Mechanics of Materials-1

Description of Module:1
Module 1: Concepts of Stress and Strain
Stress, strain, type of stresses, stress-strain curve, elastic limit, Hooke’s law, factor of safety, bars of varying cross section, bars of composite
sections, elongation due to self-weight, bars of uniform strength, elastic constants and their relationship, generalized Hooke’s Law, volumetric
strain, thermal stress, thermal strain. Thin cylinders and spherical shells: stresses, strains and volumetric changes.
Outline:
Lecture:01—Background and introduction of Mechanics of Material course, Mechanical engineering and importance of the course.
Lecture:02--- Concept of stress, Stress & Strain, Types of stresses.
Lecture:03--- Tensile test (stress-strain curve), Hooke’s law, yield point phenomena, 0.2% offset method.
Lecture:04--- Mechanical properties of materials. (strength, elasticity, plasticity, resilience, stiffness, hardness, toughness)
Lecture:05--- Assumptions in mechanics of materials.
Lecture:06--- Factor of safety, Axial deformation, Numerical problems.
Lecture:07---Principle of superpositions, Numerical problems.
Lecture:08---Elongation of bar due to self-weight, bars with continuous varying cross section, Numerical problems.
Lecture:09--- stress and strain in x, y and z direction, volumetric strain, Numerical problems.
Lecture:10--- Elastic constants and relations between them.
Lecture:11--- Thermal stress and strain, Numerical problems.
Lecture:12--- Thin cylinders and spherical shells.
Lecture:13--- Hoop stress, longitudinal stress, volumetric strain in thin cylinders, Numerical problems.
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Background and introduction
• Mechanics- Deals with forces ( both external and internal) and their effects.
Mechanics
Rigid body Deformable body
Solid Fluid
Statics Dynamics
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Rigid body
• A body is said to be rigid body if the distance between any two points in the
body or on the body, is invariant.
Take away Points: In engineering mechanics, the bodies are treated as rigid and
only external forces are considered.
In mechanics of material, we will deal with deformable bodies and internal forces.
25-11-2022 Mechanics of Materials(EME42111) 3

Deformable bodies
Deformable bodies subjected to change in its dimension and structure
of body under application of forces.
Fig: Deformable and rigid body

Test Yourself
1. What do you mean by deformable bodies?
2. Differentiate reaction force and resistance to deformation?
3. Justify the course mechanics of material with context to mechanical
engineering?
4. Differentiate kinetics and dynamics?
5. What do you mean by rigid body?

Reaction force and Internal Resistance
Rigid: An idealized concept meaning something which does not deform under loading. In fact, all objects deform under
loading, but in modelling it can be useful to idealize very stiff objects as rigid.
External Force: A surface force or body force acting on an object. External forces are sometimes called applied forces.
Internal Force: Forces which hold an object together when external forces or other loads are applied. Internal forces are
sometimes called resisting forces since they resist the effects of external forces.
Reaction: A reaction is a force exerted by a support on an object: sometimes called support reaction. Using this definition, a
reaction is an external force.
Resisting force: see internal force.
Review the concept of Force.

Follow the link :
http://web.arch.virginia.edu/~km6e/references/glossary/struc-glossary.html#internal_force

Background of the subject
⮚When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo
deformation. Due to cohesive force between the molecules, the
body resists deformations. The resistance by which material of the
body opposes the deformations is known as “Strength of Materials”.
⮚The subject is concerned with methods for finding the internal

effects of the loads which are acting externally and deformation
characteristics.

Stress
X
P A P
L δL
X
(a)
P Resisting force (R)
(b)
p
Resisting force
(R)
(c)
Fig- 1
Types of loading
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Types of stress:-
(i) Normal stress :- If the resisting area is perpendicular to the applied
load, stress produced is called “ Normal stress”. Usually denoted
by σ. Normal stress may be tensile or compressive depending upon
the nature of applied load.
Tension
Compression
Shear
B B1 E E1 P
h φ
φ
C
P D
Source: Mathalino
As the bottom face of the block is fixed, the face BCDE
will be distorted to B1CDE1 through an angle φ due to force
P.
And shear strain (φ) will be given by,
Φ = Displacement/Distance BC
= BB1/BC
Test Yourself
1. Define stress and strain?
2. Define shear stress and shear strain?
3. In fluid flow which stress comes in to feature?
4. Differentiate tensile stress and compressive stress?

Difference between Stress and
Pressure

Tensile Test
Mechanics of Materials(EME42111)
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Stress-Strain curve for Mild steel
Analysis of Strain
⮚ Normal Strain:- The elongation of a bar per unit length along its axis is defined as the
normal strain. It is denoted by the Greek letter ε (epsilon).
• Strain is given by
⮚ If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain

(taken as positive) , representing an elongation or stretching
of the material.
⮚ If the bar is in compression, the strain is a compressive strain (taken as
negative) and the bar shortens.
⮚ Normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a
dimensionless quantity, i.e. it has no units.
⮚ In practice, the original units of δ and L are sometimes attached to the strain itself, and then
the strain is recorded in forms such as mm/m and µm/m. sometimes expressed as a percent,
especially when the strains are large.
Analysis of Strain
⮚ Shear Strain:- The change in angle between the
two line segments which were originally perpendicular
to each other is called shear strain.
⮚ The shear stresses produce a change in the shape of the

element. The original element, which is a rectangular
parallelepiped, is deformed into an oblique parallelepiped,
and the front and rear faces become rhomboids.
⮚ The angle γ is a measure of the distortion, or change in
shape, of the element and it is usually measured in degrees
or radians.
Analysis of Strain
⮚ Sign Conventions for Shear Strain:-
• Shear strain in an element is positive when the angle
between two positive faces (or two negative faces) is
reduced.
• The strain is negative when the angle between two
positive (or two negative) faces is increased.
Hooke’s Law
⮚ Linear Elasticity : When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear
relationship between stress and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic.
⮚ Hooke’s Law : The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension
or compression up to the proportional limit is popularly known as Hooke’s law i.e., stress is
directly proportional to strain.
⮚ Where, σ is the axial or normal stress,

ε is the axial or normal strain
and E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus
of elasticity for the material.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
21
Tensile Test Specimen
22
Stress (σ) – strain (ε) diagrams
FIG. 1 Stress-strain
diagram for a typical
structural steel in tension
(not to scale)
OA: Initial region which is linear and proportional

Slope of OA is called modulus of elasticity
BC: Considerable elongation occurs with no noticeable increase in stress (yielding)
CD: Strain hardening – changes in crystalline structure (increased resistance to further deformation)
DE: Further stretching leads to reduction in the applied load and fracture
OABCE’: True stress-strain curve
Salient Points Of The Diagram
• The plot shows a region between point O and A in which stress is not only
linear but also proportional to the strain. The proportionality between stress
and strain no longer exists if we go beyond point A. So, the stress at point A is
called the proportional limit.
• The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the modulus of elasticity.
• If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend
and flatten. This continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit. The
behaviour of the bar in this region is called elastic. Elastic means that when
the load is removed, the bar returns to its original, undeformed
configuration. Normally for steel, however, the elastic limit is seldom
determined, since it is very close to the proportional limit.
24
Contd…..
• Upon loading beyond point A the strain increases more rapidly and the diagram becomes
curved and at the point B there is sudden increase in strain without any appreciable
increase in the stress. This phenomenon is called yielding. The corresponding point B is
called the yield point and the stress associated with it is called yield stress.
• In the region B to C there is continuous increase in strain without any increase in stress
and this state of material is often referred as being perfectly plastic. The elongation of a
mild-steel specimen in the perfectly plastic region is typically 10 to 15 times the elongation
that occurs in the linear region.
• After, it undergoes large strain in the region BC, it starts strain hardening which results
change in crystalline structure due to which material offers resistance to further
deformation.
25
Contd…..
• Hence, elongation of the material in this region requires an increase in load and it reaches a
maximum value at point D. The stress corresponding to the point D is known as ultimate
stress.
• Upon further stretching beyond point D the diameter of the specimen starts decreasing fast
due to local instability and this phenomenon is called necking.
• The load required for further elongation of the material in the necking region decreases
with decrease in diameter and the stress value at which the material fails is called the
fracture strength.
26
Contd…..
• Instead of always using the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen to
calculate the engineering or conventional stress and strain, if the actual cross-sectional area
and length is used at the instant load is measured to calculate the stress and strain is called
true stress and true strain.
• The curve shown with the dotted line in blue colour is called true stress – strain diagram.
• The conventional and true stress – strain curve coincide with each other for the small value
of strain but the difference start appearing in the strain hardening region where the strain is
more pronounced.
• The true stress – strain curve shows more distinct feature within the strain hardening zone.
27
Contd…..
• From the conventional stress – strain diagram we can interpret that the specimen is
actually supporting the decreasing load because here original cross-section area is used to
calculate the stress.
• But from the true stress – strain diagram it can be interpreted that the specimen is
supporting increasing load because during necking there is decrease in cross-sectional area
(until fracture takes place) which is used to calculate the stress at particular instant.
• True stress or actual stress,
28
Stress-Strain curve (Brittle)
A- Proportional Limit
B- Fracture Stress
Stress-strain diagram for a brittle material

Concept of Proof Stress(Offset Yield Stress)
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Test Yourself
1. Draw stress- strain curve for rubber?
2. Draw stress- strain curve for brittle material?
3. What is the purpose of Universal testing machine(UTM)?
4. Signify yield strength and tensile strength?
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Types of Material Based on Composition and Properties
⮚ Homogeneous
⮚ Isotropic
⮚Anisotropic
⮚ Orthotropic
⮚ Ductile
⮚ Brittle
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Elastic Constants
⮚ There are total four elastic constants which define the elastic behavior of isotropic
materials under normal, shear and hydrostatic loadings,
1. Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity,
E= Normal Stress/ Normal Strain
2. Shear Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity, G
G = Shear Stress/ Shear Strain
3. Bulk Modulus of elasticity, K
K = Volumetric stress / Volumetric strain
Where,
Volumetric stress = stress which cause the change in volume.
Volumetric strain = sum of linear stress in x, y and z direction.
4. Poisson’s ratio, ν
ν = - lateral strain / longitudinal strain
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Poisson’s ratio
⮚ When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral
contraction
⮚The lateral strain ε’ at any point in a bar is proportional to the axial strain ε at that same point
if the material is linearly elastic.
⮚ The ratio of these strains is a property of the material
known as Poisson’s ratio.
⮚ This dimensionless ratio, usually denoted by the
Greek letter ν (nu), can be expressed by
(a) Bar before loading and (b) bar after loading

⮚ In the linear elastic range, Poisson’s ratio lies between -1 and +0.5.
Relation Between Elastic Constants
⮚ The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by
⮚ Relation between E, K and ν

E = 3K(1-2 ν)
⮚ Relation between E, K and G
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Deformation in Axially Loaded Members
⮚ Consider a prismatic bar of uniform cross section under tensile load P along its axis
as shown in figure
Prismatic bar of circular cross

section
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⮚ Consider a bar of varying cross section under tensile load P along its axis as shown
in figure
⮚ The elongation of the entire bar is obtained by integrating over the entire length
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⮚ Consider that a prismatic bar is loaded by one or more axial loads acting at
intermediate points along the axis is as shown in figure
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⮚ A vertical bar consists of three prismatic segments A1, A2, and A3 with cross
sectional areas of 6000 mm^2, 5000 mm^2, and 4000 mm^2, respectively. The bar
is made of steel with E = 200 GPa. Calculate the total deformation of the bar. Ignore
the weight of the bar.
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Statically Indeterminate Bar
⮚ The member whose reactions and internal forces can be determined by applying equations of
equilibrium are known as statically determinate structure.
⮚ The member whose reactions and internal forces cannot be determined by applying equations of
equilibrium alone are known as statically indeterminate structure.
⮚ For Indeterminate structures in addition to equilibrium equations we also require deformation equation
(compatibility equation).
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⮚ The fixed-end bar ABCD consists of three prismatic segments, as shown in the
figure. The end segments have cross-sectional area A1 = 840 mm^2 and length L1 =
200 mm. The middle segment has cross-sectional area A2 = 1260 mm^2 and length
L2 = 250 mm. Loads PB and PC are equal to 25.5 kN and 17.0 kN, respectively.
(a) Determine the reactions RA and RD at the fixed supports.
(b) Determine the compressive axial force FBC in the middle segment of the bar.
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⮚A round steel rod supported in a recess is surrounded by a co-axial brass tube as shown in fig. The
level of the upper end of the rod is 0.08mm below that of the tube. Determine,
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Thermal Stresses
⮚ For most structural materials, thermal strain εT is proportional to the temperature change
ϨT ; i.e.,
Where,
α is a property of the material called
the coefficient of thermal expansion.
⮚ In SI units, the dimensions can be expressed as either 1/K (the reciprocal of kelvins) or1/
ºC (the reciprocal of degrees Celsius).
⮚ Sign convention :expansion is considered as positive and where as contraction as negative.
⮚ Thermal stress is given as,
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Thermal Stresses
⮚ Assume that the material is homogeneous and isotropic and that the temperature
increase ϨT
is uniform throughout the block.
⮚ Dimension will increase by the amount
ϨT=
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Thermal Stresses
⮚ A plastic bar ACB having two different solid circular cross sections is held between rigid
supports as shown in the figure. The diameters in the left- and right-hand parts are 50 mm
and 75 mm, respectively. The corresponding lengths are 225 mm and 300 mm respectively.
Also, the modulus of elasticity E is 6.0 GPa, and the coefficient of thermal expansion α is
100*10-6/°C. The bar is subjected to a uniform temperature increase of 30 °C. Calculate the
following quantities: (a) the compressive force P in the bar; (b) the maximum compressive
stress σc; and (c) the displacement ϨC of point C.
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Factor of Safety
⮚ The ratio of the actual strength to the required strength is called the factor of safety. It is
denoted by ‘n’.
⮚ To avoid failure factor of safety should be greater than 1 and generally it’s value varies
between 1 to 10.
⮚ For many structures, it is important that the material remain within the linearly elastic
range in order to avoid permanent deformations when the loads are removed.
⮚ In case of ductile materials the factor of safety is established with respect to yielding of the
structure and for brittle materials it is established w.r.t. Ultimate Strength.
⮚ Therefore, by applying a factor of safety with respect to the yield stress (or yield strength),
you obtain an allowable stress (or working stress) that must not be exceeded anywhere in
the structure.
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Strain Energy
⮚ Within the elastic limit, the work done by the external forces on a material is stored as
deformation or strain that is recoverable.
⮚ On removal of load, the deformation or strain disappears and the stored energy is released.
This recoverable energy stored in the material in the form of strain is called elastic strain
energy.
⮚ The total work done by the load
as it increases from zero to the
maximum value P is the summation
of all such elemental strips:
strips:
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Strain Energy
⮚ This strain energy is equal to the work done by the load,
Where,
U is the strain energy.
⮚ If material follows Hooke’s law (i.e. linearly elastic) then load-displacement curve will be
as shown in figure.
⮚ Then the strain energy U stored in the bar (equal to the work W
done by the load) is
⮚ The relationship between the load P and the elongation Ϩ for

a bar of linearly elastic material is given by the equation
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Strain Energy
⮚ Substituting the value of Ϩ in the above equation,
⮚ Strain-Energy Density : It is convenient to use a quantity called strain-energy density,

which is defined as the strain energy per unit volume of material.
⮚ Thus, the strain-energy density, denoted by the symbol u, can be expressed in either of
these forms:
⮚ If P/A is replaced by the stress σ and Ϩ/L by the strain ε,
⮚ They are equal to the area σε/2 of the triangle below the stress-strain diagram for a
material that follows Hooke’s law (i.e. σ =Eε ).
⮚ The SI units are joules per cubic meter (J/m3 ) or N/m2 .
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Strain Energy
⮚ Resilience :- It represents the ability of a material to absorb and release energy within the
elastic range.
⮚ Toughness: The ability of the material to absorb energy up to the Fracture Point.
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Strain Energy
⮚ Modulus of Resilience :- The strain-energy density of the material when it is stressed to
the proportional limit is called the modulus of resilience ur. It is given as,
⮚ The modulus of resilience is equal to the area below the stress-strain curve up to the
proportional limit.
⮚Modulus of Toughness: The strain-energy density in the stressed material up to the point of
fracture. It is equal to the area below the entire stress-strain curve.
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Impact Loading
⮚ Loads are applied and removed suddenly.
⮚ Impact loads are produced when two objects collide or when a falling object strikes a
structure.
⮚ A collar of mass M, initially at rest, falls from a height h onto a flange at the end of bar
AB.
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Impact Loading
⮚ Maximum Elongation of the Bar:-
⮚ The maximum elongation Ϩmax can be obtained from the principle of conservation of
energy by equating the potential energy lost by the falling mass to the maximum strain
energy acquired by the bar.
Potential energy lost = W (h+ Ϩmax )
Where,
W = Mg i.e. weight of the collar
h+ Ϩmax is the distance through which it moves.
Strain energy of the bar = EAϨ2max /2L
Where,
EA is the axial rigidity and L is the length of the bar
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Impact Loading
⮚ This equation is quadratic in Ϩmax and can be solved for the positive root,
⮚ The above equation can be written in simpler form by introducing the notation
where, Ϩst is the elongation of the bar due to the weight of the collar under static loading.
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Impact Loading
⮚ When the height h is large compared to the static elongation
Where, M = W /g and is the velocity of the falling mass when it strikes the flange.
⮚ Maximum Stress in the Bar:
From the general equation, Ϩ = PL/EA = σL/ E
Hence,
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Impact Loading
⮚ To represent the magnification of deflection due to impact load compared to that of static
deflection for the same load, impact factor is used.
⮚ The impact factor can also be obtained from the ratio σmax / σst .
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Impact Loading
⮚ A cable with a restrainer at the bottom hangs vertically from its upper end (see figure).
The cable has an effective cross-sectional area A = 40 mm 2 and an effective modulus of
elasticity E =130 GPa. A slider of mass M=35 kg drops from a height h = 1.0 m onto the
restrainer.
If the allowable stress in the cable under an impact load is 500 MPa, what is the
minimum permissible length L of the cable?
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Impact Loading
⮚
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SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
59
Types of Beams and Loads
⮚ BEAMS : It is structural members subjected to lateral loads, i.e., forces or moments having
their vectors perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
⮚ TYPES OF BEAMS : Beams are classified based on their
supports.
1. Simply Supported Beam or Simple Beam : A beam with
a pin support at one end and a roller support at the
other is called a simply supported beam.
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2. Cantilever Beam : The beam which is fixed at one end and free at the other, is called a
cantilever beam.
3. Overhanging Beam : The beam which is projected beyond the support is called
overhanging beam.
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⮚ Statically Indeterminate Beams :
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⮚ Types of Loads :
1. Concentrated Load : Load applied at a point. Examples are the loads P 1, P2, P3, and P4 as
shown in the fig. of previous slides.
2. Uniformly Distributed Load, Or Uniform Load (UDL) : The intensity of force acting
remains constant along the entire length. It is expressed in units of force per unit distance
(for example, N/m).
3. Uniformly Varying Load or Linearly Varying Load (UVL) : The intensity of force acting
varies linearly along the entire length. It is expressed in units of force per unit distance (for
example, N/m).
4. Couple : It is illustrated by the couple of moment M1 acting on the overhanging beam.

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Shear Forces and Bending Moments
⮚ When a beam is loaded by forces or couples, stresses and strains are created throughout the
interior of the beam.
⮚ The free body is held in equilibrium by the force P and by the
stresses that act over the cut cross section.
⮚ From statics, the resultant of the stresses acting on the cross
section can be reduced to a shear force V and a bending moment M
(Fig.- b).
⮚ Shear forces and bending moments, like axial forces in bars and
internal torques in shafts, are the resultants of stresses distributed over
the cross section. Therefore, these quantities are known collectively
as stress resultants.
⮚
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Shear Forces and Bending Moments
⮚ Sign Conventions : Sign conventions for shear force and bending moment are called
deformation sign conventions because they are based upon how the material is deformed
when it acts upon it, rather than by its direction in space.
⮚In case of a beam, a positive shear force acts clockwise
against the material and a negative shear force acts
counter-clockwise against the material.
⮚ Also, a positive bending moment compresses the upper
part of the beam and a negative bending moment compresses
the lower part.
⮚ The deformations of an element caused by both positive and
negative shear forces and bending moments are shown in below
Fig. (a)&(b).
⮚Some times, the terms ‘Sagging' and Hogging are generally
used for the positive and negative bending moments respectively.
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Relation Among Loads, Shear Forces, and Bending Moments
⮚ The first type of loading is a distributed load of intensity q, as shown in Fig.
⮚ Shear Force :
⮚ The rate of change of the shear force at any point on the axis of the beam is equal to the
negative of the intensity of the distributed load at that same point.
⮚ If there is no distributed load on a segment of the beam (i.e. if q = 0), then dV/dx =0 and the
shear force is constant in that part of the beam.
⮚ If the distributed load is uniform along part of the beam (q=constant), then dV/dx is also
constant and the shear force varies linearly in that part of the beam.
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Relation Among Loads, Shear Forces, and Bending Moments
⮚ Bending Moment: Summing moments about an axis at the
left-hand side of the element,
⮚ The rate of change of the bending moment at any point on the axis of a beam is equal to the
shear force at that same point.
⮚If the shear force is zero in a region of the beam, then the bending moment is constant in that
same region.
⮚ The area of the shear force diagram between any two points, from the basic calculus is the
bending moment diagram.
⮚ The maximum or minimum Bending moment occurs where shear force is zero.
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Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram
⮚ Construction of shear force diagram :
▪ From the loading diagram of the beam construct the shear force diagram.
▪ First determine the reactions.
▪ Then the vertical components of forces and reactions are successively summed from the left
end of the beam to preserve the mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a
section is simply equal to the sum of all the vertical forces to the left of the section.
▪ The shear force curve is continuous unless there is a point force on the beam. The curve then
“jumps” by the magnitude of the point force (+ for upward force).
▪ When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with
the previously calculated shear (reaction at right end of the beam). No shear force acts
through the beam just beyond the last vertical force or reaction.
▪ If the shear force diagram closes in this fashion, then it gives an important check on
mathematical calculations. i.e. The shear force will be zero at each end of the beam unless a
point force is applied at the end.
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Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram
⮚ Construction of bending moment diagram :
▪ The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of
beam from the left hand end and summing up the areas of shear force diagrams using proper
sign convention.
▪ The process of obtaining the moment diagram from the shear force diagram by summation is
exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from load diagram.
▪ The bending moment curve is continuous unless there is a point moment on the beam. The
curve then “jumps” by the magnitude of the point moment (+ for CW moment).
▪ We know that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending moment,
resulting in straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a certain
portion of a beam, then it indicates that there is no change in moment takes place. We also
know that dM/dx= Vx therefore, from the fundamental theorem of calculus the maximum or
minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero.
▪ The bending moment will be zero at each free or pinned end of the beam. If the end is built
in, the moment computed by the summation must be equal to the one calculated initially for
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reaction. 69
Shear Force And Bending Moment Diagram
⮚ Concentrated Load (Point Load) :
⮚ Considering the entire beam as a free body, the reactions of
the beam from equilibrium are,
⮚ Now cut through the beam at a cross section to the left of the
load P and at a distance x from the support at A
⮚From the equations of equilibrium for this free body, the
shear force V and bending moment M at distance x from
the support are
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⮚ Now, cut the beam to the right of load P (that is, in the region a <x<L)
⮚ From the equations of equilibrium for this free-body, the
expressions for the shear force and bending moment are
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⮚ A Cantilever beam subjected to uniformly
distributed load :
⮚ Consider any cross-section XX which is at a
distance of x from the free end.
⮚ Vx = -w.x for all values of ‘x'.
At x = 0, Vx = 0
At x = L, Vx = -wL (i.e. Maximum at fixed end)
⮚ The bending moment at any cross-section XX,
⮚ The extreme values of B.M would be
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⮚ A Simply supported beam with a uniformly varying
load (UVL):
⮚
⮚The free body diagram of section A - XX as shown

below
⮚ Load at section XX, (wx) = wx/L
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⮚ Shear force,
⮚ Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic

at x = 0, Vx = wL/6
at x = L, Vx = -wL/3
⮚ Bending Moment (M ),
⮚ The variation of BM is cubic

at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0
⮚ For25-11-2022
maximum BM, 74
⮚
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⮚ A beam ABC with an overhang at one end supports a uniform load of intensity 12 kN/m and
a concentrated load of magnitude 2.4 kN (see figure). Draw the shear-force and bending-
moment diagrams for this beam.
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⮚ A beam with simple supports is subjected to a trapezoidally distributed load (see figure).
The intensity of the load varies from 1.0 kN/m at support A to 3.0 kN/m at support B.
Draw the shear-force and bending-moment diagrams for this beam.
25-11-2022 77
⮚ A simple beam AB is loaded by two segments of uniform load and two horizontal forces
acting at the ends of a vertical arm (see figure).
Draw the shear-force and bending-moment diagrams for this beam.
25-11-2022 78
⮚ The beam ABCD shown in the figure has overhangs that extend in both directions for a
distance of 4.2 m from the supports at B and C, which are 1.2 m apart.
Draw the shear-force and bending-moment diagrams for this overhanging beam.
25-11-2022 79
⮚ Under cruising conditions, the distributed load acting on the wing of a small airplane has the
idealized variation shown in the figure.
Calculate the shear force V and bending moment M at 4 m from the tip of the wing.
25-11-2022 80
STRESSES IN BEAMS
(BENDING STRESS)
81
BENDING STRESS
⮚ Pure Bending : It refers to the flexure of a beam under a constant bending moment.
Therefore, pure bending occurs only in regions of a beam where the shear force is zero
(because V = dM /dx).
⮚ Non-Uniform Bending : It refers to flexure in the presence of shear forces, which means
that the bending moment changes as you move along the axis of the beam.
25-11-2022 82
BENDING STRESS
⮚ Following assumptions are considered while deriving bending stress equation:-
1. The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its
mechanical properties are the same in all directions.
2. The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic.
3. Young’s Modulus is the same in tension as well as in compression.
4. The shear force at each c/s is zero and normal stress due to bending is only produced.
5. Beams are initially straight and sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending.
6. Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending.
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BENDING STRESS
⮚ Longitudinal Strains in Beams :
25-11-2022 84
BENDING STRESS
⮚ Location of Neutral Axis :
the first equation of statics is,
The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross-sectional area when the material
follows Hooke’s law and there is no axial force acting on the cross section.
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BENDING STRESS
⮚ Moment-Curvature Relationship :
Now, the moment due to element dA is
Therefore, total moment over area A is
25-11-2022 86
BENDING STRESS
⮚ Maximum Stresses at a Cross Section :
⮚Doubly Symmetric Shapes : If the cross section of a beam is symmetric with respect to the z
axis as well as the y axis (doubly symmetric cross section), then c 1 = c2 = c, and the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal numerically:
25-11-2022 87
Relative Efficiency of Various Beam Shapes
⮚ From strength point of view, efficiency in bending depends primarily upon the shape of the
cross section.
⮚ In particular, the most efficient beam is one in which the material is located as far as from
the neutral axis.
⮚ Compare a solid circular cross section of diameter d (Fig. b) with a square cross section of
the same area.
⮚ The side h of a square having the same area as the circle is
25-11-2022 88
Relative Efficiency of Various Beam Shapes
⮚ The ideal cross-sectional shape for a beam of given cross-sectional area A and height h
would be obtained by placing one-half of the area at a distance h/2 above the neutral axis
and the other half at distance h/2 below the neutral axis, as shown in Fig.
25-11-2022 89
BENDING STRESS
25-11-2022 90
BENDING STRESS
Q. During construction of a highway bridge, the main girders are cantilevered outward from
one pier toward the next (see figure). Each girder has a cantilever length of 46 m and an I-
shaped cross section with dimensions as shown in the figure. The load on each girder (during
construction) is assumed to be 11.0 kN/m, which includes the weight of the girder. Determine
the maximum bending stress in a girder due to this load.
25-11-2022 91
BENDING STRESS
Q. A cantilever beam AB of triangular cross section has length L = 0.8 m, width b = 80 mm,
and height h =120 mm (see figure). The beam is made of brass weighing 85 kN/m 3.
(a) Determine the maximum tensile stress st and maximum compressive stress sc due to the
beam’s own weight.
(b) If the width b is doubled, what happens to the stresses?
(c) If the height h is doubled, what happens to the stresses?
25-11-2022 92
STRESSES IN BEAMS
(SHEAR STRESSES)
93
SHEAR STRESSES IN RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION BEAMS
⮚ Consider a beam of rectangular cross section (width b and
height h) subjected to a positive shear force V.
⮚ Assumptions :
1. The shear stresses τ acting on the cross section are parallel to
the shear force, i.e., parallel to the vertical sides of the cross
section.
2. The shear stresses are uniformly distributed across the width of
the beam, although they may vary over the height.
⮚ Isolate a small element mn of the beam (Fig. a) by cutting
between two adjacent cross sections and between two
horizontal planes.
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⮚ Derivation : Now consider a beam in non-
uniform bending. Take two adjacent cross
sections mn and m1n1 at a distance dx apart, and
consider the element mm1nn1.
⮚ The bending moment and shear force acting on
the left-hand face of this element are denoted M
and V, respectively.
⮚ The corresponding quantities on the right-hand
face are denoted M+dM and V+dV.
⮚ On cross sections mn and m1n1, the normal
stresses are, respectively, as given by the bending
stress equation,
Where, y = distance from the neutral axis and,

25-11-2022 95
I = area moment of inertia
⮚ Next, isolate a sub-element mm1pp1 by passing a
horizontal plane pp1through element mm1n1n.
⮚ The plane pp1is at distance y1 from the neutral surface
of the beam.
⮚ If the bending moments at cross sections mn and m 1n1
(Fig.-b) are equal (i.e., if the beam is in pure bending),
the normal stresses σ1 and σ2 acting over the sides mp
and m1p1 of the sub-element (Fig.-c) are also equal.
⮚ Consider an element of area dA in the cross section at a
distance ‘y’ from the neutral axis as
shown in (Fig.-d).
⮚ The force acting on the LHS (i.e.
on mp) of the sub-element,
25-11-2022 96
⮚ Therefore, the total horizontal force F1 acting on the left
hand face:
⮚ Integration is performed over the area of the shaded part of

the cross section shown in Fig.-d, i.e., over the area of the
cross section from y = y1 to y = h/2.
⮚ Similarly, the total force F2 acting on the right-hand face
m1p1 of the sub element,
⮚ Applying equation of equilibrium, in the x-direction,
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⮚ Since, dM and I are constant in the above expression, Hence,
⮚ If the shear stresses τ are uniformly distributed across the width b of the beam, the force
F3 is also equal to,
Where, bdx is the area of the bottom face of the sub element.
⮚From above two equations, we will get shear stress,
⮚The quantity dM/dx is equal to the shear force V
25-11-2022 98
⮚ This first moment is usually denoted by the symbol Q:
⮚ Hence, the equation for the shear stress will become,
⮚ The first moment Q of the shaded part of the cross-sectional

area by multiplying the area by the distance from its own
centroid to the neutral axis:
⮚ By substituting the expression of Q in the shear formula,
25-11-2022 99
⮚ The maximum value of the shear stress occurs at the neutral
axis ( y1 = 0 ) where the first moment Q has its maximum value.
Substitute y1 = 0 into above equation,
⮚ Thus, the maximum shear stress in a beam of rectangular cross

section is 50% larger than the average shear stress V/A.
25-11-2022 100
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION BEAM
⮚ When a beam has a circular cross section as shown in figure,
you can no longer assume that the shear stresses act parallel to
the y axis.
⮚ In a beam of circular cross-section, the value of b width
depends on y.
25-11-2022 101
⮚ Using the expression to find shear stress for an arbitrary shape,
⮚ Consider a small element of strip of thickness ‘dy’ and width ‘b’ at a distance ‘y’ from the
neutral axis (NA).
⮚Here, ‘dA' is to be found using the Pythagoras theorem,
(b/2)2 +y2 =R2
⮚ Now, area of the strip, dA=b.dy
⮚ First moment of elemental area about NA = dA*y = b*y*dy
⮚ Total moment of shaded area =
25-11-2022 102
⮚
⮚ Squaring above equation both the side and differentiating it w.r.t., ‘y’.
ydy = - bdb/4
⮚ Substituting the value of ydy in above equation and by applying the proper change in
limit,
i.e., when, y = y then b = b
and y=R b=0
25-11-2022 103
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN I-CROSS SECTION BEAM
⮚
⮚ Therefore, the shear stress t in the web of the beam at

distance y1 from the neutral axis is
⮚ Maximum and Minimum Shear Stresses :

▪ The maximum shear stress in the web of a wide-
flange beam occurs at the neutral axis where y1 = 0.
▪ The minimum shear stress occurs where the web

meets the flanges (y1 = ± h1/2).
25-11-2022 104
⮚ In practice it is usually found that most of shearing stress usually about 95% is carried by
the web, and hence the shear stress in the flange is negligible however if we have the
concrete analysis i.e. if we analyze the shearing stress in the flange i.e. writing down the
expression for shear stress for flange and web separately, we will have this type of
variation.
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⮚
25-11-2022 106
⮚
25-11-2022 107
⮚ A hollow steel box beam has the rectangular cross section shown in the figure. Determine
the maximum allowable shear force V that may act on the beam if the allowable shear
stress is 36 Mpa.
25-11-2022 108
DEFLECTION IN BEAMS
109
Deflections by Integration of the Bending-Moment Equation
⮚ The integration constants are evaluated from known conditions
pertaining to the slopes and deflections.
⮚ The conditions fall into three categories:
(1) boundary conditions,
(2) continuity conditions, and
(3) symmetry conditions.
1) Boundary conditions: It is used to get deflections and slopes
at the supports of a beam.
▪ For a simply supported beam (at a support i.e. either a pin or
a roller), the deflection is zero but slope is nonzero.
▪ For a fixed support, both the deflection and the slope are
zero.
25-11-2022 110
Deflections by Integration of the Bending-Moment Equation
2) Continuity conditions: It is used at points where
the regions of integration meet, such as at point C
in the beam.
▪ The deflection curve of this beam is physically
continuous at point C; therefore, the deflection at
point C as determined for the left-hand part of the
beam must be equal to the deflection at point C
as determined for the right-hand part.
▪ Similarly, the slopes found for each part of the
beam must be equal at point C.
3) Symmetry conditions : If a simple beam supports
a uniform load throughout its length, the slope of
the deflection curve at the midpoint must be zero.
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Double Integration Method
25-11-2022 112
25-11-2022 113
⮚ Cantilever beam subjected to UVL :-
25-11-2022 114
Macaulay’s Method
⮚
25-11-2022 115
Macaulay’s Method
⮚ Let us consider a simply supported beam AB (see Figure) of length 3m is
subjected to a point load 10kN, UDL = 5 kN/m and a bending moment, M = 25
kNm. Find the deflection of the beam at point D if flexural rigidity (EI) = 50
KNm2.
We solve this problem using Macaulay’s method, for that first writing the general momentum
equation for the last portion of beam, DB of the loaded beam.
25-11-2022 116
Macaulay’s Method
⮚ By successive integration of this equation (using Macaulay’s integration rule)
Where A and B are integration constant we have to use following boundary conditions to find
out A & B.
25-11-2022 117
Macaulay’s Method
25-11-2022 118
Castigliano’s Theorem
⮚ It states that the derivative of the strain energy with
respect to the load is equal to the deflection
corresponding to the load.
⮚ Consider a cantilever beam with a concentrated
load P acting at the free end.
⮚ The strain energy of this beam is obtained from the
equation given below,
25-11-2022 119
⮚ Now take the derivative of this expression with respect to the load P:
Consider a cantilever beam AB carrying a concentrated load P and a couple of moment M0

acting at the free end. The objective is to determine the vertical deflection y A and angle of
rotation θA at the end of the beam .
25-11-2022 120
⮚ Use of a Fictitious Load :
⮚ To calculate a displacement at a point on a structure where there is no load, apply
a fictitious load corresponding to the desired displacement to the structure.
⮚ Therefore, add a fictitious load Q acting at point C in the downward direction.
Then use Castigliano’s theorem to determine the deflection at the midpoint of this
beam. From that deflection, obtain the deflection in the beam by setting Q equal
to zero.
25-11-2022 121
⮚ Beam with a fictitious load Q,
25-11-2022 122
⮚
25-11-2022 123
⮚ Differentiation Under the Integral Sign: modified Castigliano’s theorem
⮚ To derive this method, begin with the equation for the strain energy and apply
Castigliano’s theorem,
25-11-2022 124
Q. A simple beam with an overhang supports a uniform load of an intensity q on span AB
and a concentrated load P at end C of the overhang (Fig. 9-42). Determine (a) the
deflection dC and (b) angle of rotation uC at point C. Use the modified form of
Castigliano’s theorem.
25-11-2022 125
Torsion
126
Torsion Theory or Derivation of Torsion Equation
⮚ Following assumptions are considered while deriving torsion equation:-
1. The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its
mechanical properties are the same in all directions.
2. The material is elastic, follows Hook's law, with shear stress proportional to shear
strain.
3. The twisting couples act in the transverse planes only.
4. All radii remain straight after torsion.
5. Plane sections perpendicular to the axis of a circular member before application of

torque remains plane even after application of torque.
25-11-2022 127
⮚ Consider now the solid circular shaft of radius R subjected to a torque T at one end, the
other end being fixed.
⮚ Under the action of this torque a radial line at the free end of the shaft twists through an
angle θ , point A moves to B, and AB subtends an angle ‘ γ ' at the fixed end.
25-11-2022 128
⮚ This is then the angle of distortion of the shaft i.e the shear strain.
⮚ Now, angle (θ) can be written as = arc / Radius
⮚ arc AB = Rθ
= Lγ (since L and g also constitute the arc AB)
Hence, γ = Rθ/L ……………………(1)
25-11-2022 129
⮚ If the material is linearly elastic, then Hooke’s law for the shear
stress,
τ = Gγ
Hence, γ = τ/G …………………………….(2)
From, eqn.(1) & (2),
……………………(3)
Where, τ’ = shear stress at any radius ‘r’.

⮚Let us consider a small strip of radius r and thickness dr which is
subjected to shear stress τ‘
25-11-2022 130
⮚ The shear force acting on this element = τ’dA
⮚ This force will produce a moment or torque about the

center axis of the shaft,
i.e. dM
⮚ The total torque T on the section,
⮚Since τ' is a function of r, because it varies with radius

so writing down τ' in terms of r from the equation (3).
25-11-2022 131
⮚
25-11-2022 132
⮚
25-11-2022 133
⮚ Where,
⮚Torsional stiffness (k) : Torque per radian twist
25-11-2022 134
Hollow Shaft
• We also know that for hollow shaft, polar moment of inertia
• Where d0 and di = Outside and inside diameter of the shaft, and r = d0 / 2.

• Substituting these values in equation (i), we have
• Let k = Ratio of inside diameter and outside diameter of the shaft = di / do

• Now the above equation may be written as
• From the above equation, the outside and inside diameter of a hollow shaft may be determined.
25-11-2022 135
⮚ The parameter GJ is known as the torsional rigidity, similar to flexural rigidity of beam,
i.e. EI.
⮚ Power Transmission :- If T is the applied Torque and w is the angular velocity of the
shaft, then the power transmitted by the shaft is
⮚ Shafts in Series and Parallel :-

1. Shafts in series : Torque (T) is same in all the section.
2. Shafts in parallel
25-11-2022 136
Combined Bending and Torsion
⮚ In most practical transmission situations shafts which carry torque are also subjected to
bending, if only by virtue of the self-weight of the gears they carry.
⮚Many other practical applications occur where bending and torsion arise simultaneously so
that this type of loading represents one of the major sources of complex stress situations.
⮚ In the case of shafts, bending gives rise to tensile stress on one surface and compressive
stress on the opposite surface while torsion gives rise to pure shear throughout the shaft.
⮚ For a solid shaft,
⮚ Where,
⮚ Maximum Principal stress,
25-11-2022 137
⮚ The equivalent bending moment Me is given as,
⮚ Maximum Shear stress :-
25-11-2022 138
Q. When drilling a hole in a table leg, a furniture maker uses a hand-operated drill (see
figure) with a bit of diameter d =4.0 mm.
(a) If the resisting torque supplied by the table leg is equal to 0.3 Nm, what is the maximum
shear stress in the drill bit?
(b) If the shear modulus of elasticity of the steel is G = 75 GPa, what is the rate of twist of
the drill bit (degrees per meter)?
25-11-2022 139
Q.
25-11-2022 140
Q.
25-11-2022 141
Q.
25-11-2022 142
⮚ Now consider an element of the bar between two
cross sections distance dx apart.
⮚ On its outer surface, a small element abcd is
identified with sides ab and cd that initially are
parallel to the longitudinal axis.
⮚ During twisting of the bar, the right-hand cross
section rotates with respect to the left-hand cross
section through a small angle of twist dϕ, so that
points b and c move to b’ and c’, respectively.
⮚ The lengths of the sides of the element, which is
now element ab’c’d , do not change during this
small rotation.
⮚ The element is therefore in a state of pure shear,
which means that the element is subjected to shear
strains but no normal strains.
25-11-2022 143
⮚ The magnitude of the shear strain at the outer
surface of the bar, denoted γmax, is equal to
⮚ The quantity dϕ/dx is the rate of change of the

angle of twist ϕ with respect to the distance x
measured along the axis of the bar.
⮚Denote dϕ/dx by the symbol θ and refer to it as the
rate of twist, or the angle of twist per unit length.
⮚ Now, write the above equation for the shear strain
at the outer surface as
25-11-2022 144
⮚ In the special case of pure torsion, the rate of twist is equal
to the total angle of twist ϕ divided by the length L, i.e., θ =
ϕ/L.
⮚
⮚ If the material is linearly elastic, then from Hooke’s law in

shear
⮚ Let us consider a small strip of radius ρ and thickness dr

which is subjected to shear stress.
⮚Consider an element of area dA located at radial distance ρ
from the axis of the bar.
⮚ The shear force acting on this element = τdA
Where, τ = shear stress at radius ρ
25-11-2022 145
Generalized Hooke’s law
⮚ When the body is subjected to triaxial state of stress.
⮚ When stress is acting only in X-direction.
⮚ Hence, the resulting strains in all the three directions
are
25-11-2022 146
⮚ When the body is subjected to triaxial state of stress.
⮚ When stress is acting only in Y-direction.
are
⮚ When stress is acting only in Z-direction.

are
25-11-2022 147
⮚ Also stress can be determined in terms of strain
⮚ Volumetric Strain:
⮚ Let a cuboids of a material is having initial sides of
length x, y and z. If under some loading system, the
sides changes in length by dx, dy, and dz then the new
volume ( x + dx ) ( y + dy ) ( z +dz )
⮚ New volume = xyz + yzdx + xzdy + xydz
⮚Original volume = xyz
25-11-2022 148
⮚ Change in volume = yzdx +xzdy + xydz
⮚Volumetric strain = ( yzdx +xzdy + xydz ) / xyz
= ε x + εy + εz
⮚ Volumetric strains in terms of principal stresses:
25-11-2022 149
THIN CYLINDERS
150
Cylindrical Pressure Vessels (Thin Cylinders)
⮚ Pressure vessels are closed structures containing liquids or gases under pressure. Familiar
examples include tanks, pipes, and pressurized cabins in aircraft and space vehicles.
⮚ This section considers thin-walled pressure vessels.
⮚ The term thin walled is used for pressure vessels, when the ratio of radius ‘r’ to wall
thickness ‘t’ is greater than 10.
⮚ When the ratio of radius ‘r’ to wall thickness ‘t’ is less than 10 then it is termed as thick-
walled pressure vessels.
⮚ Cylindrical pressure vessels used for industrial applications (compressed air tanks and
rocket motors), in homes (fire extinguishers and spray cans), and in the countryside (propane
tanks and grain silos). Pressurized pipes, such as water-supply pipes and penstocks, are also
classified as cylindrical pressure vessels.
25-11-2022 151
⮚ It is Assumed through out the discussions of pressure vessels
that the internal pressure p as shown in figure exceeds the
pressure acting on the outside of the shell. Otherwise, the
vessel may collapse inward due to buckling.
⮚ The analysis of cylindrical vessels begins by determining the
normal stresses in a thin-walled circular tank AB subjected to
internal pressure ‘p’.
⮚ The normal stresses σ1 and σ2 acting on the side faces of this
element are the membrane stresses in the wall.
⮚ No shear stresses act on these faces because of the
symmetry of the vessel and its loading.
⮚ Because of their directions, the stress σ1 is
called the circumferential stress or the hoop
stress, and the stress σ2 is called the longitudinal
25-11-2022 152
stress or the axial stress.
⮚ Circumferential Stress :-
⮚ To determine the circumferential stress σ 1, make two
cuts (mn and pq) perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis and a distance b apart.
⮚ The resulting equation of equilibrium is
⮚This stress is uniformly distributed over the thickness

of the wall, provided the thickness is small compared
to the radius.
⮚
25-11-2022 153
⮚ Longitudinal Stress :-
⮚ The stresses σ2 act longitudinally and have a
resultant force = σ2 × 2πrt.
⮚ The resultant force P2 due to the internal
pressure = p×π r2.
⮚ Applying the equation of equilibrium for the
free body,
25-11-2022 154
⮚ Stresses at the Outer Surface :-
⮚ The absolute maximum shear stress is
⮚ This stress occurs on a plane that has been rotated 45º about the x axis.
⮚ The maximum in-plane shear stresses occur on planes that are rotated 45º about the z axis.
25-11-2022 155
Spherical Pressure Vessels
⮚ A sphere is the theoretically ideal shape for a
vessel that resists internal pressure.
⮚ To determine the stresses in a spherical vessel,
cut through the sphere on a vertical diametric
plane as shown in figure (a) and isolate half of the
shell and its fluid contents as a single free body
(Fig.-b).
⮚ This pressure acts horizontally against the
plane circular area of fluid remaining inside the
hemisphere.
⮚ Since the wall is thin, you can assume with good
accuracy that the stress is uniformly distributed
across the thickness ‘t’. The accuracy of this
approximation increases as the shell becomes
thinner and decreases as it becomes thicker.
25-11-2022 156
Volumetric Strain
⮚
25-11-2022 157
Problem
⮚
25-11-2022 158
Theories of Failure
159
Theories of Failure
⮚ Maximum Principal Stress Theory (W.
Rankin’s Theory- 1850):-
▪ When the maximum principal stress in a
complex stress system reaches the stress at a
yield point in a simple tension test, failure will
occur.
▪ Therefore the criterion of failure will be,
25-11-2022 160
Theories of Failure
⮚ Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s or
Tresca’s Theory- 1868):-
▪ The failure will occur when the maximum
shear stress in the complex stress system is
equal to the value of maximum shear
stress at a yield point in simple tension test.
▪ This theory is applied to ductile material.
25-11-2022 161
Theories of Failure
⮚ Maximum Principal strain theory
(St. Venant’s Theory):-
▪ The failure will occur when the maximum
strain for a complex state of stress system
becomes equals to the strain at a yield point in
a simple tensile test.
25-11-2022 162
Theories of Failure
⮚ Maximum strain energy theory (Haigh’s Theory):-
▪ The failure will occur when the total strain energy for a complex state of stress system is
equal to that at a yield point in a simple tensile test.
▪ This theory gives satisfactory results for ductile materials.
25-11-2022 163
Theories of Failure
⮚ Maximum shear strain energy theory
(Distortion Energy Theory or Von-Mises and
Henkey’s Theory):-
▪ The failure occurs when the maximum shear
strain energy component for the complex state
of stress system is equal to that at a yield point
in a simple tensile test.
▪ Shear strain energy in a complex system
▪ Shear strain energy in simple tension
25-11-2022 164
Theories of Failure
▪ For a plane stress system,
▪ This theory is applied to a ductile material.
25-11-2022 165
Theories of Failure
▪
25-11-2022 166

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Description of Module:1

Module 1: Concepts of Stress and Strain

Rigid body Deformable body

25-11-2022 Mechanics of Materials(EME42111) 3

Fig: Deformable and rigid body

25-11-2022 Mechanics of Materials(EME42111) 4

25-11-2022 Mechanics of Materials(EME42111) 5

Resisting force: see internal force.

Review the concept of Force.

25-11-2022 Mechanics of Materials(EME42111) 6

⮚The subject is concerned with methods for finding the internal

25-11-2022 Mechanics of Materials(EME42111) 7

25-11-2022 Course Name (Course Code) 9

25-11-2022 Mechanics of Materials(EME42111) 13

25-11-2022 Course Name (Course Code) 14

⮚ If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain

⮚ The shear stresses produce a change in the shape of the

⮚ Where, σ is the axial or normal stress,

OA: Initial region which is linear and proportional

Stress-strain diagram for a brittle material

25-11-2022 Course Name (Course Code) 29

(a) Bar before loading and (b) bar after loading

⮚ Relation between E, K and ν

⮚ Relation between E, K and G

Prismatic bar of circular cross

⮚ The relationship between the load P and the elongation Ϩ for

⮚ Strain-Energy Density : It is convenient to use a quantity called strain-energy density,

⮚ If P/A is replaced by the stress σ and Ϩ/L by the strain ε,

4. Couple : It is illustrated by the couple of moment M1 acting on the overhanging beam.

⮚ The extreme values of B.M would be

⮚The free body diagram of section A - XX as shown

⮚ Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic

⮚ The variation of BM is cubic

2. The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic.

3. Young’s Modulus is the same in tension as well as in compression.

Where, y = distance from the neutral axis and,

⮚ Integration is performed over the area of the shaded part of

⮚ Applying equation of equilibrium, in the x-direction,

⮚The quantity dM/dx is equal to the shear force V

⮚ Hence, the equation for the shear stress will become,

⮚ The first moment Q of the shaded part of the cross-sectional

⮚ By substituting the expression of Q in the shear formula,

⮚ Thus, the maximum shear stress in a beam of rectangular cross

⮚ Total moment of shaded area =

⮚ Therefore, the shear stress t in the web of the beam at

⮚ Maximum and Minimum Shear Stresses :

▪ The minimum shear stress occurs where the web

Consider a cantilever beam AB carrying a concentrated load P and a couple of moment M0

3. The twisting couples act in the transverse planes only.

4. All radii remain straight after torsion.

5. Plane sections perpendicular to the axis of a circular member before application of

Where, τ’ = shear stress at any radius ‘r’.

⮚ This force will produce a moment or torque about the

⮚ The total torque T on the section,

⮚Since τ' is a function of r, because it varies with radius

⮚Torsional stiffness (k) : Torque per radian twist

• Where d0 and di = Outside and inside diameter of the shaft, and r = d0 / 2.

• Let k = Ratio of inside diameter and outside diameter of the shaft = di / do

⮚ Shafts in Series and Parallel :-

⮚ Maximum Principal stress,

⮚ Maximum Shear stress :-

⮚ The quantity dϕ/dx is the rate of change of the

⮚ If the material is linearly elastic, then from Hooke’s law in

⮚ Let us consider a small strip of radius ρ and thickness dr