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CHAPTER 2: Allowable Stress,

Deformation, Normal and Shear Strain

Intended Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Determine the formula to be used when computing the simple stresses
2. Specify the deformation of body using the concepts of normal and shear strain

Allowable Stress
To properly design a structural member or mechanical element it is necessary to restrict the
stress in the material to a level that will be safe. To ensure this safety, it is therefore necessary to
choose an allowable stress that restricts the applied load to one that is less than the load the member
can fully support.
One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a number called the
factor of safety.The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio of the failure load to the allowable load Here
is found from experimental testing of the material, and the factor of safety is selected based on
experience so that the uncertainties are accounted for when the member is used under similar
conditions of loading and geometry. Stated mathematically,
𝑭𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒍
𝑭. 𝑺. =
𝑭𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘
If the load applied to the member is linearly related to the stress developed within the member,
as in the case of using σ=P/A and τave=V/A then we can also express the factor of safety as a ratio
of the failure stress, σfail (or τfail ) to the allowable stress σallow (or τallow ); that is,

In any of these equations, the factor of safety must be greater than 1 in order to avoid the
potential for failure.

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Sample Problem 1:

The suspender rod is supported at its end by a fixed-connected circular disk as shown in
figure below. If the rod passes through a 40-mm-diameter hole, determine the minimum required
diameter of the rod and the minimum thickness of the disk needed to support the 20-kN load. The
allowable normal stress for the rod is σallow= 60 MPa and the allowable shear stress for the disk is
τallow = 35 MPa.

Solution:

For the diameter of the rod:

By inspection, the axial force in the rod is 20 kN. Thus the required cross-sectional area of the rod
is

For the thickness of the disk:

As shown on the free-body diagram, the material at the sectioned area of the disk must resist
shear stress to prevent movement of the disk through the hole. If this shear stress is assumed to
be uniformly distributed over the sectioned area, then, since V= 20 kN, we have

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Sample Problem 2:

The rigid bar AB shown in Figure below is

supported by a steel rod AC having a diameter of 20 mm
and an aluminum block having a crosssectional area of
1800 mm2. The 18-mm-diameter pins at A and C are
subjected to single shear. If the failure stress for the steel
and aluminum is (𝜎𝑠𝑡 )𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 680𝑀𝑃𝑎 and (𝜎𝑎𝑙 )𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 =
70 𝑀𝑃𝑎 respectively, and the failure shear stress for each
pin is 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 900 𝑀𝑃𝑎 determine the largest load P that
can be applied to the bar. Apply a factor of safety of F.S=2.

Solution:

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Deformation

Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend

to change the body‟s shape and size. These
changes are referred to as deformation, and they
may be either highly visible or practically
unnoticeable.
Deformation of a body can also occur
when the temperature of the body is changed. A
typical example is the thermal expansion or
contraction of a roof caused by the weather .In a
general sense, the deformation of a body will not
be uniform throughout its volume, and so the
change in geometry of any line segment within the
body may vary substantially along its length.

Strain

Normal Strain

If we define the normal strain as the change in length of a line per unit length, then we will not
have to specify the actual length of any particular line segment.

- The elongation/ contraction of a line segment per unit of length is referred to as normal
strain.
If we define the average normal strain using the symbol ϵavg (epsilon), then

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As point B is chosen closer and closer to point A, the length of the line will become shorter
and shorter, such that Δs --> 0. Also, this causes B‟ to approach A‟ such that Δs‟--> 0.
Consequently, in the limit the normal strain at point A and in the direction of n is

If the normal strain is known, then the approximate final length is

Δs'≈(1+ε)Δs
Hence, when ϵ (or ϵavg ) is positive the initial line will elongate, whereas if is negative
the line contracts. Note that normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, since it is a ratio of two
lengths.

Shear Strain
- Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or contract, but they also cause them
to change direction. If we select two line segments that are originally perpendicular to one another,
then the change in angle that occurs between these two line segments is referred to as shear strain.
- This angle is denoted by γ (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad), which are
dimensionless.

Hence the shear strain at point A associated with the n and t axes becomes

Notice that if ϴ is smaller than π/2 the shear strain is positive, whereas if ϴ is
larger than π/2 the shear strain is negative.

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Sample Problem 1:

The slender rod shown is subjected to an increase of

temperature along its axis, which creates a normal strain in the rod of
ϵz = 40( 10-3)z1/2, where z is measured in meters. Determine
(a) the displacement of the end B of the rod due to the temperature
increase, and (b) the average normal strain in the rod.

Solution:
a. Since the normal strain is reported at each point along the
rod, a differential segment dz, located at position z, the figure
above has a deformed length that can be determined from the
equation of normal strain; that is,

The sum of these segments along the axis yields the deformed length of the rod,

The displacement of the end of the rod is therefore

b. The average normal strain in the rod is determined from equation of normal strain,
which assumes that the rod or “line segment” has an original length of 200 mm and a
change in length of 2.39 mm. Hence,

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Sample Problem 2:
When force P is applied to the rigid lever arm ABC in Fig. 2–5a, the arm rotates counter
clockwise about pin A through an angle of 0.05°. Determine the normal strain developed in wire
BD.

Solution:

The orientation of the lever arm after it rotates about point A is shown in the figure above..
From the geometry of this figure,

Then,

For triangle ABD the Pythagorean theorem gives

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Using this result and applying the law of cosines to triangle ABD,

Therefore for the value of normal strain,

Other option,

Since the strain is small, this same result can be obtained by approximating the elongation of wire
BD as shown in the figure. Here,

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Sample Problem 3:

Due to a loading, the plate is deformed into the dashed shape shown in Figure. Determine
(a) the average normal strain along the side AB, and (b) the average shear strain in the plate at A
relative to the x and y axes.

Solution:

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Sample Problem 4:
The plate shown in figure below is fixed connected along AB and held in the horizontal
guides at its top and bottom, AD and BC. If its right side CD is given a uniform horizontal
displacement of 2 mm, determine (a) the average normal strain along the diagonal AC, and (b) the
shear strain at E relative to the x, y axes.

Solution:

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Exercise Problems

Directions: Solve the following problems.

1. When force P is applied to the rigid arm ABC, point B displaces vertically downward
through a distance of 0.2 mm. Determine the normal strain developed in wire CD.

Answer: 0.001 mm/mm

2. If the applied force P causes the rigid arm ABC to rotate clockwise about pin A through an
angle of 0.02°, determine the normal strain developed in wires BD and CE.

Answer: BD=0.524(10-3) mm/mm

CE=0.698(10-3) mm/mm

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3. The rectangular plate is deformed into the shape of a rhombus shown by the dashed line.
Determine the average shear strain at corner A with respect to the x and y axes.

Answer: -0.00833 rad

4. The triangular plate is deformed into the shape shown by the dashed line. Determine the
normal strain developed along edge BC and the average shear strain at corner A with respect to the
x and y axes.

Answer: 0.00446 mm/mm

5. The square plate is deformed into the shape shown by the dashed line. Determine the
average normal strain along diagonal AC and the shear strain of point E with respect to the x and
y axes.

Answer: 0.00347 mm/mm, -0.0332 rad

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6. The rigid beam is supported by a pin at A and wires BD and CE. If the distributed load
causes the end C to be displaced 10 mm downward, determine the normal strain developed in wires
CE and BD

Answer: 0.00267 mm/mm, 0.005 mm/mm

References:
1. HIBBELER, R. C., Mechanics of Materials, 8th Ed. (USA: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2011)
2. PYTEL, A. and SINGER, F.L, Strength of Materials 4 th Ed., (New York: Harper Collins Publisher
Inc.)

3. Raihan Kabir, 2016. Types of Load in a Beam. Viewed: January 2021, Available at:
http://mechengineeringbd.blogspot.com/2016/06/types-of-load-in-beam.html

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