THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

CHIRAG SOOD MIME-260 McGill ID-260733344

INTRODUCTION:
Tensile testing is one of the most fundamental tests for engineering, and provides valuable
information about a material and its associated properties such as ultimate strength, yield
strength,% elongation and Young Modulus. These properties are the standard analysis of
materials suitable for Engineering use. Experiments on tensile tests can be used to predict the
tensile properties and they are conducted by application of axial or longitudinal forces to a
specimen. These forces are applied on the specimen until deformation causes failure. The tensile
load and corresponding extensions are then recorded for calculations and determination of stress-
strain relationship of the material specimen. One example of this could be to determine the
Ultimate Tensile Stress of a material to be used for a shopping bag, to check it can hold enough
weight as Breaking strength is the factor for bag to test its endurance. Another example could be
of the applications in which no plastic deformation is required such as skeleton of bridges for
aerodynamic purposes. Hence in these bridges the material with High ultimate yield strength is
used
The tensile test is universally used to determine the capability of the material to undergo
practical application for the means of designing Engineering structures and its components. The
main objective of this experiment is to determine the behavior of three specimens under Tensile
Test. The specimens are Cold rolled brass, Copper and Annealed Brass.

THEORY:
The tensile test is carried out by applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific extention rate to
a standard tensile specimen with known dimensions(gauge length and cross sectional area) till
failure. When forces are applied to materials, they deform in reaction to those forces. The
magnitude of the deformation for a constant force depends on the geometry of the materials. For
these reasons, engineers define stress and strain.
Stress is given by: Defined in this manner, the stress can be thought of as a normalized force and
is given by: s = F/Gauge Transversal Area

Strain can be thought of as a normalised deformation and is given by: e = (lf - lo) /(l0),
where lf and lo are total elongation and uniform elongation respectively.
 Force vs Elongation Curve
•Yield Strength=Load at yield(N)/(Width*Thickness)=Py/Ao
•Tensile Strength(UTS)= Maximum Load(N)/(Width*Thickness)=PT/Ao
•Elastic Modulus=Tensile Strength*Initial Gauge Length(l0) /Gauge Transverse
Area(Width X Thickness)*Change in Gauge length(Dl)=s/e
•Percent Elongation=(Change in Gauge length(Dl)/Initial Gauge Length)*100%
=((lf - lo) /(l0))x100%

As it is noted that mechanical properties of metals largely depend on the microstructure for
example a metal which has a fine grained microstructure has good hardness and strength but has
low ductility while a metal which has a coarse grained microstructure has good ductility but has
low hardness and strength. A material is considered to be cold worked if its grains are in a coarse
condition. During the cold working, yield strength and hardness are increased while ductility as
represented by % elongation is decreased. As it is apparent on the above curve that during cold
working, the gap between yield and tensile strength decreases because yield strength increases
more rapidly than the tensile strength. This gap is required in certain forming operations where
appreciable deformation is required. This gap area between yield and tensile strength represents
the ductility and tensile nature of a metal. The large gap indicates that metal has good ductility
and tensility while small gap indicates that metal has brittleness. If the gap between yield and
tensile strength is low then very close control of the load is required otherwise facture can occur
during service condition. As we can notice on above graph and in results for our sample of
annealed Brass we can notice this phenomena on Force-elongation curve.
This metallurgical problem can be solved by proper annealing. The alloy of copper and zinc is
called brass The main mechanism of alloy strengthening is the elastic misfit interaction, which is
also known as the "size effect" due to the resultant elastic distortion that interacts with the
distortion around the dislocations. Therefore, the motion of the extended dislocations is made
more difficult and additional work must be done to constrict the pair of partial dislocations (e.g.
for cross slip).
By proper annealing and alloy strengthening the effects of cold working such as increase in
hardness and brittleness can be kept control to the desired range.As it is apparent on above curve
that during cold working the yield strength increases more rapidly than the tensile strength
therefore the gap between yield and tensile strength becomes narrow making the material hard
and brittle while reverse process occur during annealing making the material tensile and ductile,
which is apparent in annealed brass(Cu-Zn alloy) which has its difference between UTS and
Yield strength considerably higher than Cold rolled brass. This difference can also be seen in the
alloys as alloys have low UTS but the prolonged period between the plastic deformation and the
breaking point makes alloys very ductile and tensile as compared to their metal counterparts.In
the above graph as we can notice that the phenomena of alloying increases the area under plastic
deformation considerably thereby making the alloy to undergo prolonged period of increased
stress without approaching the breaking limit while simultaneously also undergoing the
permanent indentations.

The literature values for our samples are:

Mechanical COPPER ANNEALED COLD-ROLLED

Properties BRASS(500 C) BRASS
Yield Strength 33.3 MPa 68.9-228 Mpa 410 MPa
Ultimate Tensile 210 MPa 325 Mpa 485 MPa
Strength
Elastic Modulus 110 GPa 110 GPa 109 GPa

METHOD:
A tensile test sample of Copper was used. Measure the dimension of the specimens by using
Vernier Calipers; measure the cross-section of the specimens using the micrometer; establish the
gauge length by drawing, with a pencil, two parallel lines, separated by about 25 mm, in the
gauge region. In order to reduce error percentage, we measured more than three points for each
dimension to determine the average values. The region of minimum cross section had average
dimensions 6.48 mm in width, 0.97 mm in thickness, and 25.86 mm in length. The error in these
dimensions was ± 0.05 mm. This sample was clamped into a Tensile Test Machine by using
manual control, After that move the crosshead of the machine to a suitable position and mount
the specimen on it. Adjust the orientation of the specimen so that it is well-align with the loading
heads. Make sure that the sample rests vertical along the alignments of clamps to assure the
uniform normal force .One end of the sample was held at a fixed position with the other end was
displaced at a constant rate. After that. lock the safety shell before starting the test. Follow the
instructions from the TA to set the initial settings for the machine to apply the force on sample.
The machine will exert a tensile force on the specimen causing it to extend. The force exerted to
create each increment of extension is displayed on the machine along with the total extension.
After the Tension test, remove out the specimen and measure the thickness and width of the
breaking edges. These steps can be repeated again for the other two samples. Make sure that the
annealed brass sample must be cleared using the abrasive paper before drawing the parallel lines
on gauge area.
There is no minimum gauge length because the materials under the sufficient stress are prone to
breakage irrespective of the length of the specimen. The maximum limit for gauge length is set
for the gripping as well as handling and compatibility limit for each machine and differs with
every other machine. The specimen axis must be properly aligned with the material rolling
direction, forging grain pattern, or composite layup. This is the must condition for the successful
result of tensile test, hence the maximum length cant go beyond the limit after which these
factors are compromised. Thus dimensions of the specimen must be held within the allowable
tolerances according to the machine limits and compatibility.
The selection of the specimen length determines the extent of the failure in the gauge section and
assure that the specimen contains a sufficient number of fibers in the cross section to be
statistically representative of the bulk material. The specimen length should normally be on the
longer end of the spectrum because longer length minimize bending stresses caused by minor
grips discrepancies. Keeping the gage section as far from the grips as reasonably possible
provides a significant amount of material under stress and therefore produce a more statistically
significant result. Hence the maximum extent of the allowable length spectrum is preferred for
testing.

SAFETY:
•The grips used in the testing machine must be properly serrated so that there is no chance of
slippage of the specimen. Ensure the specimen is correctly preloaded to minimise the risk of
fatigue failure. Take extreme care when installing or removing specimens in the testing area

•Small test specimens often require small gaps between grips and compression platens. Avoid
putting your fingers or hands in small gaps when loading specimens. Use forceps, or a hemostat
to load your specimens instead.

•Tensile test involves inherent hazards from high forces, rapid motions and stored energy.
Caution must be practiced and must be aware of all moving and operating components that are
potentially hazardous. Whenever you consider that safety is compromised, press the stop
button to stop the test and isolate the testing system

•Ensure that your test set-up and the actual test you will be performing on materials, assemblies
or structures, constitutes no hazard to yourself or others. Ask the TA to know about the mechanic
limit features available in machine as a precaution. These are supplied to enable you to prevent
movement of the test system beyond desired regions of operation. Limits provide protection for
your specimen and reduce potential hazard.

•Ensure that you are wearing the protective sunglasses and clothing. Although a debris shield is
present in the machine but metal parts due to uneven and extreme loading can shoot out of the
grips, or become projectiles upon specimen failure causing grave injuries.

RESULTS:
Cold Rolled Brass:
Name Value Units
6.48
Width 6.44 mm
6.87
Average Width 6.59 mm
Thickness 1 mm
Initial Gauge
23.29 mm
Length
Final Gauge
29.90 mm
Length
Change In
28.3 %
Elongation(%)
Peak Load 2795.833 N
Ultimate Tensile
424.88 MPa
Strength
Strain At Break 3.864 m/m
141.
Modulus GPa
55
Load At Yield 2550 N
Yield Strength 400.6 MPa
Brass Annealed
Name Value Units
6.47
Width 6.37 mm
6.91
Average Width 6.58 mm
Thickness 1.01 mm
Initial Gauge Length 23.69 mm
Final Gauge Length 42.05 mm
Change In Elongation(%) 77.5 %
Peak Load 1982.5 N
Tensile Strength 301.2 MPa
Strain At Break 1.441 mm/mm
Modulus 92.21 GPa
Break Load 1962 N
Load At Yield 1722 N
Yield Strength 71.47 MPa
Copper
Name Value Units
6.40
Width 6.37 mm
6.68
Average Width 6.48
Thickness 0.97 mm
Initial Gauge Length 25.86 mm
Final Gauge Length 37.64 mm
Change In Elongation(%) 45.5 %
Peak Load 1368.33 N
Ultimate Tensile Strength 215.33 MPa
Strain At Break 0.773 mm/mm
Modulus 114.94 GPa
Break Load 1250 N
Load At Yield 1273 N
Yield Strength 52.3 MPa
COPPER-
Copper
Stress vs Strain
250

200
Stress(MPa)

150

100

50

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Strain

Copper
Force vs Displacement
1600
1400
1200
1000
Force(N)

800
600
400
200
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Displacement(m)
ANNEALED BRASS:
Annealled Brass
Force vs Displacement
2500

2000
Force(N)

1500

1000

500

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Displacement(mm)

Brass Annealled
Stress vs Strain
350.000

300.000

250.000
Stress(MPa)

200.000

150.000

100.000

50.000

0.000
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800
Strain
COLD ROLLED BRASS:
COLD ROLLED BRASS
STRESS vs STRAIN
500.000
450.000
400.000
350.000
STRESS(MPa)

300.000
250.000
200.000
150.000
100.000
50.000
0.000
-50.0000.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000

STRAIN

Cold Rolled Brass

Force Vs Displacement
3000
2500
2000
Force(N)

1500
1000
500
0
-500 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
Displacement(m)

After the tensile test, the dimension of all the specimens change. We noticed reduction in width
and thickness while Length increase. The Poisson’s Ratio can account for this phenomenon.

This increase in length is compensated by a decrease in the cross-sectional area as a virtue of

Poisson’s effect
Percent Elongation in length indicates the ductility of the material. From the comparison table, we
find that the ductility of ductile material(Annealed brass) is better than that of brittle material (Cold
brass)under tension. Thus, for brittle materials, there is little difference between the ultimate
strength and the yield strength. Also, the strain at the time of rupture is much smaller for brittle
than for ductile materials. Also the necking region in case of brittle material is very small. We
conclude from this observation that Normal stress is primarily responsible for the failure of brittle
materials to be used as a more endurable and strengthened metal.

DISCUSSION:
The force-chart displacement graph for the specimens examined above are shown. The data
shown then were converted to a corresponding stress-strain graph. The Cold Rolled Brass Stress-
Strain Graph clearly indicates two regions of linear behavior in the low strain region of the
stress-strain graph. This behavior suggests that the sample was very compliant at low stress
levels, and very stiff at high stress levels. As opposed to Cold Rolled Brass, annealed Brass
experienced more plastic deformation and this is reflected by the significantly higher percentage
elongation. The other most significant thing to notice is the difference between annealed Brass
and cold rolled brass in necking region, indicating considerably higher plastic deformation for
annealed brass before breaking point. The Cold rolled brass sample also displayed a higher
Toughness than the sample, which is represented by the larger area beneath the stress strain
graph. Referring to our literature values, the Yield Stress’s for annealed brass is anywhere from
68.9-228 MPa, compared to the 71.47 MPa value that was obtained experimentally. Although it
falls in the predicted range the difference between these results suggest that; The yield stress for
annealed brass that was predicted using a Normal stress may of given an inaccurate answer that
is higher than the real value .The best explanation for discrepancy could be that the turning of the
specimen is still too sharp such that the force is concentrated and the load will be too fast giving
incorrect yield results. For some ductile materials such as annealed brass, less sampling data can
be provided. The experimental value for the Yield Stress of Cold Rolled Brass(401.8 MPa) was
very close to the theoretical range of value which is 410). This small error could be the Parallax
error when reading values.
The ultimate tensile stresses recorded (301 MPa, 424.88 MPa & 215.33 Mpa) are very close to
the theoretical values, which are 325Mpa 510 Mpa & 210 Mpa for Annealed Brass, Cold Rolled
Brass and Copper respectively. The small discrepancy can be explained by not locking the
specimen to the machine at accurate position, so that breaking position is not satisfactory, which
in turn compromises the normal component of applied force on sample.
The values for the Modulus of Elasticity obtained experimentally have significant digressions
from our literature values(+/- 25%). Determining the Modulus of a material using a uni-axial
tensile Stress experiment is generally regarded as being inaccurate and is instead commonly
determined by measuring the natural frequency of a sample using an oscillation test. The reasons
for this are; Recording small displacements of the sample is imprecise due to the measuring
equipment: Also when exerting large forces the equipment can begin to flex, and the
displacement of the machine is sometimes mistakenly read as a displacement of the sample.

As we have predicted in our theory section that in the Cold working the difference between UTS
and Yield Stress decrease rapidly. During the cold rolling the yield strength increases more
rapidly than the tensile strength therefore the gap between yield and tensile strength becomes
narrow making the material hard while reverse process occur during annealing making the
material soft and ductile. The small gap in our results indicates that the cold brass is more brittle
and the load in the tensile test should be tightly controlled to avoid facture during service
condition. The large gap for anneal brass indicates that the annealed brass has more tensile nature
to it which makes it more ductile and strengthened and is able to withstand large loads while
undergoing plastic deformation before breaking. As for difference between copper and brass ,we
hypothesised that the alloys make the material more strengthened and ductile, which is apparent
in annealed brass(Cu-Zn alloy) and which has its gap between UTS and yield stress
considerably higher than Copper. This can be easily corroborated by the difference between UTS
and yield stress for copper(163.3 MPa) and brass(229.3 MPa). This significant difference
between cooper and its alloy, brass, signifies that the alloy strengthening mechanism works
effectively in increasing the strength of the material, making it ductile and tensile by increasing
the difference between Yield strength and Ultimate Tensile Strength. It also decreases the
brittleness of material while it can undergo prolonged period of plastic deformation under heavy
stress before breaking point.

CONCLUSION:
•Percent Elongation in length indicates the ductility of the material. From the comparison table,
we find that the ductility of ductile material is better than that of brittle under tension. It is clear
that annealed brass has the higher ductility than the Cold rolled brass. Hence cold rolling is an
effective method when the material need has to be of high yield but when the ductility and tensile
nature is the priority then annealing is the best process to achieve this
•In the tensile test, we find that the properties of the ductile material when subjected to tension is
better than that of brittle. This is because the mechanism and microstructure of the material. In
macroscopic view, normal stress is primarily responsible for the fracture of brittle material while
shear stress is responsible for the fracture of ductile material.
•From this tensile test, we fist calculate amounts like yield strength, tensile strength, modulus,
ect. Secondly, we plotted the stress-strain diagram to learn more about the relationship between
stress and strain under tension of different materials. Thirdly, we compare the difference between
the ductile material(Annealed Brass) and brittle material(Cold Rolled Brass). By comparison, we
get to know that ductile material has a better performance under tension. Since it has larger
tensile strength, yielding strength, larger % elongation and ductility.
•Alloy strengthening mechanism holds true for Stress-Strain Curve. The increasing difference
between Ultimate Tensile Strength and Yield Strength for the alloy of a metal solidifies the basic
hypothesis that alloying of a metal makes it to have more strength, tensility and ductility
•Annealed Brass can be commented as a strengthened and ductile material, while Cold rolled
Brass can be classfied as a weak and brittle material compared with Annealed brass. As when the
applied forces approach its yield strength, the plastic deformation occurs. Cold rolled Brass will
crack until the applied forces keep increasing. However, the Annealed brass will have
significantly longer period of plastic deformation than Cold rolled Brass .The Brass(Cu-Zn alloy)
can be classified as more ductile and having more strength as compared to Copper and will have
comparatively longer period of plastic deformation than Copper.
References:

a.http://www.answers.com/topic/tensile-strength
http://www.answers.com/topic/fracture-stress
b.APPENDIX Typical Properties of Selected Materials Used in Engineering (SI
Units)
c.Mechanics of Materials Sixth Edition
d.Van Vlack, L.H., Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering - 6th
Edition, Addison Wesley, 1989, p 556.
e.Effects of Cold Rolling and Annealing on The Microstructure and
Mechanical Properties of Brass, HAFIZ ABDUL AHAD QAZI, Mehran
University