, and the result will look like this:

This graph shows the stress-strain behavior of a low-carbon steel. Stress is in units of ksi, or kips per square
inch, where 1𝑘𝑖𝑝 = 1000 𝑙𝑏 (1 kilopound). The points to the left of the red dashed line are so close
together that they smear into a line. This straight part of the stress-strain curve is the elastic portion of
the curve. If you fill the bucket with only enough water to stretch the wire in the elastic zone, then the
wire will return to its original length when you empty the bucket. We can change the range of the strain
axis from 0.0-0.2 to 0.000-0.002, to show the elastic data only:

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

2.3.1 Example #1
What tensile stress is required to produce a strain of 8 𝑥 10−5 in aluminum? Report the answer in
MPa. ( 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎)
Given:
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀 = 8 𝑥 10−5
𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎
Required:
Tensile stress, 𝜎 = ?
Solution:
𝜎
𝐸= → 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
𝜀

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 = (8 × 10−5 ) × 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 5.6 × 10−3 𝐺𝑃𝑎

The final answer shall be expressed in MPa, so:

109 𝑃𝑎 𝑀𝑃𝑎
5.6 × 10−3 𝐺𝑃𝑎 × × 6 = 5.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 10 𝑃𝑎
Final Answer:
𝝈 = 𝟓. 𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂

This cartoon of a stress-strain curve

illustrates the elastic and plastic zones. If
you hang a light weight to the wire hanging
from the ceiling, the wire stretches
elastically; remove the weight and the wire
returns to its original length. Apply a
heavier weight to the wire, and the wire will
stretch beyond the elastic limit and begins
to plastically deform, which means it
stretches permanently. Remove the weight
and the wire will be a little longer (and a
little skinnier) than it was originally. Hang a
sufficiently heavy weight, and the wire will
break.

Tensile strength....................Maximum stress on the stress-strain diagram. Beyond this point, the
material necks and soon breaks.
Yield strength………………...Below the yield strength, a material deforms elastically; above it, the
material deforms plastically (undergoes permanent deformation).
Strain…….……………................Change in length of a material under normal load divided by initial length.
Rupture Strength…………....Stress at final fracture.
Elastic Zone……………………The limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e
developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when
the load is entirely removed.
Proportional limit……………The end point of the straight line from the origin in the stress – strain
diagram.

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

2.4 Axial Deformation

Take an aluminum rod of length L, cross-sectional area A, and pull on

it with a load P. The rod will lengthen an amount δ. We can calculate δ
in three separate equations, or we can use algebra to find a simple
equation to calculate δ directly. Young’s modulus is defined as 𝐸 =
𝜎 𝑃 𝜎 𝑃
. Substitute the definition of stress, 𝜎 = and 𝐸= = .
𝜀 𝐴 𝜀 𝐴𝜀
𝛿 𝑃 𝑃𝐿
Substitute the definition of strain, 𝜀= and 𝐸= = .
𝐿 𝐴𝜀 𝐴𝛿
𝑃𝐿
Rewrite this equation to solve for deflection: 𝛿 = . Now we have
𝐴𝐸
a direct equation for calculating the change in length of the rod.

2.4.1 Sign Convention

Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. A load that pulls is called a tensile load.
If the load pushes, we call it a compressive load. The equations are the same: compressive stress σ=P
/ A, compressive strain ε=δ/ L, and compressive deflection δ=PL/ AE . We need a way to differentiate
between compression and tension, so we use a sign convention. Tensile loads and stresses are
positive; compressive loads and stresses are negative. Increases in length are positive; decreases in
length are negative.

2.4.2 Example #1
A 6 foot long aluminum rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.08 in.2. How much does the rod stretch
under an axial tensile load of 400 lb.? Report the answer in inches.
(𝐸 = 10 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖)
Given:
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑, 𝐿 = 6 𝑓𝑡. = 72 𝑖𝑛.
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 0.08 𝑖𝑛.
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑃 = +400 𝑙𝑏.
𝐸 = 10 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 10 × 106 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛2
Required:
Deflection, 𝛿 = ?

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

Solution:
Young's modulus is in units of psi, but when you write it in an equation, split up the lb. and the
in.2 between numerator and denominator to avoid unit confusion:
𝑃𝐿 (+400 𝑙𝑏. )(72𝑖𝑛. )
𝛿= = = 0.036𝑖𝑛.
𝐴𝐸 (0.08𝑖𝑛.2 . )(10 × 106 𝑙𝑏. )
𝑖𝑛2
Final Answer:
𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟔𝒊𝒏.
The positive sign indicates that the steel cylinder elongated after the applied force.

2.4.3 Example #2
A 70 kN compressive load is applied to a 5 cm diameter, 3 cm tall, steel cylinder. Calculate stress,
strain, and deflection. (𝐸 = 207 × 106 𝐺𝑃𝑎)
Given:
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑃 = − 70𝑘𝑁 = 70,000 𝑁
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛), 𝐷 = 5 𝑐𝑚 = 50 𝑚𝑚
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 3 𝑐𝑚 = 30 𝑚𝑚
𝐸 = 207 × 106 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 207 × 103 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Required:
Stress, 𝜎 =?, strain, 𝜀 =?, Deflection, 𝛿 = ?
Solution:
Solve for compressive stress:
𝑃 − 70,000 𝑁
𝜎= = = −35.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 (50𝑚𝑚)2
𝜋
4
Solve for strain:
𝜎 −35.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜀= = = −0.000172
𝐸 207 × 103 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Solve for deflection:
𝛿
𝜀 = → 𝛿 = 𝜀𝐿 = −0.000172 × 30𝑚𝑚 = −0.0052𝑚𝑚
𝐿
Final Answer:
𝝈 = −𝟑𝟓. 𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝜺 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟐
𝜹 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟐𝒎𝒎
The negative sign indicates that the steel cylinder shortened after the applied force.

2.5 Key Equations

Normal stress in a tensile or compressive member is the load divided by the cross-sectional area:
𝑷
𝝈=
𝑨
Normal strain is the change in length parallel to the load divided by initial length:
∆𝑳 𝜹
𝜺= =
𝑳 𝑳
Young's modulus is the ratio of stress over strain within the elastic zone of the stress-strain diagram:
𝝈
𝑬=
𝜺

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

The change in length of a tensile or compressive member is derived from the three previous
equations:
𝑷𝑳
𝜹=
𝑨𝑬
2.6 Exercises

1. The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in the figure below. If
AB has a diameter of 10 mm and BC has a diameter of 8 mm, determine the average
normal stress in each rod.

2. The cross-sectional area of bar ABCD is 600 𝑚𝑚2 . Determine the maximum normal stress in
the bar.

3. The column consists of a wooden post and a concrete footing, separated by a steel bearing
plate. Find the maximum safe value of the axial load P if the working stresses are 1000 psi for
wood and 450 psi for concrete.

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

4. The homogeneous bar AB weighing 1800 lb is supported at either end by a steel cable.
Calculate the smallest safe area of each cable if the working stress is 18 000 psi for steel.

5. The following data were recorded during a tensile test of a 14.0-mm-diameter mild steel rod.
The gage length was 50.0 mm.

Load, P (N) Elongation, 𝜹 (mm) Stress, 𝜎 (MPa) Strain, 𝜀

6310 0.010
12600 0.020
18800 0.030
25100 0.040
31000 0.050
37900 0.060
40100 0.163
41600 0.433

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LESSSON 2: NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

46200 1.25
52400 2.50
58500 4.50
65400 7.50
69000 12.50
67800 15.50
65000 20.00
61500 Fracture

 Fill in the missing values and plot the

stress-strain diagram.

 Determine the following mechanical

properties:
(a) proportional limit;

(b) modulus of elasticity;

(c) ultimate stress; and

(d) nominal rupture stress.

6. The timber member has a cross-sectional area of 1750 𝑚𝑚2 and its modulus of elasticity is
12 GPa. Compute the change in the total length of the member after the loads shown are
applied.

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