UNIT-II

Mechanical Property
Measurement
Mr. A. J. Puri
Assistant Professor
SSBT’s COET, Bambhori Jalgaon
 Syllabus
• Tensile, compression and torsion tests;
Young’s modulus, relations between true and
engineering stress-strain curves, generalized
Hooke’s law, yielding and yield strength,
ductility, resilience, toughness and elastic
recovery; Hardness: Rockwell, Brinell and
Vickers and their relation to strength.
 Tensile Test
• It is used to determine;
• STRENGTH
• DUCTILITY
• ELASTICITY
• STIFFNESS
• MALLEABILTY
• MODULUS of TOUGHNESS
• MODULUS of RESILIENCE
setup of the tensile test.
 Specimen:
Circular, Square
or Rectangular.
SPECIMEN
Avoid Sharp Changes

Standards by ASTM
(American Society for
Testing and
Materials) specify the
preparation of the
test specimen and the
conduct of the test
itself

Tensile test: (a) tensile force applied in (1) and (2) resulting elongation of material;
(b) typical test specimen;
 Typical progress of a tensile test:
The starting test
specimen has an
original length Lo
and area Ao

(1) beginning of test, no load; (2) uniform elongation and reduction

of cross-sectional area;(3) continued elongation, maximum load
reached; (4) necking begins, load begins to decrease; and (5)
fracture. If pieces are put back together as in, (6) final length can be
measured.
 Typical engineering stress–strain plot
in a tensile test of a metal.
The load and the change in
length of the specimen are
recorded as testing proceeds, to
provide the data required to
determine the stress–strain
relationship.
There are two different types of
stress–strain curves:
(1) engineering stress–strain
and
(2) true stress–strain.
• The first is more important
in design, and the second is
more important in
manufacturing.
 Engineering Stress–Strain
• The engineering stress and strain in a tensile
test are defined relative to the original area and
length of the test specimen.
• The components are designed to withstand the
anticipated stresses encountered in service.
• The engineering stress at any point on the
curve is defined as the force divided by the
original area
where|
s =engineering stress, MPa,
F = applied force in the test, N, and
Ao = original area of the test specimen, mm2
 Engineering strain
• It is given by,
• Where,
• e = engineering strain, mm/mm;
• L =length at any point during the elongation,
mm;
• Lo= original gage length, mm (in)
 The stress–strain relationship
• Stress strain curve shows two areas indicating
two distinct forms of behavior: (1) elastic and
(2) plastic.
• The relationship between stress and strain is
linear, and the material exhibits elastic
behavior by returning to its original length
when the load (stress) is released.
• The relationship is defined by Hooke’s law:
where E = modulus of elasticity, MPa, a
measure of the inherent stiffness of a
material
Elastic modulus for selected materials.
Relationship Between True and
Engineering Stress Strain
Relationship Between True and
Engineering Stress Strain
 Evaluation of Properties
• 1. Proportional Stress:
Stress is proportional
to strain.
• Beyond this point,
stress strain curve
diverts from linearity.
• Find out by noting
stress value at
diverging point.
 2. Elastic Limit
• Highest value of stress up to which
deformation is temporary.
• Slightly higher than proportional.
• To determine specimen should be loaded
slightly beyond P.S. and unloaded Repeat by
increasing load every time till it shows
permanent deformation.
 3. Ultimate Tensile Stress
• Highest value of stress that material can bear
without fracture.

• 4. Breaking Stress or fracture stress:

• Stress value at the point of fracture
• Indicated on stress strain curve.
 5. Yield Stress
• Stress at which material yields.
• There are two yield stresses 1. upper and 2.
lower.
• Upper yield stress is likely to vary condition of
material.
• Lower yield point remains unaffected.
• L Y stress is used in design of components.
 6. Proof Stress
• It is reported for those
materials which do not show
yield point.
• It is equivalent to yield
stress.
• It is stress at which the
material shows a specified
amount of plastic
deformation.
 7. Resilience
• It is the total energy absorbed by material
during its elastic deformation.
• It is area up to elastic load in load
displacement diagram.
 Compression Test
• ASTM Standard E 9, “Standard Test Methods of
Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at
Room Temperature.”

• COMPRESSION LOADS occur in a wide variety

of material applications, such as steel building
structures and concrete bridge supports, as well as
in material processing, such as during the rolling
and forging of billet.

• Characterizing requires tests that measure the

compressive behaviour the materials
 Test
• The compression test consists of deforming a
cylindrical specimen to produce a thinner cylinder of
larger diameter (upsetting).

• The compression test is a convenient method for

determining the stress-strain response of materials at
large strains (ε > 0.5) because the test is not subject to
the instability of necking that occurs in a tension test.

• The test is also used with brittle materials, for which it

is extremely difficult to machine a specimen and
tensile test it in perfect alignment
 Difficultie
s
• There are two inherent difficulties with the
compression test that must be overcome by the
test technique:
• Buckling of the specimen and Barreling of the
specimen.

• Both conditions cause nonuniform stress and

strain distributions in the specimen that make it
difficult to analyze the results
Buckling
• Buckling is a mode of failure characterized by
an unstable lateral material deflection caused
by compressive stresses.

• Buckling is controlled by selecting a specimen

geometry with a low length-to-diameter ratio.

• L/D should be less than 2, and a compression

specimen with L/D = 1 is often used
• It also is important to have a very well aligned
load train and to ensure that the end faces of
the specimen are parallel and perpendicular
to the load axis.

• Often a special alignment fixture is used with

the testing machine to ensure an accurate
load path.
• Compression tests can provide considerable
useful information on plastic deformation and
failure.

• But certain precautions must be taken to

assure a valid test of material behavior.

• Figure 1 illustrates the modes of deformation

that can occur in compression testing.
 Torsion Test
• Not widely used.
• Useful for theoretical study of plastic flow.
• Carried out to find modulus of elasticity.
• Parts Shafts, axles, twist drills, rivets and keys.
• There is no standard relation between torsion test
and tensile test.
• Generally for plain carbon steel, torsion strength
is 75% of the tensile strength.
 Torsion Test
• Machine consist of
Twisting head with a
chuck for gripping the
specimen and for
applying the twisting
moment & weighing head
which grips other end of
the specimen & measure
the twisting torque
applied.
Deformation is measured by twist
• Axis of specimen should measuring device which measure
coincide with the axis of angular displacement.
rotation. Specimen of circular cross section is used.
For solid specimen :Stress varies zero from center to maximum at surface.
For tubular specimen :Stress distribution is nearly uniform through out CS.
 Fracture
• Different than tensile test.
• Very Small localized
reduction in cross-section.
• Ductile material fails by
shear along one of the
shear plane of maximum
shear stress & generally it
is normal to longitudinal
axis.
• Brittle material fails along
plane perpendicular to
maximum tensile stress &
show a helical fracture.
Torsion Equation
 Brinell Hardness Test
• A. Standard Test:
• ASTM E10 or IS 1500 Specifications.
• Load for iron and steel 3000kg on 10 mm ball
indenter for at least 10 sec.
• For non ferrous metals and alloys: 500 kg on 10
mm indenter for at least 30 sec.
• Loads are applied through hydraulic mechanism.
• Indenter: High carbon steel or tungsten carbide.
• The diameter of indentation is measured with
special microscope.( Accuracy 0.01mm)
 Hardness
• Depending on the back ground of the person:
• Metallurgist: resistance to
indentation/permanent deformation.
• Design engineer: Measure of Flow stress.
• Mechanical engineer: resistance to wear
• Mineralogist; Resistance to scratch
 Types of Test
• Static indentation test;
• Indenter( ball, Diamond cone or pyramid)
• Forced into the material being tested.
• Measure of hardness: relationship
between, Test force to un recovered area or
depth of indentation.
• Rockwell, Brinell, Knoop, Vicker & ultrasonic.
 Brinell Hardness Test
• The Brinell hardness testing consists of indenting the test
material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide
ball(10mm) subjected to a load of 500 to 3000 kg for 10
to 30 second.
• The full load (3000 Kg) is normally applied for iron and
steel for 10 to 15 seconds
• The load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg for 30
second to avoid excessive indentation for softer materials
• The Brinell hardness number is calculated by dividing
the applied load with the surface area of the
indentation.
• The diameter of the indentation left in the test
material is measured with a low powered
microscope.
• The diameter of the impression is the
average of two readings at right angles.
• Brinell hardness number table can simplify
the determination of the Brinell hardness
number.
• A well structured Brinell hardness number
reveals the test conditions, and looks like
this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that
a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained
using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a
500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30
seconds.
 Indenter
• Hardened steel ball used for testing up to
444HB (2.9 mm dia of indentation).

• Special hardened steel ball up to 500HB.

• Tungsten carbide ball 444-627 HB (2.9-

2.45 mm dia of indentation).
 Load Selection
• Size of impression 2.5-6mm (25 -60% of
ball
• dia).
Specimen thickness (ten times the depth of
indentation)
Test surface
Normally Flat surface
 Materials to be Tested

• The Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest

indentation,
Therefore test averages the hardness over a
wider amount of material
This will more accurately account for multiple
grain
structures and any irregularities in the
uniformity of
the material.
 Cont…
• This method is the best for achieving the
bulk or macro-hardness of a material,
Particularly those materials with
heterogeneous structures.
• Virtually all steels except case hardened,
cast Iron, Nonferrous metals
 Testing Machines
-Dead Weight tester, hydraulic, Pneumatic
(A piston cylinder measuring device)
-Elastic member (spring)
-Laboratory tester high degree accuracy.
-Production testing automatic or portable
 Poldi hardness test

• It works on the same principle as that of the

Brinell &b is simplified version of Brinell
Hardness testing Machine.

• It portable instrument and easy to handle.

 Poldi Hardness tester
• The instrument is small in size & consist of
hollow test tube approximately 4’’ in length, in
which a plunger is fitted, the top end of
plunger is out of the tube.
• Brinell Ball of 10mm diameter.

Slot to insert a Steel Bar

of known Hardness
• A steel bar of known hardness is called
Standard test bar and its hardness is printed on
the bar.
 Method of testing
1. The standard bar is inserted in the slot of
instrument. Bar touches the ball as well as the
lower end of the plunger.
2. The entire assembly is held over the surface
of the specimen of which hardness is to be
measured & hammer blow is given on top of
plunger.
3. Due to blow 2 impressions are obtained one
on Specimen & one on Standard Bar
4. Impressions are measured
by using a magnifiscope.
• “Magnifiscope is a small
instrument & which
magnifies the image to
about 10 times & has a
calibrated grid in its eye
piece”.
5. Hardness of material can be calculated as:

Specimen

Diameter of circular
impression on specimen

Standard bar

Diameter of circular
impression on Standard
• Using above formula relative hardness can be
measured.
• This relative hardness calculated by using
Brinell Principle is called as “Poldi Hardness”
• If the standard bar used in test has a different hardness
than for which the chart is prepared, a correction is
applied to the hardness value observed from the chart.

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

=
𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑑. 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡
 Precautions

1. Tube should be perfectly held vertical to

avoid elliptical impression.

2. Specimen should be kept on hard surface to

avoid rebound.

3. The hammer blow should be moderate

 Vickers Hardness test
• Works on the same principle as the Brinell
Hardness tester.
• Vickers indenter is made up of diamond in the
form of square based Pyramid.
• The angle included between opposite faces is
136˚.
• This angle is chosen because it corresponds to
the most desirable ratio of indentation dia. to
Ball dia. Of 0.375 in the Brinell Hardness test.
• Loads to be applied are in the range of 1 to 120 Kg.
• Case hardened components: 1 to 2.5 Kg.
• For C.I. & cast components higher loads are desirable,
if overall hardness is to be measured.
• The hardness tester is semi-automatic in operation
in which after the surface is brought close to the
indenter, the preset load is applied for some definite
time & the load is removed automatically.
Vickers Projected Impression
• From this triangle:
𝑋 2 + 𝑋 2 = 𝑑2
Therefore,
𝑑
𝑋=
2

𝑋 𝑑
=
2 2 2
• From triangle:
α 𝑥 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 =
2 𝑠

α 𝑑 2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 =
2 𝑠
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = × 𝑠 × 𝑥
2
• This hardness number is also called as Vickers
Pyramid Number (VPN) or Diamond Pyramid
number (DPN).
• The surface should be smooth & free from
oxide, dirt because impressions are very small.
• The minimum thickness of work piece depend
on the hardness of metal & the magnitude of
load applied.
 Rockwell Hardness Test
• Hardness of the metal is correlated with the
depth of indentation & not with area of
indentation.
• Harder the material depth of penetration is
less.
• The dial is calibrated is an inverse fashion so
that the hardness number becomes directly
proportional to hardness of material.
 Types of indenters
1. Hard steel balls of 1/16’’,1/8’’, 1/4’’, and 1/2’’
diameters
2. Brale indenter made up of diamond in form of
cone with included angle 120˚. The tip of the
indenter is accurately ground to a radius of
0.2mm.
• Loads are applied in two stages.
• First a constant minor load of 10Kg is applied
and then major load is applied.
• The major loads are 60, 100, or 150 Kg.
• ‘A’ letter indicates 60 Kg load and Brale
indenter.
• ‘B’ letter indicates 100Kg load and 1/16’’
diameter ball indenter.
• ‘C’ 150Kg load and Brale indenter.
Scale symbol for various combinations
of loads & Ball diameters
Indenter Major Load Kg
60 100 150
Cone (Brale) A D C
1/16’’ Ball F B G
1/8’’ Ball H E K
1/4’’ Ball L M P
1/2’’ Ball R S V
Component Condition Scale to be used
Thin Low load such as 60Kg
Thick High load such as 150
Hard Brale
Soft 1/16’’ Ball
Very Soft 1/8’’ or 1/4’’
Very Very Soft 1/2’’
Scale Indenter Major Dial Application
Symbol Load Numeral
B 1/16’’ (1.6mm) 100 Red Brass, low & medium
Carbon steel, Al alloys,
soft CI, Cast alloys
C Brale Diamond 150 Black Hardened steel, hard
cone CI, Deep case hardened
steels
A Brale 60 Black Hard thin materials like
razor blade, cemented
carbide
D Brale 100 Black Medium case hardened
steel
E 1/8’’ Ball 100 Red Useful for soft
materials, ferritic CI,
Al & Mg
F 1/16’’ ball 60 Red Thin components,
annealed cu alloys
G 1/16’’ ball 150 Red Phophor bronze,
beryllium bronze
 Procedure
• The test specimen is
placed on the anvil.
The dial pointers are
idle.
• Neither the minor nor
the major load is
applied.
• The anvil with specimen
is raised so that the
specimen touches the
indenter. By further
raising the indenter
slowly a minor load of
10kg is applied.
• The small pointer on the
dial coincides with
index mark.
• Large pointer will match
either the 0 in black ink
or 30 in red ink.
• Large pointer moves in
clockwise direction.
• Major load of 100 Kg is
applied by means of
release handle provided
on right side.
• Major consist of minor
10Kg+ additional 90Kg.
• The larger pointer moves
CCW direction from set
point to 40.(B-C)
• Depth of penetration:
(100-40)* 0.002=
0.12mm
• The major load of (90 out
of 100) is removed.
• Due to this elastic
recovery occurs & depth
recovery comes to D.
• The large pointer moves
in CW direction from 40
to 60.
• The difference of 20
divisions is actually the
measure of elastic
recovery of metal.
• Without removing minor
load, hardness number is
directly read from dial
which is 60.
• This hardness is denoted
as Rockwell B60.
• The depth B-D correspond
to (100-60)*0.002=0.08
• The minor load is
removed.
• The red numerals on dial are used for ball
indenter & black numeral are used for Brale
indenter.
• The red scale is shifted by 30 numerals in a
CCW direction, so that 30 number of red dial
comes exactly on 0 of black dial.
• The scale of the dial with respect to the motion
of pointer is reversed so that shallow
impressions will indicate high hardness.
 Calibration Equation

• 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 =

𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
100 −
0.002

• 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 =

𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
130 −
0.002
 Microhardness Tester
• The instruments are designed in such a way
that as low as 1gm & as high as 1000gm load
can be applied.
• Due to less loads impressions are extremely
small.
• Used for measurement of hardness of very thin
sections.
• Tukon hardness testing machine is one of this
types.
• Two indenters are used for Tukon hardness
tester one is Standard Vickers 136˚diamond
pyramid & other is diamond Knoop indenter.
• Traverse angle in knoop is 130˚ &
Longitudinal angle 172˚30’’.
• The projected impression of the Knoop
indenter is rhombic in shape with one diagonal
perpendicular to other.
• Longer diameter is 7 times the shorter.
𝑃
• 𝑉. 𝑃. 𝑁. = 1.8544 ×
𝑑2
• P load in Kg & d diagonal of sqaure impression
in mm.
𝑃
• 𝐾. 𝐻. 𝑁. =
𝐴𝑝
• Ap area of projected rhombic shape in mm2.
 Impact tests
• In certain situations, a ductile material fails in
brittle manner while in service and such a
failure is characterised by low absorption of
energy.
• The factors which contribute to brittle failure
are
I. Triaxial state of stress
II. Low temperature
III. High strain rate or rapid loading
• The susceptibility of materials for brittle failure
under the existence of above factors is
determined by the test which apply fast loads
like Impact test.
• Notched specimens are used because triaxial
state of stress is developed at the root of notch.
• “The tendency of brittle failure in the presence
of notch is called as Notch Sensitivity” & hence
the Notched Impact test measures the notch
sensitivity of material.
• The effect due to temperature is accessed by
testing the specimen at low temperatures.
• The temperature at which ductile material fails
in brittle manner is called ductile brittle
transition temperature.
• Charpy Impact test is widely used in the
United states & Izod Impact test in Britain.
• A certain mass is released from some distance
above the impact point which strikes the
specimen.
𝑚𝑣 2
• The K.E. of tup or head= = P.E. before
2
release= (mgh)
• Where,
m- mass of tup or head in Kg
v- Tangential velocity of tup at the point of impact
h- height of drop
• Head with arm
weighing 20.932Kg.
• Length of arm
0.825m.
• Both Charpy & Izod
test can be carried
out by changing
heads & specimen
fixing arrangement.

Fuel Instruments and Engineers Pvt. Ltd

Ichalkaranji, Maharshtra India
• For Charpy test: angle of release 140˚ i.e. drop
height 1.457m
• P.E.= 20.932*1.457*9.806= 300 Joules.
• The impact velocity: 2 × 9.806 × 1.457
=5.346 m/s.
• For Izod test: pendulum of weight 21.79 Kg is
released from an angle of 85˚21’ i.e. drop
height 0.758m
• P.E.= 21.79*0.758*9.806= 162 Joules.
• The impact velocity: 2 × 9.806 × 0.758 =
3.856 m/s.
• A pointer is provided on a semi-circular dial
which indicates the position of the pendulum.
• The energy needed to break the specimen is
directly recorded by the pendulum on dial.
• Calibration of dial is according to:
• Initial energy of Pendulum= Energy Necessary to
fracture the specimen + Swing energy of
Pendulum
• Mgh=Toughness+ Mgh’
Toughness(kg-m)= Mg(h-h’)
M- mass of pendulum in kg
h- original height of pendulum
h’- swing height of pendulum.
• Specimen for Charpy test
• For Izod test , square prism specimens 10 by
10 by 75 mm, v notched as shown in figure is
used.
• The specimen is
arranged as a
simply supported
beam & notch is on
tension side as
shown.
• In Izod test specimen
are clamped to act as
vertical cantilever
beam with notch on
the same side of
striking edge as
shown.
• Notched impact test
does not simulate
shock loading in
service & can not be
correlated with other
tests.
 Effect of variables

1. Velocity: if the velocity of striker is greater

than the critical velocity, the impact resistance
of the material sharply decreases.

• The maximum velocity that machine can

produce is always kept below the critical
velocity of the material to be tested.
 2. Specimen
a) Decreasing either the width or thickness,
decreases volume of metal undergoing
distortion hence decreases the energy
absorption.
b) Decrease in size tends to decrease the degree
of restraint. Due to this, tendency to cause
brittle fracture decreases & the energy
absorbed decreases.
 3. Temperature
• The ductile brittle transition temperature depends
on crystal structure, grain size, alloying elements,
impurities strain hardening rate & microstructure.
• BCC structures have more transition temperature
than FCC.
• Coarse grained structures have more transition
temperature than fine grained steels.
 Fatigue test
• When the material is subjected to repeated
stresses it fails at stresses below the yield point
stress such type of failure is called as fatigue
failure.
• Fatigue failure occurs due to the formation and
growth of cracks.
• Cracks usually start from the point of high
stress concentration.
 Stress cycles
1. Tension- Compression (Reversed stress)
2. Tension- Tension (Repeated stress)
3. Irregular or Random
• The specimen is in the form of cantilever and
loaded at one end through a ball bearing.
• It is rotated by high speed motor with
arrangement to measure rotations.
• At any instant the upper surface of the
specimen is under tension and lower surface
under compression.
• In one rotation, specimen undergoes two
cyclic fluctuations of stress (N=2R, R=No of
rotations, N= No of cyclic fluctuations
• Fatigue or Endurance limit: it is the maximum
number of cycles material can undergo before
initiations of first crack.
• Iron, steel & ferrous alloys shows fatigue limit
while Al, copper and their alloys show definite
fatigue limit.
• Endurance or fatigue strength: it is the
maximum stress that can be applied repeatedly
over a specified number of cycles without
fracture.
 Creep test
• Slow and
progressive
deformation of
material with time
under a constant
temperature
approximately 0.4
times melting
point temperature
in Kelvin.
• Creep strength of the material is highest stress
that the material can withstand for a specified
length of time without exceeding the specified
deformation at a given temperature.(creep limit)
• Creep rupture strength of a material is the
highest stress that the material can withstand for
a specified length of time without rupture.
Stress Vs. Minimum creep rate for
phosphorus deoxidised copper
 Creep fractures

Creep is high temperature process and hence fractures are always intergranular
Effect of temperature on creep curve at
constant stress
Effect of stress on creep curve at
constant temperature
 Non-Destructive Testing
• Does not damage or reduce the life of
component.
• They does not measure any mechanical
properties but they are used to locate defects in
component.
• To obtain high level of reliability, these defects
should be minimum or absent.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
(MAGNAFLUX)
• These methods are used to detect various kinds
of flaws in ferromagnetic components such as
welding, casting & forgings of iron and steel.
• The components to be tested are magnetized &
inspection medium is applied to the
component.
• In dry method special ferromagnetic powder is
applied by hand shaker, vibrating screen etc.
• In wet method of inspection, a liquid
containing ferromagnetic particles suspended
in some carrier such as kerosene or oil is
applied by dipping, spraying or brushing.
• Magnetization is done either by using an
external magnetic yoke coil or by passing an
electric current through the component.
• A magnetic pole is formed at the crack or flaw,
which causes magnetic powder to concentrate
on this area.
• When the part are magnetised length wise,
transverse cracks are easily detected.
• When the part is magnetised crosswise by a
circular magnetic field, length wise cracks are
easily detected.
• This is done by passing DC or AC through the
component.
• Current only helps to identify cracks at the
surface level only.
• Because AC flow from near the surface: Skin
effect.
• The detection of defect depends upon,
I. Strength of the magnetic field
II. Distance of the defect from the surface
III. Ratio of height of the defect to thickness of the
component.
IV. Width of the discontinuity.
• The part should be demagnetised before putting to
the service
1. By applying reverse magnetic field of decreasing
strength.
2. By withdrawing it through an open solenoid
while alternating current is flowing.
 Dye penetrate inspection
• Invisible cracks, porosity etc defects on
surface are detected.
• Steps of test
I. Cleaning of the surface.
II. Drying of surface
III. Applying dye penetrate on clean and dry
surface by dipping, brushing etc.
IV. Removing excess penetrate by soft & clean
cotton
V. Applying developer on the surface
 Sonic inspection

• Sound is created in the component by some

suitable method and from the quality of sound,
presence of defect is judged.
 Ultrasonic inspection
• The principle of ultrasonic testing involves a
measure of the time required by ultrasonic
vibrations to penetrate the material, reflect
from the opposite side of from an internal
discontinuity & return the point where the
wave were first introduced.
• It is recorded on Cathode-ray oscilloscope
(CRO) screen.
• It reveals very fine flaws and discontinuities.
• There are two types of ultrasonic inspection
methods.
I. Pulse-echo method.
II. Transmission method.
• In pulse echo method a pulse generator
produces ultrasonic waves and are passed into
the component through quartz transducer
crystal.
• As soon as the wave comes across the
discontinuity, it gets reflected back.
• This is represented as a pattern or pip on
oscilloscope screen.
Oscilloscope screen of ultrasonic tester
Through transmission method
• The signal pulse enters the material from one
transducer and, travels through the material and
is received by other transducer.
• If no flaws are present a clear strong signal is
seen on the oscilloscope.
• If the material contains flaws, a weaker or
distorted signal will be seen.
 Radiography

• The component to be examined is exposed to

radiations of short wave length such as X-rays
of wave length 0.2Angstrom to 5 Angstrom.
• These radiations penetrate through the material
& gets absorbed by the material.
• When the defect or flaw is present, rays are
absorbed to smaller extent.
• The amount of radiation from opposite side
can be recorded & from variations defects can
be detected.
• The recording is done by a film sensitive to
radiations in a cassette at the end of the object.
• After development of the film it shows the
holes, porosity, cracks etc by dark areas.
• When produced by X-rays film is called as
exograph & gamma graph when produced by
gamma rays.
• Both of them are known as radiographs.
 Equipment
• X-ray tube is of Coolidge type.
• The electrons of high velocity travelling from
cathode are stopped at the anode.
• Due to stopping of these electrons, X-rays are
produced.
• The intensity and quality of rays depends on
I. Number of electrons heating the anode, the
cathode current
II. Velocity of electrons, which depends on applied
potential
III. Atomic number of the target
• Cathode is made up of tungsten & anode is water
cooled block of copper containing tungsten target
 Gamma ray radiography
• Gamma rays are produced by radio active
decay of radium and its isotope such as cobalt
60.
• Most of the cobalt-60 isotopes are cylindrical
with dimensions of about 3mm diameter & 3
to 6 mm in length.
 Advantages over X-ray radiography
1. Gamma rays have shorter wave length, so
have more penetration.
2. The scattering of gamma rays is less hence
non uniform section sizes can be tested.
3. Can employed to inspect many components at
the same time. Because gamma rays are
emitted in all directions.
4. Equipment is small in size hence better
portability.
Advantages of X-rays over gamma

1. Fast and require less exposure time of only

seconds or minutes.
2. X-rays gives better results for component
sizes of less than 50mm thickness.
 Eddy current testing
• When a coil carrying electric current is brought near a
metallic specimen, eddy currents are developed in
specimen due to electromagnetic induction.
• The magnitude of eddy current depends on
1. The magnitude and frequency of alternating current
flowing in the coil.
2. The electrical conductivity of the specimen.
3. The magnetic permeability of the specimen
4. The shape of the specimen.
5. The relative position of coil 7 specimen.
6. The mount and type of defect in the specimen.
• The change in eddy currents will change the
magnetic impedance of the specimen which is
converted into voltage and observed on a
voltmeter.
• The test coils are of two types,
1. Absolute coils: Directly measure inductance
2. Differential coils: here pair of coils is used &
are connected in series opposing each other.
• A standard specimen is surrounded by one coil
& specimen under test by another coil.
• When the output from the two coils is zero, the
specimen under test is similar to the standard
specimen, otherwise they are different.
• The proper coiling should be used for better
sensitivity of the instrument to defects.
• As the coil size increases the sensitivity
decreases.
• Higher frequencies are used to detect the
surface and subsurface defects.
• 200Hz to 6*10^6 Hz.