UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

MEE 212
Strength of Materials 1(3credits)
Lecturer: Mr. Emmanuel A. Akurugu

Department of Mechanical and industrial Engineering, UDS, Nyankpala Campus

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 Unit 2

Stress and Strains

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 Axial loading
Let consider a bar which is subjected to axial load(Centroidal load) P at
the ends, the normal stress (σ) is given by the force per unit area.
(1) , P is the Force and A is the cross- sectional
area.
The units of stress are ,Pascal and etc. When the bar is stretched by the
force P ,the stresses are tensile and compressive when the bar is
compressed. Tensile stresses are positive whiles Compressive stresses
are negative.

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 Ex 2.1
The cross-sectional Area of bar ABCD is .Determine the maximum
normal stress in the bar.

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 Example 2.2
Determine the internal forces between the lettered points on the bar

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 Ex 2.3
Axial loads are applied to the compound rod that is composed of an
aluminum segment rigidly connected between steel and bronze
segments. What is the stress in each material given that P =10 kN?

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 Ex 2.4
The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in
Fig. If AB has a diameter of 10 mm and BC has a diameter of
8 mm, determine the average normal stress in each rod.

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 Design considerations
For design purposes ,the computed stress should be compared to the
allowable or working stress. To avoid failure of a member, the
computed stress should be less than the allowable stress

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 Ex 2.5
Figure (a) shows a two-member truss supporting a block of weight W.
The cross-sectional areas of the members are 800 for AB and
400 for AC. Determine the maximum safe value of W if the working
stresses are 110 MPa for AB and 120 MPa for AC.

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 Ex 2.6
Find the stresses in members BC, BD, and CF for the truss shown.
Indicate tension or compression. The cross-sectional area of each
member is 1400 :

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 Ex 2.7
Two hydraulic cylinders are used to control the position of the robotic
arm ABC. Knowing that the control rods attached at A and D each have
a 20-mm diameter and happen to be parallel in the position shown,
determine the average normal stress in member AE

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 Tensile Test
In this test, the specimen in the figure is placed in the grips of a tensile
testing machine . Two gage marks are scribed on the specimen to
determine the gage length. The axial load is gradually increased in
increment until the specimen ruptures. During the test, continuous
readings are taken of the applied load and the elongation of the gage length.
The stress and strain are determine from this data. The stress is obtained
from , where P is the axial load and A is the original cross-sectional area of
the specimen. The strain is computed from , where is elongation between
the gage marks and L is the original gage length

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 Tensile test
The stress obtained from the original area is called the nominal stress
and strain obtained from the original length is called nominal strain.

As the axial load is increase , the elongation also increases and the
cross sectional area becomes smaller. The stress and strain obtained at
this point is called the True Stress and true strain respectively. The
graph of axial stress against axial strain is called the stress-strain
diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs for various materials.

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Universal test machine

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A stress-strain graph for structural steel

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 Mechanical properties from stress-strain diagram
Proportional limits and hooke’s law: from the diagram the stress -
strain graph is a straight line from the origin O to a point called
proportional limit. The plot indicates hooke’s law. The stress is directly
proportional to Strain.ie , E is a material property called the
modulus of Elasticity or young modulus. The unit of E is Pa

Elastic Limit: A material is said to be elastic,if after being loaded returns

to its original shape when the load is removed.The elastic limit is a
stress beyond which a material is not elastic( does not return to original
shape when a load is removed)

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Mechanical properties from stress-strain diagram cont’d

Yield point: The point on the stress-strain diagram which is almost a

horizontal is the yield point. The corresponding stress is called the yield
stress or yield strength. Beyond the yield point, there is an appreciable
elongation of material without a corresponding increase in load.
Ultimate Stress or Strength: The ultimate stress is the highest stress on
the stress-strain diagram
Rupture stress: That is the stress at which failure occurs. For structural
steel, the nominal rupture strength is considerably lower than the
ultimate strength because the nominal rupture strength is computed by
dividing the load at rupture by the original cross sectional

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Mechanical properties from stress-strain diagram cont’d

Rupture stress cont’d:As failure approaches, the material stretches very rapidly,
causing the cross section to narrow, as shown in Figure Because the area where
rupture occurs is smaller than the original area, the true rupture strength is larger
than the ultimate strength. However, the ultimate strength is commonly used as
the maximum stress that the material can carry.

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 Working stress and factor of safety
The working stress , also called the allowable stress, is the maximum safe axial
stress used in design. In most designs, the working stress should be limited to
values not exceeding the proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the
elastic range (the straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram). However,
because the proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, it is
customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress or the
ultimate stress , divided by a suitable number N, called the factor of safety.
Thus
= , = /N . The yield point is selected as the basis for determining
working stress in structural steel because it is the stress at which a
prohibitively large permanent set may occur.
For other materials, the working stress is usually based on the ultimate
strength.
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 Axial deformation
Figure (a) and (b) represents the state of the bar before and after
loading respectively
Let consider the elongation of bar,, the normal strain or axial strain is
defined as the elongation per unit length.
(2), whereis the normal strain , is the elongation or
deformation and l is the length of the bar.

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 Axial deformation-cont
From hooke law, =E
where is the normal stress,E is the modulus of elasticity and is the
normal strain.
Putting equations 1,2 and 3 together we obtain
=E , making the subject, we obtain the deformation as

= for bars or structural members of uniform cross section the

load must be axial, and the stress must not exceed the proportional
limit .

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 Ex 2.8
The uniform A-36 steel bar in Fig. has a diameter of 50 mm and is
subjected to the loading shown.
Determine the internal forces within the bar.
Determine the deflection at each section.
Determine the deflection at D

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 Ex 2.9
Segments AB and CD of the assembly are solid circular rods, and
segment BC is a tube. If the assembly is made of 6061-T6 aluminum,
determine the displacement of end D with respect to end A.

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 Ex 2.10
The 4-mm-diameter cable BC is made of a steel with E = 200 GPa.
Knowing that the maximum stress in the cable must not exceed 190 MPa
and that the elongation of the cable must not exceed 6 mm, find the
maximum load P that can be applied as shown.

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 Statically indeterminate problems
In the problems considered in the previous section, we could always use

free-body diagrams and equilibrium equations to determine the internal

forces produced in the various portions of a member under given loading

conditions. There are many problems, however, where the internal forces

cannot be determined from statics alone but considering the deformations

obtained by considering the geometry of the problem. Problems of such
type is known as statically indeterminate

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Let consider a rod of length L, cross-sectional area A1, and
modulus of elasticity E1, been placed inside a tube of the same
length L, but of cross sectional area A2 and modulus of elasticity
E2 . What is the deformation of the rod and tube when a force P
is exerted on a rigid end plate as shown?

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Analysis of problem

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 Example 2.11
For the composite block shown , determine (a) the value of h if
the portion of the load carried by the aluminum plates is half
the portion of the load carried by the brass core, (b) the total
load if the stress in the brass is
80 MPa.
Ans: h = 15.00 mm
P = 288 kN

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 Shear Stress
Forces acting perpendicular to the plane area which they act results in
a normal stress. Shear stress is as a result of forces acting tangential or
parallel to the area which they act. Shear stress arises when applied
load causes one section of the body to slide past its adjacent section.
Let consider the examples below

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Shear Stress
Fig (a) shows two plate which are joined by rivet. There is a shearing
action arising as indicated in the FBD.

Only one part of the cross-section of the rivet experience the shearing
action hence it is a single shear

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 Shear stress
Figure (b) shows the bolt of a clevis.there is a shearing action arising as
indicated in the FBD.

Two cross-sectional area of the bolts are experiencing a shearing

action hence the bolt is in a state of double shear.

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 Shear stress
Figure (c) shows a puncher which is use to cut circular slug out of the metal sheet .a shearing
action will result as indicated in FBD

The distribution of shear stress is complex and not easily determined .so we
assumed that the shear stress is uniformly distributed over the shear area. The
shear stress is then interpreted as average shear stress. Average shear stress is
shear force divided by the shear area.
, where is the average shear stress,V is the shear force and A is the shear
Area.
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 Ex 2.12
What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that
is 25 mm thick? The shear strength is 350 MPa.
Solution
, V= A but A=where D is the diameter of the hole and t is the
thickness of the hole. Hence V=
V= 350 20 25 =549778.7144 N=549.78 kN

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 Ex 2.13
Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis in figure
shown if P= 400 kN. the working shear stress for the bolt is 300 MPa.
[ans= 29.13mm]

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 Stresses on an incline plane
Let consider a bar subjected to axial force, a normal stress act on the
cross-sectional area as in the figure. Let consider the stresses acting on
the plane a-a. the plane is inclined at an angle to the cross-section

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 Thermal stresses and strains
Most engineering materials expand when heated and contract when
cooled.the strain caused by a change of one degree in temperature is
known as the coefficient of thermal expansion(
The strain caused by a temperature change is define as
= . thermal deformation i.e the change in any
dimension L of a body is given by, == L
If thermal deformation is permitted to occur freely (by using expansion
joints or roller supports, for example), no internal forces will be induced
in the body—there will be strain, but no stress.

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 Thermal stresses and strains cont’d
In cases where the deformation of a body is restricted, either totally or
partially, internal forces will develop that oppose the thermal expansion
or contraction. These internal forces induces stresses known as thermal
stresses. Thermal stress is defined as
=E , where is the thermal stress,E is the modulus of
elasticity , is the coefficient of thermal expansion and is the
temperature difference

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 Ex 2.12
Steel railroad rails 10 m long are laid with end-to-end clearance of 3
mm at a temperature of 15. At what temperature will the rails just
come in contact? Use = / and E= 200 GPa

Solution
= L
= ==25.64

==-15=25.64, =25.64+15=40.64

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 Example 2.13
A rod consists of two parts that are made of steel and copper as shown in figure
below. The elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion for steel are 200
GPa and 11.7 × 10-6 per °C respectively and for copper 70 GPa and 21.6 × 10-6 per
°C respectively. If the temperature of the rod is raised by 50°C, determine the forces
and stresses acting on the rod[ans:116.6 kN, 26.39 Mpa, 59.38 MPa]

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 Strain
Normal Strain
If an axial load P is applied to the bar in Fig, it will change the bar’s
length L0 to a length L, the average normal strain is given by

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 Strain cont’d
The normal strain at a point in a body of arbitary shape is defined in a
similar manner. For example, consider the very small line segment ∆s
located at the point, Fig. . After deformation it becomes ∆s′, and the
change in its length is therefore ∆s′ - ∆s. normal strain at the point is
therefore

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 Strain
Shear Strain: Deformations does not only cause line segments to
elongate or contract, but they also cause them to change direction. If
we select two line segments that are originally perpendicular to one
another, then the change in angle that occurs between them is referred
to as shear strain. This angle is denoted by (gamma) and is always
measured in radians (rad), which are dimensionless

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 strain
The shear strain at the point becomes

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 Example 2.14
Determine the average normal strains in the two wires in Fig.if the ring at A moves to A′[ans:

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 Example 2.15
The plate shown in Fig is fixed connected along AB and held in the horizontal guides
at its top and bottom, AD and BC. If its right side CD is given a uniform horizontal
displacement of 2 mm, determine
(a) the average normal strain along the diagonal AC, and (b) the shear strain at E
relative to the x, y axes.
[ans; 0.00669, -0.0132 rad]

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 Example 2.16

The rectangular plate is deformed into the shape of a parallelogram

shown by the dashed line. Determine the average shear strain at corner
A with respect to the x and y axes. [ans:-0.00833 rad

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 Example 2.17
The triangular plate is deformed into the shape shown by the dashed
line. Determine the normal strain developed along edge BC and the
average shear strain at corner A with respect to the x and y axes .
[ans:0.00446, -0.00741 rad

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 Shear Strain cont’d
Hooke law for shear is defined mathematically as

Where is the shear stress, G is the modulus of rigidity and is the shear
strain. The units of G is the same as that of E.

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 Poisson’s Ratio
During axial loading of homogenous and isotropic materials, stress and
strain result. In the lateral direction, the stresses are zero. Let consider
a bar subjected to a tensile load in the x-direction, there will be stress
in the x-direction but zero stresses in the y and z directions. This will
cause a positive strain in the x-direction but contraction in the lateral
directions. This results in negative strains. The poisson is used to
account for this effect.

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 Poisson’s ratio
The Poison’s ratio ,, is defined as:
=-=-=- (1)
The poisson ratio is a dimensionless quantity that varies from 0.25 to
0.33.for a uniaxial loading
……(2) combing equation (2) and (1) gives
, for multi-axial loading ,, and
G is related to E by the formula ,

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 Ex 2.18
A 2-m length of an aluminum pipe of 240-mm outer diameter and 10-
mm wall thickness is used as a short column to carry a 640-kN centric
axial load. Knowing that E =73 GPa and poisson ratio is 0.33,
determine (a) the change in length of the pipe, (b) the change in its
outer diameter, (c) the change in its wall thickness.

Ans : = 2.43mm
d = 0.0961 mm
t = 0.00400 mm

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 Example 2.19
A solid circular rod that is 600 mm long and 20 mm in diameter is
subjected to an axial force of P = 50 kN. The elongation of the rod =
1.40 mm, and its diameter becomes d′ = 19.9837 mm. Determine the
modulus of elasticity and the modulus of rigidity of the material.
Assume that the material does not yield.

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 Example 2.20
The acrylic plastic rod is 200 mm long and 15 mm in diameter. If an
axial load of 300 N is applied to it, determine the change in its length
and the change in its diameter. E = 2.70 GPa, = 0.4. [ans:

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