Topic 4

Bipolar Junction Transistors

1
 Introduction to BJT
a three-terminal component – Emitter, Collector and Base.

(a)npn transistor which has an n – type emitter and collector

and a p – type base, and
(b) pnp transistor which consist of p – type emitter and
collector and an n – type base.
2
The arrow on the schematic symbol
represents:

(1) the emitter terminal.

The terminal opposite the emitter is the
collector and the center terminal is the
base.
(2) the direction of the arrow is always point
towards the n – type of the material.
(3) the direction of the emitter current
(conventional).

3
Power Transistor Water Analogy

For transistor working at the linear

region, The current gain must be
obey.
IC

IB

For transistor working as

switches, this formula must be
abandon because Ic(sat) is almost
a constant value. The formula now
is,
Ic(sat)
force
IB

4
Transistor Currents
• IE, IC and IB – emitter, collector and base
currents.
IE > IC >> IB
(mA) (A)

IE  IC

• Current directions of the npn transistor are

opposite those for the pnp transistor.

• The direction of IE is always opposite that of IB

and IC. 5
 BJT - Current-controlled device
• The values of the collector and emitter currents are
determined primarily by the value of the base current.

 = 200

• The small increase in base current (from 10 A to 20 A)

produces a larger increase in IC and in IE (from 2 mA to 4 mA).
6
 BJT - Current-controlled device

• The value of IC is normally some multiple of the value of

IB.
I C  I B
 - forward current gain, of the device.

7
 Example:

Assume that a transistor has values of IB = 50 A and 

= 120. The collector current for the transistor is

Solution:
IC
IB
IC(
120
)(
50
A)
IC = 6 mA

8
 Example
Determine the values of collector current for the values of the
base current shown below.

9
 Solution
The base current has an initial value of 20 A. The beta rating
of the component is 300. The initial value of the collector
current is found as
IC   I
B  300 20 A  6 mA

When IB increases to 50 A, the collector current increases to

I C  IB  300 
 50 A   15 mA

Thus, a 30 A change in base current causes a 9 mA change in

collector current.

10
 Transistor Voltages

o VCC and VBB are dc voltage sources that are used

to bias the transistor.
o Some circuits also contain a dc biasing source in the
emitter circuit labeled VEE. 11
 Transistor Voltages

o VC, VB and VE are transistor terminal voltages.

o Each voltage is measured from the identified
transistor terminal to ground. 12
 Transistor Voltages

o VCE, VCB, and VBE are measured across the

identified transistor terminals. 13
 Transistor Construction
• made up of three separate semiconductor materials
joined together so that they form two pn junctions.

the base – emitter junction.

the collector – base junction.

14
 Transistor Operation
Base-emitter Collector-base Operating BJT
junction junction region Characteristics

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff IB = IC = IE = 0,

VCE = VCC

Forward Reverse biased Active IC = DCIB

biased

Forward Forward Saturation

biased biased VCC
IC = IC(sat) = RC

*Breakdown 15
 Zero Bias
• no biasing potential applied.

• depletion layers due to recombination of

free carriers produced by thermal energy.

• both junctions are in reverse biased at

room temperature.
Note: depletion layers extend farther into
the base region due to its lower doping
level.

16
 Cutoff
• both transistor junctions are
reverse biased.

• the depletion layers extend well

into the emitter, base and collector
regions.

• only an extremely small amount of

reverse current passes from the
emitter to the collector.

• the transistor is said to be in cutoff.

17
 Example

A 2N3904 transistor with a collector –

emitter voltage (VCE) of 40 V and a reverse
base-emitter (VBE) as low as 3 V will allow
only 50 nA of collector current IC.

This is extremely small compared to the

200 mA value of IC that the component is
capable of handling when the base –
emitter junction is forward biased.

18
 Saturation
• the opposite of cutoff.

• further increases in IB do not result

in further increases in IC – it has
reached its maximum possible
value.

• In an ideal situation (VCE = 0 V), IC

will depend completely on the
values of VCC, RC, and RE

19
 Saturation

• As IB increases from 0 A, IC increases according to

IC =  IB
until it reaches its maximum value.

• At this point, IC cannot increase any further – additional

increases in IB do not increase the value of IC. The relationship
IC = IB
no longer holds true.

• Both of the transistor junctions become forward biased.

20
 Saturation

VCE for the transistor is shown to be

approximately 0.3 V (typical for a
saturated transistor).

With the 0.7 V value of VBE, the

collector-base junction is biased to
the difference between the two,
which is 0.4 V.

Note that this voltage indicates that

the collector-base junction of the
transistor is forward biased (even
though it is not fully).
21
 Active Operation
• Current is generated in the emitter
and base region when VBE > B.

• Base region is very lightly doped, its

resistance is greater than the
resistance of the reverse-biased
collector-base junction.

• A vast majority of the emitter current

continues through the reverse-biased
collector-base junction to the
collector circuit. Recall Zener diode.
• The collector-base junction is
designed to allow a reverse current
without damaging the junction.

22
 Transistor Currents and Voltages
• The transistor is a current-controlled device.
• In many applications, the base current is varied to produce
variations in IC and IE
i.e. a small change in IB results in a large change in the other
terminal currents.

23
 Example
Determine the values of collector
current for the values of the base Solution
current shown below. The initial value of the
collector current
IC  IB  30020 A 
 mA
When IB increases to 50
A, the collector current
is
I
C 
IB 

300 
50
A
 mA

IB = 30 A,
IC = 9 mA,
24
 Transistor Currents and Voltages
The Relationship Among IE, IC and IB

• Kirchhoff’s current law: the current leaving a component

must be equal to the current entering the component.

IE = IB + IC

• IB is normally much less that IC,

IC  IE

• The current relationships shown

above hold true for both the npn
and pnp transistors.

25
 Transistor Currents and Voltages

• IB = 20 A, IC = 6 mA
 IE = 6mA + 20 A
= 6.02 mA
 IC

• IB = 50 A, IC = 15 mA
IE = 15.05 mA

26
 Transistor Currents & Voltages
• The BE junction is forward biased,
VBE ≈ 0.7 V.
• Emitter is at ground. The voltage across
RB is
VR(B) = VBB − VBE --(1)
• Also, from Ohm’s Law,
VR(B) = IBRB --(2)
• Let (1) = (2)
IBRB = VBB − VBE
• Solving for IB:
V V
IB  BB BE

R B 27
 Transistor Currents & Voltages
• The voltage at the collector with respect
to grounded emitter is
VCE = VCC – VR(C)
• As the potential drop across RC is
VR(C) = ICRC
The voltage at the collector
VCE = VCC − ICRC
where IC = DCIB.

• The voltage across the reverse biased

collector-base junction is
VCB = VCE − VBE
28
 Example

Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the

following circuit. The transistor has DC = 150.

RC
100 W
RB
10 kW
VCC
10 V
VBB
5V

29
 Solution
• Known VBE = 0.7 V (forward biased),
IB = (VBB - VBE) / RB = 430 A

• The collector current,

IC = DCIB = 64.5 mA

• Kirchhoff's current law:

IE = IC + IB = 64.9 mA

• Solving for VCE and VCB:

VCE = VCC – ICRC = 3.55 V
VCB = VCE – VBE = 2.85 V

• The collector is at higher potential than the base (VCB > 0  VC >
VB), the collector-base junction is reverse-biased.
30
 Current gain, DC Beta
• The dc beta (DC) rating – ratio of dc collector current to dc
base current. IC
DC 
IB
• It is a ratio of current values, thus it has no unit of measure.

• Typical beta ratings can be as high as 300 i.e. the IC can be up

to 300 times the value of IB.
• It can be used to define other terminal currents:
IC = IB
IE = IC + IB = IB + IB
IE = IB( + 1)

31
 DC Beta

• DC is also designated by an equivalent hybrid (h)

parameter:
hFE = DC

• Transistor data sheets do not provide DC but hFE.

• DC is not truly constant. It varies slightly with IC and

temperature.

• Transistors have both dc beta ratings and ac beta ratings

(which will be discussed later)

32
Example

33
 Example
Determine the values of IC and IE for the circuit shown.

Solution
IB = 125 A

IC = IB
IC = (200)(125 A)
IC = 25 mA
IE is found as
IE = IC + IB
IE = 25.125 mA

34
 Example
Determine the values of IC and IB for the circuit shown.

Solution
IB can be determine from
.6
I
IB E  74 A
 1
Now, IC can be found as
IC = IE − IB= 14.9 mA
or
IC = IB = 14.9 mA

35
 Example
Determine the values of IB and IE for the circuit shown.

Solution
…

The emitter current

IE = IC + IB = 50.125 mA
36
 DC Alpha
• dc alpha () rating – the ratio of collector current to emitter
current.

IC
1
IE
• Typical values of DC range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater.
• Like beta, it has no units.

• It can be used to define other terminal currents, as follows:

I C  I E
I
IE  C

IB = IE − IC = IE (1 − )
37
 The Relationship between Alpha and Beta

• The spec. sheet for a given transistor lists the value

of beta for the device, but not the value of alpha as
beta is used far more commonly than alpha.

• Alpha can be determined using the value of beta

with the following equation:


 1

38
 Example
Determine the value of alpha for the transistor shown.
Then, determine the value of IC using both the alpha and the
beta ratings of the transistor.
Solution:

 0.9967
1

IC = IE = 29.9 mA
IC = IB = 30.0 mA

39
 Maximum Current Ratings
• Most transistor spec sheets list maximum collector current
ratings for both saturation and cutoff.

• When the transistor is saturated, the collector current can go as

high as several hundred mA. High-power transistors typically
have current ratings as high as several amperes.

• The maximum allowable base current for a given transistor can

be found by dividing its maximum IC value by its maximum dc 
rating.
IC(max)
IB(max)
max
40
 Example
The transistor shown has the following ratings:
IC(max) = 500 mA and max = 300.
Determine the maximum allowable value of IB for the device.

Solution:

If IB > IB(max) then IC > IC(max)

The transistor will probably be
destroyed.
41
 Maximum Cutoff Current Ratings
• These ratings are usually in the low nanoampere (nA) range and
are specified for exact values of VCE and reverse VBE.
• The 2N3904 has a maximum cutoff current rating of 50 nA when
the reverse value of VBE is 3 V and the value of VCE is 40 V.

42
43
 Transistor Voltage Ratings
• It indicates the maximum amount of reverse bias that can be
applied to the collector-base junction (reverse biased for active
region operation) without damaging the transistor.

• The value of VCB is equal to the difference between the other two
voltages: 39.25 V. If this voltage exceeds the VCB rating of the
transistor, the component will probable be destroyed. 44
 Transistor Voltage Ratings
• Every transistor has three breakdown voltage ratings.
• These ratings indicate the maximum reverse voltages that
the transistor can withstand.
• For the 2N3904, these voltage ratings are as follows:
Rating Value (Vdc)
VCBO 60
VCEO 40
VEBO 6
45
 Transistor Characteristic Curves
• The three curves are
(i) The collector curves,
(ii) The base curves and
(iii)The beta curves.

• The emitter curve is not part of the discussion as its

current characteristics are the same as those of the
collector.

46
 Collector Curves
• The collector characteristics
curve illustrates the relationship
among IC, IB and VCE.

• Each collector curve is derived

for a specified value of IB.

• Note that the IB = 0 A line

represents the operation of the
transistor when it is in cutoff.

• The collector curve is divided

into three parts – saturation,
active region, and breakdown. 47
 Saturation Region
OV
Let VBB > 0, then IB ≠ 0.
Set VCC = 0V  VCE = 0
O.7 V

• For this condition, both the BE junction and

CB junction are forward biased because the OV
base is approximately 0.7V while the emitter
and the collector are at 0V.
VCE = VCC – ICRC = 0 – 0(RC) = 0

• This represents the origin of the

characteristic curve and is independent of IB.

48
 Saturation Region

VCE < VK, VCE ≠ 0

• As VCC increases, VCE ↑ gradually, thus IC

↑.
• However, VCE remains less than 0.7V as
VCE = VCC – ICRC
• This represents the portion of the graph
where VCE < VK.

49
 Example
Determine whether or not the transistor in the circuit
below is in saturation. Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V.

RC
1kW

gain = VCC
50 10V
RB
VBB 10kW
3V

50
 Solution
First determine IC(sat):
IC(sat) = (VCC – VCE(sat)) / RC
IC(sat) = (10 V – 0.2V) / 1kW
= 9.8 mA

Now let’s determine whether IB is large enough to produce IC(sat):

IB = (VBB − VBE) / RB
= (3 V – 0.7 V) / 10kW = 0.23 mA
IC =DCIB = (50) (0.23 mA) = 11.5 mA

• This shows that with the specified DC, this base current is
capable of producing an IC greater than IC(sat).
• Thus, the transistor is saturated, and the collector current value
of 11.5 mA is never reached. The collector current remains at its
saturation value.

51
 Active Region
Let VCC = constant,
• IC increases with IB
• VCE decreases Until it reaches VCE(sat) 
somewhere below VK and it is usually
only a few tenths of a volt for a silicon
diode.
• IC cannot increase further
(IC = DCIB is no longer valid).

• There is little change in the value IC when VCE increases from VK to

VBR.
• IC is not controlled by the value of VCE when a transistor is operated in
its active region. 52
 Active Region
• Consider  value held constant at
100, and IB is increased to 150 A:
IC increases proportionately with
increase in IB,
and it is still relatively independent
of changes in VCE.

• Alternatively, when VCE > 0.7V, the CB junction becomes reverse

biased (transistor in active region)
• IC remains essentially constant for a given value of IB as VCE continues
to increase.
• A slight increase in IC due to the widening of the CB depletion region.
In the active region, the relation IC = DCIB holds. 53
 Breakdown Region
• It happens when the value of VCE
exceeds the breakdown voltage
rating of the transistor.

• IC increases dramatically

• Note how VCE affects the CB

junction.
(1) If VCE < 0.7V, the CB junction is
forward-biased.
(2) If VCE > 0.7V, the CB junction
becomes reverse-biased.

54
 Cutoff
• There is no current flowing in
the BE junction as VB = VE = 0. CB junction
Hence, IB = IE = 0. reverse - biased RC
• The CB junction is reverse
IB = 0
biased and hence, IC = 0.
BE junction VCC
reverse - biased
• The two junctions are reverse-
biased and ideally, no current
should flow through the BE and
CB junctions.

55
 Cutoff
RC

VB<0
VC>0

VCC
RB VE =0

VBB

• Similar cutoff state can also be obtained by introducing a

negative bias to the base.
• The negative bias is provided by VBB.
• The resistor RB is added to prevent the transistor from damage.
56
 Base Curves

• The base curve of a transistor plots IB as a function of VBE.

• This curve closely resembles the forward operating curve of a
typical pn junction diode.
57
Beta Curves

58
 Notations
• Amplifier circuits have both dc and ac quantities for current,
voltage and resistance.

• Italic capital letters are used for both dc and ac currents (I) and
voltages (V). Lowercase i and v for ac current and voltage are
reserved for instantaneous values.

• DC quantities always carry an UPPERCASE Roman, nonitalic

subscript. Example: IC, IB
• AC and all time-varying quantities always carry a lowercase
italic subscript. Example: Ic, Ib
• Internal transistor resistances are designated by lowercase r’
with an appropriate subscript e.g. r’e refers to the internal ac
emitter resistance.
59
 Transistor as an Amplifier

RB RC
r’e
Vin VCC
Vc
Vb
VBB

• The figure above shows the basic transistor amplifier circuit.

• Vin is superimposed on VBB. They are in series with the base resistor
RB.
• VCC is connected to the collector through the collector resistor, RC.

60
 Transistor as an Amplifier
V
C
Vin

VBB VCC

• The ac input voltage produces an ac base current.

• The collector current is related to the base current by
IC = DCIB
• This results in a much larger ac collector current.
• The ac collector current produces an ac voltage across RC,
producing an amplified, but inverted, reproduction of the ac
input voltage in the active region of operation. 61
 Transistor as an Amplifier
• The forward-biased base-emitter junction presents a
very low resistance to the ac signal. This internal ac
emitter resistance is designated r’e. The ac emitter
current is
Ie  Ic = Vb
re'
• The ac collector voltage, Vc equals the ac voltage drop
across RC.
Vc = IcRC  IeRC
• The ac voltage gain, Av, of the transistor circuit
V
c IRC R
A
v e
'
 C
'
V
b I r r
ee e Vb = Vin I62bRB
 Example
• Determine the voltage gain and the ac output voltage in the circuit
on the right if r’e = 50 W.
RC

1.0k Solution
RB
The voltage gain is
RC
Vin
VCC A' v =
Vout
re
100 mV 1.0kW
VBB A = 20
50Wv

Therefore the ac output

voltage is Vout = AvVb
= (20)(100 mV) = 263Vrms
 Transistor as a Switch
• In part (a) the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-
emitter junction is not forward-biased. There is ideally an open
between the collector and emitter.
• Neglecting leakage current, all of the currents are zero, and VCE is
equal to VCC.

VCE(cutoff) = VCC

64
 Transistor as a Switch
• In part (b), the transistor is in the saturation region (base emitter and
base collector junctions are forward-biased) and the base current is
made large enough to cause the collector current to reach its
saturation value.
• There is a short between collector and emitter. Actually, a voltage
drop of up to a few tenths of a volt normally occurs, which is
saturation voltage, VCE(sat).
• The maximum collector current,
V 
V

CC CE(sat
)
IC
(sat
)
RC
• The minimum value of base current
needed to produce saturation is
• IC(sat

)
I B(min)
DC 65
 A Simple Application of a Transistor
Switch
• The transistor is used as a switch to VCC
turn the LED on and off.
• A square wave with a period of 2 s is
applied to the input.
RC
ON ON

• When the square wave is at 0 V, the

transistor is in cutoff and, there is no 1 s OFF
collector current, the LED does NOT
emit light.
RB
• Square wave goes to its high level, the
transistor saturates. It forward-biases
the LED. The resulting collector current
through the LED causes it to emit light. Result: A blinking LED that
is on for 1 s and off for 166s.
 Example
The LED shown requires 30 mA to emit sufficient level of light.
Therefore, the collector current should be approximately 30 mA.

For the following circuit values: VCC = 9 V, VCE(sat) = 0.3 V,

RC = 270 W, RB = 3.3 kW, and DC = 50.

IC(sat) = 
VV 9
V0
.3
V
 
CCCE(sat)
32
.2
mA
R
C W
270

IB(min) =

I 32.
2mA
 
C(sat)


644
A
DC 50 67
To ensure saturation, use twice the value of IB(min)
which gives 1.29 mA.
From the circuit,
IB = V R V  V V  0.7
V
B
 in BE
 in

R
B R
B 3
.
3kW
Rearrange the expression above to obtain the
voltage amplitude of the square wave input Vin.
Vin − 0.7 V = 2IB(min)RB = (1.29 mA)(3.3 kW)

Vin = 4.96 V

68
 Example
For the circuit shown,
VCC
What is VCE when VIN = 0 V? +10 V RC
1.0kW
Sol: When VIN = 0 V, the transistor
is in cutoff (it acts like an open VIN
switch) and
VCE = VCC = 10 V RB

69
 VCC
+10 V RC
Example 1.0kW
VIN

What minimum value of IB is required to saturate RB

this transistor if DC is 200? Neglect VCE(sat).
Sol: Since VCE(sat) is neglected (assumed to be zero),
V 10
V
I CC
 
10
mA
W
C(
sat
)
R
C 1 .0
k

I
B 
I
C
(min)
( ) 10
sat


mA

200
50
A 
DC

This is the value of IB necessary to drive the transistor to the

point of saturation. Any further increase in IB will drive the
transistor deeper into saturation but will not increase IC.
70
 VCC
+10 V RC
1.0kW
Example VIN
(c) Calculate the maximum value of RB
RB
when VIN = 5 V.

Sol:When the transistor is on, VBE = 0.7 V. The voltage across RB is

VR(B) = VIN – VBE
= 5 V − 0.7 V
= 4.3 V
The maximum value of RB needed to allow a minimum IB of 50 A
by Ohm’s law as follows:

V 4
.
3V
   W
R


B
R
B
(max) 86k
IB 50
A
(min) 71
 Chapter 2
BJT – DC Biasing Circuits

 DC Load Line
 Q-point
 Base Bias, Emitter Bias, Voltage Divider
Bias, and Collector Feedback Bias

72
 Introduction

• The purpose of dc biasing is to set the initial values of IB, IC and

VCE. The ac operation of a transistor amplifier depends on
its initial dc values of IB, IC, and VCE.
• As IB varied from an initial value, IC and VCE are varied from
their initial values. 73
 DC Operating Point
• DC operating point/Q-point (quiescent point)
• It is a point on the collector characteristic curve: (IC, VCE) with
IB = constant. It is set by properly biasing the transistor
amplifier.
• Amplifiers are the most common linear devices. A linear
amplifier preserves its input/output waveform.

74
 DC Operating Point
• If an amplifier is not properly biased, it will go either into cutoff
or saturation and the amplified signal will be distorted – nonlinear
amplifier.
• A nonlinear amplifier does not preserve its input/output waveform.

• Example of a nonlinear amplifier – a device that turns your voice

into a chipmunk (cartoon) voice. Novel purpose but in daily phone
75
conversation?
 The DC Load Line
• Notice that when IB
increases, IC increases and
VCE decreases.
• When IB decreases, IC
decreases and VCE increases.

• As VBB is adjusted up or
down, the dc operating point
of the transistor moves along
a sloping straight line, called
the dc load line.

76
 The DC Load Line
• The dc load line is a graph that represents all the possible
combinations of IC and VCE for a given amplifier.
• The dc load line represents all the IC-VCE combinations for
the circuit.

77
 The DC Load Line
• The IC(sat) point represents the ideal value of saturation
current for the circuit.
• Consider a saturated transistor as being short-circuited from
emitter to collector, then VCE is zero, thus
VCC = ICRC (saturation)
• Rearranging the expression for IC, we get
• Recall:
VCC
IC(sat) 
RC

78
 The DC Load Line
• When the transistor is in cutoff, it looks like an open circuit
from emitter to collector. Collector current, IC = 0
VCE(off) = VCC
• These equations are used to plot the end points of the dc load
line.

Recall:

79
 Example
Plot the dc load line for the circuit shown.

Solution
From the circuit values shown,
VCE(off) = VCC = 12 V
and
V
CC12
I   6mA
W
C(
sat
)
R
C 2
k

The load line therefore has end points of

VCE(off) = 12 V and IC(sat) = 6 mA 80
 Example
(a) Plot the dc load line for the circuit shown below.
(b) Then, verify the load line VCE values for IC = 1 mA,
IC = 2 mA and IC = 5 mA.

81
 Solution
From the circuit values
shown,
VCE(off) = VCC = 10 V
and
V
IC(sat
)  CC

RC

Using IC(sat) and VCE(off) as As shown in the figure, we would

the end points, the dc load expect to obtain:
line for the circuit is IC (mA) 1 2 5
plotted as shown. VCE (V) 9 8 582
 Solution
These values are verified by the following equation
VCE = VCC − ICRC
For IC = 1 mA,
VCE = VCC − ICRC =1V − (1 mA)(1 kW) = 9V

For IC = 2 mA, VCE = = 8V

For IC = 5 mA,
VCE = = 5V

These calculations verify the values obtained from the dc load

line.

83
 The Q-Point
• When a transistor does not have an input signal, its output rests
at specific dc values of IC and VCE. i.e. the Q-point on the dc
load line.

• The Q-point can be easily determined if the dc load line is

superimposed onto the collector curve for the transistor.

84
 The Q-Point
(Linear Amp)
• For linear operation of an
amplifier, it is desirable to have
the Q-point centered on the load
line.
• VCE is half the value of VCC,
and IC is half the value of IC(sat).

• When a circuit is designed to

have a centered Q-point, the
amplifier is said to be midpoint
biased.
85
 The Q-Point
(Midpoint biased)
• It allows optimum ac
operation of the amplifier.
• When an ac signal is applied to
the base of the transistor, IC
and VCE both vary around
their Q-point values.

• When the Q-point is centered,

IC and VCE can both make the
maximum possible transitions above
and below their initial dc values.
86
 Example
The circuit on the right shows
the linear operation of a
transistor.
Assume a sinusoidal voltage
Vin is superimposed on VBB,
causing the base current to
vary sinusoidally 100 A
above and below its Q-point
value of 300 A.
Consider its operation as a
linear amplifier.
87
  
I
BQ
V
BB0
.7
V3

.7
V 0.7
V
 
300
A
R
B 10W
k

I
CQ
DCI
BQ
(100
)( 
300
A)
30mA

V 
V
CEQ 
I
CC R
CQ
C10
V
(30
mA
)( W
)
2203.4
V
Q-point values
• The collector current varies 10 mA above and below its Q-
point value of 30 mA.

I
CI
DC
b(
100
)(
200
A
)20
mA
I
CI
DC
b(
100
)(
400
A
)40
mA
• The collector-to-emitter voltage varies 2.2 V above and below
its Q-point value of 3.4 V.
V
V
CE
CCI
CR
C
10
V(
20
mAW
)(
220
)5
.6
V
V
V
CE
CCI
CR
C
10
V(
40
mAW
)(
220
)1
.2
V
88
Point A on the load line corresponds to the positive peak of the
sinusoidal input voltage while point B corresponds to the
negative peak as shown. 89
• When the Q-point is above center of the dc load line, the input
may cause the transistor to saturate. When this happens, part of
the output sine wave is clipped off.

• If the Q-point is below midpoint on the load line, the input may
cause the transistor to go into cutoff. This can also cause a
90
portion of the output sine wave to be clipped.
 IBQ

ICQ

VCEQ
Transistor is driven into saturation and cutoff because the input
signal is too large. 91
 Example
Determine the Q-point for the circuit below and
find the maximum peak value of base current for
linear operation. Assume DC= 200.

92
 Solution
The Q-point is defined
by ICQ and VCEQ.

IBQ = VBB0.7V
RB
= 198 μA

ICQ = βDCIB = (200)(198 μA) = 39.6 mA

VCEQ = VCC – ICRC = 20 V – 13.07V = 6.93 V

Thus the Q-point is at ICQ = 39.6 mA and VCEQ = 6.93 V. 93

 Solution
Since IC(cutoff) = 0, calculate IC(sat) to determine how much
variation in collector current can occur and still maintain linear
operation.
IC(sat) = 60.6 mA
Thus, IC can increase, ideally, by
IC(sat) – ICQ = 21 mA
And it can decrease by 39.6 mA before cutoff (IC = 0) is
reached.
The limiting value is then, 21 mA.
The maximum peak variation of the base current is:
Ib(peak) = Ic(peak) / βDC
= 105 μA
94
 Bias Methods
(A) Base Bias / fixed bias
• Simplest form of biasing

95
 Base Bias – circuit analysis
• The primary goal of biasing circuit analysis is to determine the Q-
point values (IC, VCE) to determine whether the circuit is midpoint
biased.
Step 1:
Determining the base current, IB (Ohm’s law)
VBB
IB 
RB

The voltage across RB equals the difference between

VCC and VBE. By formula,
VBB = VCC − VBE
Upon substitution, the base current
V V
IB CC BE
96
R B
 Base Bias – circuit analysis

Step 2: The collector current is then calculated from

IC  hFEIB

Step 3: VCE can be found as

VCE = VCC − ICRC

The last two equations give the Q-point values of IC and VCE.

97
 Example
(a) Determine the Q-point
values of IC and VCE for the
circuit shown below.

(b) Construct the dc load line

and plot the Q-point from
the values in part (a).
Determine whether the
circuit is midpoint biased.

(c) Determine whether the

circuit is midpoint biased
without drawing a dc load
line for the circuit.
98
 Solution
First, IB is found as
I
B
V
V
CC

R
8
V

BE0
.
7
W
V
360
k

20
.
28A 
B

Next, IC is found as
IC h I
FE
B 
2.
028mA

Finally, VCE is found as

VCE = VCC − ICRC = 3.94 V

99
 Solution
(b) The end points of the dc load line are found as
IC(sat) = VCC 8 V
  4mA
and RC 2
k W
VCE(off) = VCC = 8 V

The dc load line and the Q –

point is as plotted. The
amplifier is very nearly
midpoint biased.

100
 Solution

By definition, a circuit is midpoint biased when the

Q-point value of VCE is ½ VCC.

From part (a), VCE = 3.94 V which is approximately

one-half of VCC.

The circuit is midpoint biased.

101
 Base Bias – Q-point Shift
• Base bias circuits are easy to build and analyze but they are
extremely susceptible to a problem called Q-point shift (change
in the Q-point values).
• From circuit analysis performed earlier :
VCE = VCC − ICRC

IC  hFEIB
(1) VCE will change if IC changes.
(2) IC is dependent on either IB or hFE changes.

• This circuit is referred to as a beta – dependent circuit.

• It is primarily used in switching applications where it mainly
operates in saturation and cutoff regions. 102
 Base Bias – Q-point Shift
• The dc gain varies with temperature.

• If temperature increases, hFE also increases, thus, IC increases.

This, in turn, causes a decrease in VCE. When this occurs, the
circuit will no longer be midpoint biased. 103
 Example
The transistor below has values of hFE = 100 when T = 25 oC
and hFE = 150 when T = 100 oC. Determine the Q-point values
of IC and VCE at both of these temperatures.

104
 Solution
• This is the same circuit as in the previous example.
• At T = 25 oC, hFE = 100 (IB = 20.28 A):
IC = 2.028 mA and VCE = 3.94 V

• When T = 100 oC, hFE = 150 (assume IB does not change) :

IC = hFEIB = (150)(20.28 A) = 3.04 mA
and VCE = VCC − ICRC = 1.92 V

• The percentage change in IC:


3.
04
mA2
. 
028
mA

%
I
C  
100
%50
%
 2.
028
mA
• The percentage change in VCE:
1
.
92
V3.
94
V

%
V

CE  

100
%51
%
3 .
94
V  105
 Voltage-Divider Bias
• It is the most commonly used biasing scheme, similar in form
to base bias, with the following exceptions:
(1) A resistor (R2) has been added between the base terminal
of the transistor and ground.
(2) A resistor (RE) has been added to the emitter circuit.

• These modifications results

in a biasing circuit with values
of ICQ and VCEQ that are
relatively stable against
variations in hFE. 106
 Circuit Operation
• Resistors R1 and R2 form a simple voltage divider that sets the
value of base voltage, VB as follows:

R
V  2
V

B CC
R 1 R 2

• The value of VE can be found as

VE = VB − 0.7 V
• Then the value of IE is determined from Ohm’s law:
VE
IE 
RE
• Assume that ICQ  IE, thus, VCEQ can be found as
VCEQ = VCC − ICQRC − ICQRE
VCEQ = VCC − ICQ(RC + RE)
107
 Circuit Operation

• The value of IB can be found from

IE
IB 
hFE1
• Recall: hFE can be found from the spec sheet of the
transistor.

• A transistor spec sheet will list any combination of the

following values:
(a) a maximum value of hFE
(b) a minimum value of hFE
(c) a typical value of hFE

108
 Circuit Operation
• If only one value of hFE is listed, it can be used in any
circuit analysis.

• When two or more values are listed, identify the typical

value and use the typical value in circuit analysis.

• If only a minimum value and a maximum value are

shown, use the geometrical average of these two values.
The geometrical average of hFE is found as

h
FE
( )
ave hFE 
h
(min)
FE
(max)

109
 Example
Determine the value of ICQ and VCEQ for the circuit
shown below.
Solution
The base voltage is determined from
the voltage divider
R
VB  2
V CC  2
.07V
R 1 R2
VE is found as
VE = VB − 0.7 V = = 1.37 V

Because ICQ  IE,

VE 1
.
37V
I   1.
25m
W
CQ
RE 1
.
1k
Finally,
VCEQ = VCC − ICQ(RC + RE)
= 4.87 V
110
 Base input resistance, RIN(base)
• From the previous example,
I
B
I
h
E


1

.
25
1 51
mA

24
.
5 A 
FE

and I2 =
V
B 2

.07
 
440
A
R
2 4
.7W
k

• As IB << I2, it can be ignored.

• However, if IB is NOT small enough to

be neglected compared to I2, then the
dc input resistance RIN(base) must be
taken into consideration. 111
 Derivation of RIN(base)
• The input resistance of the transistor is
VIN
RIN(base) =
I IN
• Applying KVL and assuming VBE << IERE
VIN = VBE + IERE  IERE
• Since IE ≈ IC = βDCIB, VIN becomes
Note: Arrows indicated
VIN ≈ βDCIBRE the direction of
conventional current
flow.

• The input current is the base current, IIN = IB.

DC
IBR
)
E
o Substituting VIN and IIN into the RIN(base):R
IN(base
IB
R
IN )
(baseDC
RE

The input resistance of the transistor is the gain βDC times the emitter
resistance RE. 112
 Example
Determine the dc input resistance looking in at the base
of the transistor in the circuit shown in previous slide
if RE = 1.0 kW and DC = 125.

Solution
RIN(base) = βDC RE
RIN(base) = (125)(1.0 kW) = 125 kW

113
 Analysis of a Voltage-Divider Bias
Circuit
When the base current, IB is NOT negligible (??), then the base
input resistance, RIN(base) must be considered in the determination
of the value of base voltage.
Note that the RIN(base) is parallel to the resistor R2 of the voltage-
divider.

114
 Analysis of a Voltage-Divider Bias
Circuit
• The total resistance from base to ground is
R2 || RIN(base) = R2 || DCRE
and it is in series with resistor R1. Applying the voltage
divider formula yields:


R2 
|| R
DCE


V V

B CC
R
1 (
R2|| R
DCE)
• From this point onwards, the analysis follows that the
procedure as in “circuit operation” section. Note that if
DCRE > 10R2 then the expression above will revert to
R
V  2
V
1
B CC
R R2 115
 Example
Determine VCE and IC in the voltage-divider biased
transistor circuit on the right if DC = 100.
Solution
Determine the dc input resistance at the base:
RIN(base) = βDCRE =(100)(560) = 56 kΩ

Since RIN(base) = 10R2, we may neglect RIN(base).

Thus, V  R
2
V= 3.59 V
1
B CC
R R2
So,
VE = VB – VBE = 2.89 V
and from Ohm’s law,
IE = 5.16 mA
IC ≈ 5.16 mA
and VCE ≈ VCC – IC(RC + RE) = 1.95 V
Since VCE > 0, the transistor is NOT in saturation. 116
 Bias Stability
The Thevenin voltage and resistance are:
R
V
Th 2
VCC
R1R 2
RTH = R1R2 / (R1 + R2)

Apply KVL around the equivalent base-emitter loop:

VTH – VR(th) – VBE – VR(E) = 0
VTH = IBRTH + VBE + IERE
But IB = IE / βDC,
VTH = IE (RE + RTH/βDC) + VBE
Solve for IE:
IE = (VTH – VBE) / (RE + RTH/βDC)
As usual, assume RE >> RTH / βDC, then
IE = (VTH – VBE)/RE
117
 Bias Stability

Note that the expression for IE is independent of βDC.

Varying βDC will not affect IE and IC is also unaffected by
βDC.

Remember that for this type of biasing (voltage-divider)

we must make sure RE is at least ten times RTH/βDC.
This is not an unreasonable assumption, since βDC is
generally large.

118
 Emitter Bias
Current action:
(i) the emitter current
originates at the emitter
power supply (− VEE).
(ii) A small portion of the
emitter current leaves
the transistor through the
base terminal. Base
current passes through
RB to ground.
(iii) the majority of the
An emitter-bias circuit consists of emitter current continues
to the collector. Collector
several resistors and a dual-polarity
current passes through
power supply, a positive and a RC to VCC.
negative supply voltage 119
 Circuit Currents and Voltage
• Emitter-bias circuits are always
designed so that VB  0 V.

• Assume IB = 100 A, then the

base voltage
VB = IBRB = (100 A)(100 W)
= 10 mV
• The circuit can be represented by
figure (a).
• Figure (b) shows an equivalent
circuit using a diode to represent
the base-emitter junction of the
transistor. As this circuit VE
illustrates,
VE = 0 V − VBE = − VBE
120
 Circuit Currents and Voltage
• According to KVL, VR(E) must equal the difference between VE and
VEE and since, VE = − VBE,
VR(E) = VEE + VBE
• The value of the emitter current,

V V
IE 
EE BE

R
• Assuming that ICQ  IE and VBE = 0.7 V,
E

V  0.7V
• Note: 
EE
ICQ
R E
1) The above absolute value is used to obtain a positive value of ICQ.
2) hFE is not involved in the equation - the emitter bias provides
output values that are highly stable against variations in beta.

121
 Circuit Currents and Voltage
• The approximate value of VCEQ can be determine using
VCEQ = VCC − ICRC

• This equation is based on the fact that VE = − 0.7 V. If we assume

this potential to be correct, then KVL tells us that
− 0.7 V + VCEQ + ICQRC = VCC
or
VCEQ = VCC − ICQRC + 0.7 V

• When ICQRC >> 0.7V, which is normally the case, we can ignore −
VE, leaving us with the
VCEQ = VCC − ICQRC
122
 Example
Determine the values of ICQ and VCEQ for the amplifier shown
in figure below.
Solution
First, the value of ICQ is
approximated as
V
0
.
7V 
12
V 0
.
7
V
  
EE
I 7
.
5m
W
CQ
R
E 1
.
5k

The value of VCEQ is found as

VCEQ = VCC − ICQRC
VCEQ = 12V−(7.53mA)(750W)
= 6.35 V
123
 Collector – Feedback Bias
• The term feedback is used to
describe a circuit connection that
“feeds” a portion of the output
voltage or current back to the input
to control the circuit’s operating
characteristics.

• In this case, the circuit is constructed

so that the collector voltage, VC has a
direct effect on the base voltage, VB.

• These feedback connections reduce

the effects that variations in hFE have
on Q-point values of each circuit.

124
 Collector – Feedback Bias
• If IC tries to increases, it drops more
voltage across RC, thereby causing VC
to decrease.

• When VC decreases, there is a

decrease in voltage across RB, which
then decreases IB.

• The decrease in IB produces less IC

which, in turn, drops less voltage
across RC and thus offsets the
decrease in VC.

125
 Circuit Analysis
• By Ohm’s law, the base current can be expressed as
V CVBE
IB 
RB
• Substitute VC = VCC − ICRC and I  IC
B
DC
I
C V IR 
V
into the first equation: CCC C BE

DC R B

• Rearranging the above equation and solving for IC:

V  V
IC CC BE

RC RB DC

• Since the emitter is grounded, VCE = VC:VCE = VCC − ICRC 126

 Circuit Analysis

• The last 2nd equation shows a dependency on DC and

VBE. This can be minimized by making
RC >> and VCC >> VBE.

• This circuit essentially eliminates DC and VBE

dependency even if the stated conditions are met.

• This circuit is able to maintain a relatively stable Q-

point values as temperature changes, either increases
or decreases.

127
 Example
Calculate the Q-point values for the circuit below.

Solution
V V
IC CC BE

RC B
R 
DC


10
V 0.
7V
I 2.
82m
C
1
.
5kW
 W
180
k 
100

VCE = VCC − ICRC

VCE = 10 V − (2.82mA)(1.5 kW) = 5.77 V
128
 Summary
1. The purpose of biasing a circuit is to establish a proper,
stable dc-operating point (Q-point) i.e. ICQ and VCEQ.

1. Graphically, the Q-point is the intersection of the dc load

line and the transistor’s collector curves

1. A dc load line intersects the vertical axis at approximately

IC(sat) and the horizontal axis at VCE(cutoff).

1. The linear (active) region of a transistor lies along the load

line, below saturation, and above cutoff.

1. The dc input resistance at the base of a BJT is

approximately βDCRE. 129
 Summary
Voltage-divider provides good Q-point stability with single
polarity supply voltage. It is the most popular bias circuit.

Base bias circuit arrangement has poor stability because its Q-

point varies widely with βDC.

Emitter bias generally provides good Q-point stability, but

requires both positive and negative supply voltages.

 Collector-feedback bias provides good stability using negative

feedback from collector to base.
130
 Amplifier Operations
Introduction
Amplifiers are some of the most widely used circuits
encounter e.g. in audio, video, telecommunications systems,
digital systems, biomedical systems etc. etc.

For example: turning up the volume of a stereo.

What actually happens is that you are taking a relatively
weak signal and making it stronger i.e. increasing its power
level. This is a form of amplification.

Amplifiers are circuits that provide amplification.

131
 BJT Amplifiers
• They are known as small-signal amplifiers - it uses signals that
take up a relatively small percentage of an amplifier’s
operational range.
• The biasing of a transistor is purely a dc operation (C2). It
establishes a Q-point about which variations in current and
voltage can occur in response to an ac signal.

• Variations about the Q-point are relative small.

• There are three types of BJT amplifiers:
- common-emitter (most commonly used),
- common-collector and
- common-base.
132
 Linear Amplifier Operation
In an amplifier, there are two sources of currents and voltages: dc
and ac. They are mixed together in the circuit. When we analyze
the operation of an amplifier, we need to separate the dc
component from the ac component.

133
• The coupling capacitors block dc and prevent the internal source
resistance RS and the load resistance RL from changing the dc bias
voltages at the base and collector.

• The sinusoidal source voltage causes Vb to vary sinusoidally above and

below its VB. The resulting variation in Ib produces a larger variation in
the Ic because of the current gain of the transistor.

134
 • Note that the voltage created at the
collector (VCE) is out-
of-phase with the input voltage
(common-emitter amplifier).
(CB and CC amplifiers do not exhibit this behaviour.)

• As IC increases, the collector voltage decreases and vice versa.

• This is caused by the relationship
VCE = VCC – IC(RC + RE).

• Note the negative sign on the right-hand-side of the equation.

This sign cause VCE and IC to be out-of-phase.
135
 Transistor AC Equivalent
Circuits
• To visualize the operation of a transistor in an amplifier
circuit, it is often useful to represent the device by an ac
equivalent circuit.
• The elements forming the equivalent circuits relate the
changes in voltages and currents about the operating point.
• The hybrid- equivalent circuit is as shown:

b hie c
hfev2 1
hoe
hrei1

e e
136
 h-Parameters
(hybrid parameters)
• Data sheets only provide h parameters. In parenthesis are the
conditions required to get these parameters.
1. hi : Input impedance (Output shorted)
2. hr : Voltage feedback ratio (Input open)
3. hf : Forward current gain (Output shorted)
4. ho : Output admittance (Input open)

• A second subscript is added to indicate the configuration

(common-emitter, common-base, and common-collector) for
each of these parameters.

• E.g.: the h-parameters for the common-emitter (usually the

one given in data sheets) configuration are: hie, hre, hfe, and
hoe.
137
 r - parameters
The r-parameters are: I
1. ac : ac alpha (  ) c
Ie
Ic
1. βac : ac beta (  )
Ib
1. re' : ac emitter resistance

1. rb' : ac base resistance

rc'
1. : ac collector resistance
Assume that:
rb' is small enough to be neglected  replace r’b with a short.
rc' is very large (hundreds of kW) replace r’c with an open.
138
 The conversion equations between r and h
parameters:
ac = h fb hre  1
rc'

hoe
ac = h fe
rb'
 ie
h 
hre
hoe
1hfe 
hre
re'

hoe

139
 Interpretation of simplified equivalent circuit:
• re' is the resistance seen looking into the
emitter of a forward-biased transistor. It
appears between the base and the emitter
terminals.
• The collector current Ic is equal to αac Ie.
Also, Ic = βacIb.

The most important parameter in the

simplified equivalent circuit is
'
r  25mV
e
IE
140
 Common-Emitter (CE)
Amplifier

Common-emitter BJT amplifier with voltage – divider biasing

141
 Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier
• C1 and C3 are the bias and coupling capacitors on the input
and output, while C2 acts as bypass capacitor between the
emitter to ground.
• The circuit has a combination of dc and ac operation, both of
which must be considered.
• The input ac signal Vin is capacitively coupled into the base
and the output signal Vout is capacitively coupled from the
collector.

• It exhibit high voltage and current gains.

• The input is applied to base of transistor and the output is
taken from collector.
142
 DC Analysis
A dc equivalent circuit is
developed by replacing the
coupling and bypass
capacitors with opens.

Recall: a capacitor is open to

dc.

143
• As seen previously, the input resistance is
RIN(base) = βDCRE = (150)(560) = 84 kΩ
which is 10 times more than R2 for this particular
case. Thus, we can ignore it.

• This yields the following base voltage:

R 6.
8W
k

V 2
V 
12
V2
.
83
V
 W
B CC
R1R2 28
.
8k
• And the emitter voltage is
VE = VB – VBE = (2.83) – (0.7) = 2.13 V

• Therefore, the emitter current is

IE = VE / RE = (2.13) / (569) = 3.80 mA

• Since IC ≈ IE, we get the collector current

VC = VCC – ICRC = (12) – (2.80m)(1.0kΩ) = 8.20 V

• Finally, the common-emitter voltage is

VCE = VC – VE = (8.20) – (2.13)=6.07 V
144
 AC equivalent circuit
• For ac operation of the amplifier, develop an ac equivalent
circuit by using the following rules:

1. Short all capacitors because we assume that their reactance

XC  0 at the signal frequency.
2. Replace all dc sources with a ground symbol.

• These rules apply to all amplifier circuits, not just common-

emitter amplifiers.

145
 AC equivalent circuit

 Capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are replaced with shorts.

 The dc sources are replaced with ground (assuming the internal
resistance is very small). VCC terminal is at ac ground.
AC and dc grounds are both assumed to be at the same potential (0 V).

146
 AC equivalent circuit
• The emitter bypass capacitor, C2 provides an effective short
to the ac signal around the emitter resistor, thus keeping the
emitter at ac ground.
• This allows the amplifier to have maximum gain (RC/ ). It
mustrbe
e
'
large enough so that its reactance over the
frequency range is very small compared to RE.

• A good rule-of-thumb is
10XC < RE

147
 AC equivalent circuit
• If the internal resistance, Rs of the ac source is 0 W, then
all of the source voltage appears at the base terminal.
• If the ac source internal resistance Rs is non-zero, three
factors must be taken into account in determining the
actual signal voltage at the base.

They are:
1. the source resistance (Rs),
2. the bias resistance (R1||R2), and
3. the input resistance (Rin(base)).

148
 Input Resistance, Rin(base)
• Rin(base) is an ac quantity (in contrast to RIN(base) which is a dc
quantity) and it is also known as the input impedance.

• The source voltage Vs is divided down by Rs and Rin(tot) so that

the signal voltage at the base of the transistor Vb is

• If Rs << Rin(tot) , then Vb ≈ Vs ， R

b
in
(tot
)
V V
s
s
R Rin
(tot
)
149
 Derivation for the input resistance
Rin(base)
• The transistor is connected with the
external collector resistor RC. The input
resistance looking in at the base is
Rin(base) = Vin / Iin = Vb / Ib
• The base voltage is
Vb = Ie '
re
• and the base current
Ib ≈ Ic / βac.
• Substituting for Vb and Ib in the first
equation above and since Ie ≈ Ic, we get
Rin(base) = βac

re' 150
 Example
Determine the signal voltage at the base of the
transistor in the circuit shown below. This circuit is
the ac equivalent of the amplifier. Assume a 10 mV,
300 Ω signal source. IE was found to be 3.80 mA.
Solution
Determine the ac emitter resistance,
25m
r ' e= = 6.58 Ω
3.80m
Then, Rin(base) = βac
= 1.05 kW

Next determine the total input

resistance viewed from the source:
Rin(tot) = R1 || R2 || Rin(base) = 873 Ω

151
 Solution
The source voltage is divided down by Rs and Rin(tot), so the
signal voltage at the base is the voltage across Rin(tot).
Rin( tot)
V b= V s= = 7 . 44 mV
Rs +Rin(tot )

There is attenuation of the source voltage due to the source

resistance and amplifier’s input resistance acting as a voltage
divider.

Instead of getting the full 10 mV at the base, we get only 7.44

mV. 152
 Voltage Gain of the CE Amplifier
• Voltage gain (Av) of the CE amplifier is
the ratio between the ac output
voltage (Vc) and input voltage (Vb).
• From the figure,
Vb = Ie
Vc = acIeRC ≈ IerR'C ???
e
since αac  1.
• The voltage gain, from the base to
collector , is then

V IRC R
A
vc
e
'
C
'
V
b I r
ee r
e
153
 Overall Gain
To get the overall gain of the amplifier from the source
voltage to collector voltage, the attenuation (due to the
internal source resistance Rs) of the input circuit must be
included.
• The attenuation from
source to base
multiplied by the gain
from base to collector is
called the overall
amplifier gain.

• The overall gain,

Av' = (attenuation) Av

154
 Example
Calculate the base-to-collector voltage gain of
the amplifier shown next, with and without an
emitter bypass capacitor. There is no load
Solution resistor.
From a previous example we know that
re' = 6.58 Ω.
Without C2, the gain is
Av = RC / ( re+' RE) = 1.76
With C2 included, the gain is
Av = RC / =' 152
re
The bypass capacitor makes a
big difference!

155
 Further Notes
1. If a load of resistance RL is connected across the output of
the amplifier, the total resistance is then
Rtot = RCRL / (RC + RL).
The voltage gain is written as
Av = Rtot /
re'
• If the load resistance RL >> RC, then Rtot  RC and there is no
change in the gain.

• If RL << RC, then Rtot = RL. The voltage gain is reduced.

• Ideally, we require RL to be as large as possible.

156
Bypassing RE produces the maximum voltage
gain and stability problem.
The ac voltage gain is dependent on re’, IE and on
temperature, it will be unstable over temperature changes.

If we take the bypass off IE, the gain is decreased but RE

overpowers in the gain calculation. This actually makes the
circuit much less dependent on it.

We make a compromise by using a method called swamping.

In swamping, we only partially bypass RE as shown next.

157
 Swamping
Note that the total external emitter resistance RE is
formed by two separate emitter resistors RE1 and RE2.
• One of the resistors RE2 is bypassed
and the other is not. Both resistors
affect the dc bias but only RE1 affects
the ac voltage gain:
Av = RC / (re’ + RE1)

• If we make RE1 at least ten times

larger than re’ (RE1 >> 10re’), then the
effect of re’ is minimized and the
approximate voltage gain for the
swamped amplifier is
Av ≈ RC / RE1

158
 Example
For the amplifier shown next, determine the total
collector voltage and the total output voltage, both dc
and ac. Draw the waveforms.

159
 Solution
Step (1): DC Analysis
RIN(base) = βDC(RE1 + RE2)
= 150 (940 Ω) = 141 kΩ
Since RIN(base) > 10R2, it can be neglected in the
dc base voltage calculation.

VB ≈ [R2 / (R1 + R2)]VCC

= [(10kΩ) / (47kΩ + 10kΩ)] 10V = 1.75 V

VE = VB – 0.7 V = 1.75 V – 0.7 = 1.05 V

IE = VE / (RE1 + RE2)
= 1.05 V / 940 Ω = 1.12 mA

VC = VCC − ICRC
= 10 V – (1.12 mA) (4.7 kΩ) = 4.74 V 160
 Step(2) AC
Analysis

• Calculate re’:
re’ = 25 mV / IE = 25 mV / 1.12 mA = 22 Ω

• Determine the attenuation in the base circuit. Looking from

the 600 Ω source resistance, the total Rin is
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||Rin(base)
Rin(base) = βac(re’ + RE1) = 175 (492 Ω) = 86.1 kΩ
Rin(tot) = 47 kΩ||10 kΩ||86.1 kΩ = 7.53 kΩ

161
• The attenuation from source to base is
Attenuation = Vb / Vs = Rin(tot) /(Rs + Rin(tot))
= 7.53 kΩ / (600 Ω + 7.53 kΩ) = 0.93

Before Av can be determined, we need to know the ac collector

resistance:
Rc = RCRL/(RL + RC) = (4.7 kΩ) (47 kΩ) / (4.7 kΩ + 47 kΩ)
= 4.27 kΩ

• Now we are ready to calculate the gain from base to collector:

Av ≈ Rc /RE1 = 4.27 kΩ / 470 Ω = 9.09
• And the overall voltage gain is the attenuation times the
amplifier voltage:
A’v = (Vb / Vs) Av = (0.93) (9.09) = 8.45
• Since the source produces 10 mVrms, the rms voltage at the
collector will be
Vc = A’v Vin = (8.45) (10 mV) = 84.5 mV 162
 Step (3) Plot waveforms

The total collector voltage is the signal voltage of 84.5

mVrms riding on a dc level of 4.74 V. The peaks are
Max Vc(p) = 4.74 + (84.5 mV) (1.414) = 4.86 V
Min Vc(p) = 4.74 - (84.5 mV) (1.414) = 4.62 V

163
• The coupling capacitor C3 keeps the dc level from getting
to the output, so Vout is equal to the ac portion of the
collector voltage (Vout(p) = 119 mV).
• Source voltage is shown to emphasize phase inversion.

164
 Common-Collector (CC) Amplifier
Emitter-follower amplifier (EF).
• The input is applied to base through a coupling capacitor and
the output is at the emitter. The voltage gain of a CC amplifier
is approximately 1.

• Its main advantage is its high input resistance and current

gain.
165
 Voltage Gain
• From the ac equivalent circuit
Vout = IeRe
and
Vin = Ie(re’ + Re)
• The voltage gain is
V
out IR R
  
 
e e e
A
 
v ' '
V I r
in ee Re r
e Re

In practice, Re >> re’ , hence

• Note that Re = RE||RL and
Re = RE
when there is no load.
Av ≈ 1
that is, the voltage gain of a CC
amplifier is approximately unity.
166
 Input Resistance Rin(base)
• CC amplifier has high input resistance - it can be
used to minimize loading effects when a circuit is
driving a low resistance load. Note: the emitter resistance is
never bypassed.
• The derivation of the CC amplifier input resistance
is similar to that of the CE amplifier:
Rin(base) = Vin / Iin = Vb / Ib
Ie(re' Re)
= Ib
• Since Ie ≈ Ic = βacI , I (r' R)
b ac b e e '
r
Rin(base) = Ib = βac ( + Ree)
167
• If Re >> , 'the input resistance becomes
re R =β R
in(base) ac e

• From the CC amplifier circuit, we can see that the bias

resistors appear in parallel with Rin(base), looking from the
input source. Thus, the total input resistance becomes
Rin(tot) = R1 || R2 || Rin(base)

168
 Output Resistance

• The output resistance is very low. It is given by the

following expression:
 Rs 
Rout
  ||RE
ac
where Rs is the resistance of the input source.
(FYI: Floyd/ pg. 937)

169
 Current Gain
Iout Ie
The current gain is Ai  
Iin Iin
• The input current, Iin = Vin / Rin(tot). If R 2
1||R Rin ), then
(base
most of input current goes into the base. Thus, current gain
of amplifier is almost equal to current gain of the transistor,
βac, that is
Ic
Ai  βac =
Ib

• This is because very little signal

I e is diverted to the bias
resistors. Otherwise, Ai  I in

• βac is the maximum achievable current gain in both CC and

CE amplifiers. Recall Ie  βacIb and Iin = Ib.
170
 Power Gain
• The CC power gain is

P I V
A p  out
 outout
 A
iAv
Pin I V
inin
• Since Av ≈ 1, the overall power gain is
Ap ≈ Ai.

171
 Example
Determine the total input resistance of the emitter follower shown below.
Also find the voltage gain, current gain, and power gain in terms of
power delivered to the load, RL. Assume βac = 175. And that the
capacitive reactances are negligible at the frequency of operation.

172
 Solution
• The ac emitter resistance external to the transistor, Re, is:
Re = RE || RL = 1 kΩ || 1kΩ = 500 Ω

• The approximate resistance, looking in at the base, is:

Rin(base) ≈ βac Re = (175) (500 Ω) = 87.5 kΩ

• The total input resistance is

Rin(tot) = R1||R2||Rin(base) = 18kΩ || 18kΩ || 87.56kΩ = 8.16 kΩ

173
 Solution
• The voltage
'
gain is almost unity (CC amplifier). By using
we canre determine a more precise value for Av:
VE = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC – VBE
= (0.5)(10 V) – 0.7 V = 4.3 V
IE = VE / RE = 4.3 V / 1.0 kΩ = 4.3 mA
re' = 25 mV/IE = 25 mV / 4.3 mA = 5.8 Ω
'
r
So Av = Re / ( +e Re) = 500 Ω / 505.8 Ω = 0.989

• The small difference in Av as a result of considering re’ is

insignificant in most cases.

174
 Solution
• The current gain is Ai = Ie / Iin:
Ie = Ve / Re = AvVb / Re ≈ 1 V / 500 Ω = 2 mA
Iin = Vin / Rin(tot) = 1 V / 8.16 kΩ = 123 μA
Ai =Ie / Iin = 2 mA / 123 μA = 16.3

• The overall power gain is

Ap ≈ Ai = 16.3
Since RL = RE, one half of the total power is dissipated in
RL. So, in terms of power to the load, the power gain is
one half of the overall power gain.
Ap(load) = Ap / 2 = 16.3 / 2 = 8.15

175
 The Darlington Pair
• The maximum achievable input
resistance you can get from a
given CC circuit is limited by
ac.One way to boost the input
resistance is to use a darlington
pair.

• The collectors of the two

transistors are connected and
the emitter of the first drives the
base of the second.
176
• This configuration achieves βac multiplication, i.e.,
Ie2 = βac2 βac1 Ib1.

• Thus, the effective current gain in the darlington pair is

ac = βac2 βac1

• Neglecting r’e by assuming that it is much smaller than RE,

the input resistance is
Rin = βac2βac1RE

177
• CC is often used as an interface between a circuit with a high output resistance
and a low resistance load. In such an application, it is called a buffer.
• E.g.: suppose a common-emitter amplifier with a 1.0 kΩ collector resistance
(output resistance) must drive a low-resistance load e.g. an 8 Ω low-power
speaker that is capacitively coupled to the output of amplifier. The 8 Ω load
(appears to the ac signal) in parallel with the 1 kΩ collector resistor. This results
in an ac collector resistance of
Rc = RC || RL = 1kΩ || 8Ω = 7.94 Ω.
• Obviously this is not acceptable, since most of the voltage gain is lost
Av = Rc / .
For example, if = 5 Ω, the voltage gain is reduced from
Av = RC / = 1 kΩ / 5 Ω' = 200
to re
re' Av = Rc / ' = 7.94 Ω / 5 Ω = 1.59
• We can add a darlington pair torinterface
e the amplifier and the speaker.

re'

178
 For the CE amplifier : VCC = 12 V, RC = 1.0 kWand re’ = 5 W.
For the Darlington EF : R1 = 10 kW R2 = 22 kWRE = 22 W RL = 8
W.DC = ac = 100 for both transistors.
(a) Determine the voltage gain of the CE amplifier.
(b) Determine the voltage gain of the Darlington EF amplifier.
(c) Determine the overall voltage gain and compare to the gain of the CE
amplifier driving the speaker directly without the Darlington EF.
179
 Solution
The total input resistance of the Darlington emitter-
follower amplifier will act as a load to CE amplifier. In
order to determine the voltage gain for the CE amplifier
VB =for
(R2 this
/ R2 circuit,
+ R1)VCC it =
is (22/32)12V
necessary to calculate
= 8.25 V Rin(tot) EF.
VE = 8.25 V – 1.4 V = 6.85 V
IE = 6.85 V/22 W = 0.311 A
re’ = (25 mV/IE) = 80.3 mW
Re = RE || RL = 22 W || 8 W =5.87 W
The input resistance of the Darlington EF,
Rin(base) EF = ac1 ac2Re = (100)2(80.3 mW5.87 W) = 59.5 kW
The total input resistance,
Rin(tot) EF = R1|| R2||Rin(base) EF = 6162.9 W

Thus, the ac output resistance of CE,

180
 Solution cont.
Voltage gain for CE amplifier with Darlington EF,
Av = Rc /re’ = 860.4/5 = 172

Voltage gain for Darlington amplifier, Av EF = 0.987

Overall voltage gain, Av’ = 170

Voltage gain for CE amplifier w/out Darlington EF,

Av = Rc /re’ = 7.94/5 = 1.59

Using the same circuit determine Av’ is a single transistor is used

in the EF amplifier instead of Darlington pair.
181
 Common-Base (CB) Amplifier
•The CB amplifier provides high voltage
gain with a maximum current gain of 1
and it has low input resistance.
•CB amplifiers are most appropriate for
certain applications where sources tend
to have very low-resistance outputs.

•The base is the common terminal and is

at ac ground because of the capacitor C2.
•The input signal is capacitively coupled
to the emitter.
•The output is capacitively coupled from
the collector to a load resistor.

182
 Voltage Gain
Since the input voltage is Vin = Ve and
the output voltage is Vout = Vc, the
gain becomes
Av = Vout  Vc  IcRc 
IeRc
Vin Ve  
Ie re' ||RE  
Ie re' ||RE

Assuming that RE >>re' , we get R

'
Av ≈ ' ≈ (RC||RL) / e
c
r
re
Note: The gain expression is the same as for the common emitter
amplifier. However, there is no phase inversion from emitter to
collector.
183
 Input Resistance
• The resistance looking into the emitter is
'
V V I(r
Rin(emitter) =inee e||RE)
I in I
e I e

• Assuming RE >> r,e'then '

r
Rin(emitter) ≈ e
• Typically, RE is much greater than re', so the assumption
'
R >> used is usually re valid.
E

184
 Output Resistance, Current Gain,
Power Gain
Output Resistance
• Looking into the collector, the ac collector resistance, rc’,
appears in parallel with RC. As rc’ is much larger than RC,
Rout ≈ RC
Current Gain
• It is defined as Ai = Iout / Iin. Thus we have
Ai = Ic / Ie ≈ 1
Power Gain
• Since the current gain is approximately unity, by Ap = Ai Av, we
have
Ap ≈ Av
185
Example
Find the input resistance, voltage gain, current
gain, and power gain for the amplifier shown
below. Firstly, find IE so that re’ can be determined.
Then Rin ≈ re’. Since βDCRE >> R2, then
VB = R2 / (R1 + R2) VCC = 1.76 V
VE = VB – 0.7 V = 1.06 V
IE = VE / RE = 1.06 mA

Therefore,
Rin ≈ re’ = 25 mV / IE = 23.6 Ω

The voltage gain is found as follows.

Rc = RC||RL = 1.8 kΩ
Av = Rc / re’ = 76.3
We also know Ai = 1 and
Ap ≈ Av = 76.3.
186
 Amplifier Comparisons
CE CC (or EF) CB
Input Base Base Emitter
Output Collector Emitter Collector
Inversion Yes No No
Voltage gain High (RC/r’e) Low (≈ 1) High (RC/r’e)
Current gain High (ac) High (ac) Low (≈ 1)
Power gain Very High (AiAv) High (≈ Ai) High (≈ Av)

Input Resistance Low (acr’e) High (acRE) Very low (r’e)

Output Resistance High Very low High
RC (Rs/βac)||RE RC
Frequency Range Medium Medium High
187
 Summary
• A small signal amplifier uses only a small portion of its dc
load line.
• r-parameters are easily identifiable and applicable with a
transistor’s circuit operation.
• A common emitter amplifier has good voltage, current, and
power gains, but a relatively low input resistance.
• A common collector amplifier has high input resistance and
good current gain, but its voltage gain is approximately 1.
• The common base amplifier has a good voltage gain, but it
has a very low input resistance and its current gain is
approximately 1.
• A darlington pair provides β multiplication for increased
input resistance.
188