Chapter 2:

Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 2 - 1
 Strength of Materials
• The strength of materials is defined by the
ability of the material to withstand stress
without failure.
• The strength of a material is affected by:
– Microstructure
– Material property
– Type, direction and velocity of loading

Chapter 2 - 2
Definitions: Stress, Strain, & Young’s Modulus

• Stress (σ) is defined force per unit of area.

Stress quantifies the internal forces acting on
the object as a reaction to the external
applied forces. The units for stress are N/m 2
or Pa.
• Strain (ε) is defined as the % change in
deformation of the object.
• Young’s Modulus (E) is the slope of the
stress – strain curve of the material. It
describes the stiffness of the material. The
units for Young’s modulus are N/m2 or Pa.

Chapter 2 - 3
Chapter 2 - 4
 Effects of Compression Forces on
Deformable Bodies

Imagine applying a compression force on a soft deformable

object such as a marshmallow. The object would deform,
compress and the sides would bulge out, directly in proportion
to the applied force. This effect also occurs in rigid objects
like a steel rod. The internal forces acting on the object cause
deformation.
Chapter 2 - 5
Effects of Compression on a Rigid Object

Unlike a soft object, when a compression force is applied to a rigid

object the deformation may not be immediately observable. In the
example above the 20 N force causes deformation which is not
visible. An increase in the force to 40 N will eventually cause visible
deformation as bending occurs. Chapter 2 - 6
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

Chapter 2 - 7
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic
Chapter 2 - 8
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
F
= s F Ft
Ft lb N
= = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 2 - 9
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Ski lift(photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao 
Ac
Fs
 
Ao
M
2R Note:  = 2M/(AcR) here.
Chapter 2 - 10
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches  structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).

Chapter 2 - 11
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0 h< 0

Chapter 2 - 12
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
L
   L 
Lo Lo wo
wo

L /2
• Shear strain:

x  = x/y = tan 

y 90º - 
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Chapter 2 - 13
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 2 - 14
 Stress-Strain Testing

• Typical tensile test machine

Chapter 2 - 15
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
=E  F
E


Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Chapter 2 - 16
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Young’s modulus is a measure of the material’s resistance

to deformation.
• Young’s modulus quantifies how much stress is required to
generate a give strain.
• It does not depend upon the size or shape of the object, but
only the material the object is composed of.
• Copper has a modulus of 120 x 109 Pa.
• Steel has a modulus of 200 x 109 Pa.
• Thus, steel is more resistant to deformation then is copper.

Chapter 2 - 17
 Poisson's ratio, 
• Poisson's ratio, :
L

L
 


metals:  ~ 0.33 -
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
polymers:  ~ 0.40

Units:  > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]  < 0.50 density decreases
: dimensionless (voids form)

Chapter 2 - 18
 Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 2 - 19
 Other Elastic Properties
 M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
 torsion
=G test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G K
2(1  ) 3(1  2)
Chapter 2 - 20
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 2 - 21

 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:

  FL o    Fw o 2ML o
L

EA o EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
/2  = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
L /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 2 - 22
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister 7e.

Chapter 2 - 23
 Yield Strength, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y = yield strength
y

Note: for 2 inch sample

 = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, 
p = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 2 - 24
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

10 00
Yield strength, y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
300
Room T values
Hard to measure ,

Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 2 - 25
10
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

TS Callister 7e.

F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal Neck – acts

as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 2 - 26
 Tensile Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cwa
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 ag
Al (6061) a
Ti (pure)
200 Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 7e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 2 - 27
 Ductility
L f  Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL  x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress,  larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain, 

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 2 - 28
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, 
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 2 - 29
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur   d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur  y  y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 2 - 30
 Elastic Strain Recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 2 - 31
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 2 - 32
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 2 - 33
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 2 - 34
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress T  F Ai T  1   

• True Strain T  lni o  T  ln1   

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 2 - 35
 Hardening
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0


• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T  K T  n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 2 - 36
 Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
 xn
– Mean x
n
1
n 2
x i  x  
2

– Standard Deviation s 
 n 1 
 
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 2 - 37
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working  1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y
working  1045 plain
carbon steel:
N y = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa

 d2 / 4
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067m = 6.7cm
Chapter 2 - 38
 Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 2 - 39
 Homework
• Chapter 3: 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, on Page 46.

• Chapter 8: 8.6, on Page 129.

• Homework: Homework problems will be passed out in class. Each

student will turn in homework one week after it is assigned. On the
day homework is due, students will be randomly selected to solve
selected homework problems at the board, explaining to the class
how each problem is worked. Students are encouraged to work
together on homework. Students will be evaluated on both the
quality of their written answers and board presentations.

Chapter 2 - 40