STRAIN GAUGES

An investigation into the measurement of strain by electrical

means

JONATHAN USBORNE
06-MAR-2012
SUMMARY
An understanding and knowledge of material behavior is essential in engineering
design. The ability to accurately measure mechanical properties allows for the
suitability of a material for a specific application to be concluded. Various
techniques can be employed to measure strain on a specimen. This report outlines
the use of a strain gauge to determine deformation on a cantilevered steel beam,
the objective to identify and quantitatively examine improvements to the technique.
Load is applied to the free end of the beam causing deformation along the
specimen and the change in resistance within a strain gauge at the pinned node is
translated into a voltage differential. The circuitry is manipulated to improve the
accuracy of the readings. The initial strain resolution of a simple circuit is
calculated at 215. Measuring the voltage difference through a Wheatsone
bridge, and amplifying the output, the resolution is improved to 6.1.
ME10285: Strain Gauge
Jonathan Usborne

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Introduction...................................................................................................
Theory ...........................................................................................................
Method ..........................................................................................................
Results ..........................................................................................................
Discussion ...................................................................................................
Conclusion..................................................................................................
Bibliography................................................................................................

3
3
5
8
10
11
11

Appendix A: Raw Data .................................................................................. 12

Appendix B: TI INA126 Data Sheet ............................................................... 13

ME10285: Strain Gauge

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Jonathan Usborne

1. INTRODUCTION
Strain is the measure of deformation of a body in terms of relative displacement
of particles within it. Strain can be calculated in numerous ways,
most
commonly through the use of a strain gauge. An electrical system, a stra
in
gauge circuit allows for more convenient and efficient data collection a
nd

[1]

manipulation. First used by Simmons and Ruge in 1938 , a strain gauge

is
simply a foil component mounted on a flexible, insulated base which, wh
en
attached to specimen, translates mechanical strain into an electrical signal.
Using the application of a cantilevered steel beam, this report outlines t
he
process for effectively collecting strain data electronically. Suggested
improvements in the electrical circuitry are trialed and quantitatively evaluated.
2. THEORY
The electrical resistance
cal
properties such that

of

conductor is related

to

its geometri
(1)

[2]

where is the resistivity . Hence the proportional and inversely prop

ortional
=
relationships between resistance and the length (), and resistance a
nd the
area () respectively, implies that stretching a conductor will incr
ease its
resistance. There is additionally a small change to the materials structure
under
strain which similarly affects the resistivity of the specimen.
To measure strain, a gauge is fitted to the sample such that when the
sample
itself deforms, so does the gauge. As this deformation causes the foil
element
of the gauge to stretch or compress, the electrical resistance of the foil th
erefore
alters as well. It is this change in resistance that provides a
measurable
electrical variable directly related to the mechanical change.
The of the gauge is almost proportional to the applied strain hence

where is the gauge factor and the relative strain =

factor
is assumed to be 2 for this report.
3
=

. The gauge

T
h
e
s
t
r

ain on the beam is determined by the distanced along its length. Th

e
strain gauges in this experiment are mounted close to the pinned
end (as
illustrated in fig 3) and as such the strain is defined by the relationship

Strain

2!

(2)

(3)
ME10285: Strain Gauge
Usborne

Jonathan

[3]

given the deflection , beam thickness , and length . Plotting equati

on [3]
produces a calibration graph as in Fig 1.
Figure 1: Calibration Graph (equation 3)
0.0045
0.004
0.0035
0.003
0.0025
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
0

0.005
0.04

0.01

0.015

0.02

Displacement

0.025

0.03

0.035

(mm)

Combining equations 2 and 3 gives

! = !" !"2!
This implies a relatively small change in resistance given a change i
n strain.
This difference can be calculated through a potential divider by measur
ing the
output voltage over the gauge whilst in series with a fixed resistance. Giv
en the
small amplitude of the change however, a configuration known as a Whea
tstone
bridge can further be employed to measure the change in voltage itse
lf rather
than the total voltage over the gauge alone.
A Wheatstone bridge is effectively two potential dividing circuits connec
ted in
parallel. Assuming the bridge is balanced (the voltage out at the center
of both
rails is equal) then the ratio of resistances between the two sets of resis
tors is
[2]
equal, and the out of balance voltage is given by

4 2

(4)

Using four nominally identical strain gauges as resistors (two

per
potential
divider) maximizes the bridge sensitivity, and also provides compensat
ion for
temperature errors by essentially comparing the active gauge on the
beam to
inactive, unstrained, gauges. Whilst this approach increases the sensit
ivity of
the measurement, the change in voltage is still small and can
finally be
(5)
processed through an amplifier.

ME10285: Strain Gauge

Usborne

Jonathan

A differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input voltage

s in
this case the voltages out between the two gauges of each set. T
he output
voltage of the INA126 in-amp used in this experiment is defined in its
datasheet
(Appendix B) as
!

(6)

where the gain () is adjustable and calculated in terms of the resist

ance !
placed between pins 1 and 8 of the chip such that
=5+

(7)

80
!

3. METHOD
The apparatus consists of a cantilevered steel ruler of thickness () 0.8m
m with
a pair of 120 strain gauges adhered to the upper and lower surfac
es at the
fixed end of the beam. Strain is applied via a threaded bolt housed in
a frame
around the free end, 250mm from the pinned node.
Figure 2: Apparatus diagram

Upper

strain

gauge

Lower

strain

gauge

250mm

Load

Inactive

gauges

Figures 3(a), 3(b): Top and end view of apparatus

5
ME10285: Strain Gauge
Usborne

Jonathan
0

1500

=
!"
Initially the vertical offset was calibrated with respect to angular displacem
!" 1
ent of
the bolt head in order to provide a more accurate estimation of .
Simple Circuit :

W
h
e

The 1.5k resister in Fig 4 is connected in series with the strain

gauge to
produce a potential dividing circuit. This allows the resistance of the gauge
to be
calculated using a measurement of voltage over it given

1.5k

strain
gauge

15V

Using a breadboard the upper strain gauge was configured according to

Fig 4.
The voltages over each component were recorded, and a strain r
esolution
determined by applying strain until a measurable difference in volta
ge was
observed.

at
st
o
n

B
ri
d
g

e:

Figure 4: Simple Circuit diagram

!

!"

active
gauge

inactive
gauge

inactive
gauge

inactive
gauge

15V

To improve results the upper gauge and three inactive gauges were confi
gured
using a Wheatstone bridge (discussed in section 2) as per figur
e 5. The
resolution of this configuration was similarly determined. Strain was applie
d and
the voltage imbalance across the bridge was recorded at various st
ages of
beam displacement.

(8)

6
ME10285: Strain Gauge

Jonathan Usborne

INA126

inactive
gauge

active
gauge

inactive
gauge

680
inactive
gauge

15V

Figure 5: Wheatstone Bridge circuit diagram

!"#

Differential Amplifier :
While the Wheatstone bridge provides more accurate readings, the output is
low and can be amplified through a differential amplifier. The Wheatstone bridge
circuit was therefore connected to the differential amp as per figure 6. As before
the resolution of the amp output was determined, and voltage recorded at
various levels of strain. A datasheet for the differential amplifier (INA126) is
attached in Appendix B.
Figure 6: Differential amplifier circuit diagram

680

82

!"#

7
ME10285: Strain Gauge

Jonathan Usborne

4. RESULTS
The initial displacement calibration equated a 360 ration of the bolt head to a
1.6mm vertical displacement on the beam.
The input voltage (!) was more accurately determined to be 15.38V
Simple Circuit :
The voltage measured over the active gauge (!") in an unloaded state was
1.15V. Given the potential dividing nature of the circuit this implied an unloaded
gauge resistance of 121.2 calculated using eqn [8].

The estimated strain resolution of this circuit, determined from the smallest
measurable displacement of 11.2mm, was 215.
Wheatstone Bridge:
The out of balance voltages and strains were recorded and derived respectively
at varying levels of displacement after the circuit was reconfigured into the
Wheatstone bridge arrangement. This data is reproduced in Appendix A.
The estimated strain resolution using the Wheatstone bridge, determined from
the smallest measurable displacement of 1.8mm, was 34.6.
The derived strain was plotted as a function of the recorded voltage in Figure 7
alongside the function of theoretical voltage given by eqn [5] where the voltage
over the gauge is
= 2.25
120 + 680
Figure 7: Wheatstone bridge out of balance voltage against strain

= 15

120

8
ME10285: Strain Gauge

Jonathan Usborne

Differential Amplifier :
The gain of the differential amplifier (!"# !"), as defined by eqn [7], was
calculated to give 980.6dB using ! = 82 as set out in section 3.
Again, voltage and strain were recorded at varying levels of displacement, and
values are reproduced in Appendix A.

The estimated strain resolution using the Wheatstone bridge and the differential
amplifier, determined from the smallest measurable displacement of 0.32mm,
was 6.1.
The derived strain was plotted as a function of the recorded voltage in Figure 8.
Figure 8: In-amp output voltage against strain

9
ME10285: Strain Gauge

Jonathan Usborne

5. DISCUSSION
The initial simple circuit uses a 1.5k resistor. This allows for the creation of a

potential divider when placed in series with the gauge. In the Wheatstone bridge
configuration however this is replaced with a 680 resistor. At approximately
half the resistance, this reduces the current over the two rails of the bridge to a
similar value of that over the gauge in the simple circuit.
Whilst there was discrepancy between the gradients of strain as a function of
the out-of-balance voltage from the Wheatstone bridge compared to the
theoretical voltage, both displayed a linear relationship. This conformed to the
theory outlined initially and systematic error accounts for the slight divergence
of experimental data from the theoretical values.
During the experiment however the Wheatstone bridge was not balanced before
a load was applied, adding an unnecessary degree of complexity to the data
analysis. If the procedure was to be repeated, balancing the bridge through the
lower strain gauge or a variable resistor would be an improvement to the
method discussed above.
The strain resolution of the Wheatstone bridge circuit was better than the simple
circuit, and the differential amplifier improved it further. This was expected as
the strain resolution was linked to the resolution of the voltage read by the
digital voltmeter, which itself was constant. As such, the increase in output
voltage from each circuit subsequently increased the resolution of the
calculated strain.
In addition to the voltage resolution, another factor constraining the strain
resolution was the ratio of resistances in the circuit. Using the in-amp for
example, the resolution could have been altered by controlling the gain of the
amp via the resistance !.
Whilst temperature error was compensated for using inactive gauges in the
Wheatstone bridge, further errors will have accumulated due to lead resistance
within the cables linking the gauges together. To accommodate this the circuit
could further be improved by using a three lead connection to the gauges where
the voltage difference is taken from the end terminal of a third lead of equal
length, acting to balance the bridge from the resistance in the wiring from the
other two leads.

ME10285: Strain Gauge

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Jonathan Usborne

6. CONCLUSION
The objective of this experiment was to evaluate methods of improving the
technique for collecting strain data via electrical means. By making two
relatively simple alterations to the circuitry this was very much achieved.
Quantitatively speaking the resolution was improved by over 3500% suggesting
overall success. The most important conclusion is the realisation that this was
achieved through electrical manipulation and conversion alone, with no changes
made to the physical or mechanical components of the experiment or the
sensor itself.
Whilst results generally conformed to hypothesised linear realationships, some
discrepancy was observed between experimental and theoretical data sets.
Retrospectively however, further improvements were identified which would
compensate for some of the errors that contributed to that discrepancy.
The predominant teaching point conveyed during this laboratory exercise was
the need to consider all stages of a measurement system. Here manipulation of
the variable conversion and signal processing components of the system had a
monumental impact on the accuracy of measurement, thus identifying the
importance of the electrical design for the entire process.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Wikipedia, Strain Gauge [online]. St Petersburg, Florida: Wikipedia
Foundation. Available from http://bit.ly/6EWwmB
[2] Ngwompo, R. Sensor & Electronics (Lecture Notes) Instrumentation,
Electronics & Electrical Drives. 2011. University of Bath.
[3] Ngwompo, R. Strain Gauges (ME10285 lab sheet). University of Bath.
[4] Davison, M. Strain Gauges and the Wheatstone bridge. University of
Paisley. 1997. Available from http://bit.ly/ADmMy2

11

Displacement
(mm)
0
3.2
6.4
9.6
12.8
16
19.2
22.4
25.6
28.8
32
35.2
38.4
ME10285: Strain Gauge

APPENDIX A: RAW DATA

Strain
()
0
61.4
122.9
184.3
245.8
307.2
368.6
430.1
491.5
553.0
614.4
675.8
737.3

Wheatstone
In-Amp
Bridge
Voltage
(mV)
2.2
17.4
2.3
17.5
2.5
17.68
2.7
17.85
2.9
18.01
3
18.18
3.2
18.35
3.4
18.52
3.5
18.69
3.7
18.85
3.9
19.02
4.1
19.19
4.2
19.36
Jonathan Usborne

ME10285: Strain Gauge

APPENDIX B: INA126 DATASHEET

12
Jonathan Usborne

13