D.C. Machin Baida

University of Technology
Control and Systems Engineering Department

Control Branch Engineering
And mechatronics Branch Engineering
D.C. ELECTRICAL MACHINES second year
References:
1- Theraja Bl, Theraja Ak “ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY”
2- S.A. NASAR & L. E. UNNEWEHR “ELECTROMECHANICS AND ELECTRIC
MACHINES”, 2ND ED.
3- V.k mehta “PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES’’
4- E. HUGHES “ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY” LONGMANS, LONDON.
CHAPTER ONE: Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Permeability:
The phenomena of magnetism and electromagnetism are dependent upon a certain
property of the medium called its permeability. Every medium is supposed to possess
two permeability:
1- Absolute permeability ( 0 ), 0  4  107 Henry/metre (H/m) for free space.
2- Relative permeability (  r ),  r =1 for free space.
Take any medium other than vacuum, absolute permeability    0  r (H/m).
Magnetic Force (Coulomb laws):

State that the force between two magnetic poles placed in a medium is:
(i) Directly proportional to their pole strengths.
(ii) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and
(iii) Inversely proportional to the absolute permeability of the surrounding medium.
m1m 2
F  newtons (N)
4  0  r r 2
Where:
F : magnetic force in (newtons).
m1m2 : the magnetic strength of the two poles in (weber)(Wb).(flux ɸ)
r : the distance between them.
1
Intensity of Magnetic field (H):
Field Intensity or Field Strength or Magnetizing Force at any point within a magnetic
field is numerically equal to the force experienced by a N-pole of one weber placed at
that point.
m
H  N/Wb or (AT/m) (ampere .Turns/meter) = IN / Ɩ
4  r 2
Magnetic Flux(ɸ):
It represents the lines of magnetic force ,or flux per unit pole. ɸ = m (Wb)
Flux Density (B):
It is given by the flux passing per unit area through a plane at a right angles to the flux.

B  Wb / m 2 , Tesla (T) , where A : is an area ( m2 )
A
B
And   Henry/meter (H/m)
H
Magnetic Circuit:
It is defined as the path which is followed by the magnetic flux.
Ferromagnetic core
Magnetomotive Force (mmf) (F): It is given by the preduct of the current (I) times its
number of turns N,(ampere.turns) (AT).
m.m.f. = N.I AT
or F = ɸR where, R : is Reluctance in AT/Wb
Then, the Magnetic field Intensity (H) is given by the ratio of the mmf divided by the
length of the mean magnetic path, its unit is (ampere-turns/meter)(AT/m).
mmf N .I
H (AT/m) , H  Where N: number of turns.
 
I: current in Ampere.
 0  r NI
B  0 r H  Wb/ m2

2
 0  r ANI
Total flux produced   B  A  Wb

Reluctance (R) or (S): It is the ratio of the applied magnetic potential divided by the
flux throgh the magnetic path under cosidration, its unit is (At/Wb)
NI 
R  , R 
 0r A
Comparion Between magnetic and electric circuit
Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit
1. Flux= mmf e.m. f

1. Current=
reluc tan ce resis tan ce
2. M.M.F (ampere-turns) 2. E.M.F. (volts)
3. Flux ɸ (weber) 3. Current I (amperes)
4. Flux density B (Wb/ m 2 ) 4. Current density (A/ m 2 )
l l l
5. Reluctance S   5. Rrsistance R  
A 0  r A A
6. Permeance=1/reluctance 6. Conductance=1/resistance
7. Relucitivity 7. Resistivity
8. Permeability=1/reluctivity 8. Conductivity=1/resistivity
9. Total m.m.f. = ɸS1+ ɸS2+ ɸS3+... 9. Total e.m.f. = IR1+ IR2+ IR3+…
Parallel Magnetic Circuits
In magnetic circuit fig.(a),The flux produce by the coil wound on the central core is
divided equally at point A between the two outer parallel paths. The reluctance offered
by the two parallel paths = half the reluctance of each path.
In equivalent electrical circuit, fig.(b), resistance offered to the source is = R || R = R/2.
3
It should be noted that reluctance offered by the central core AB has been neglected in
the above treatment.
Series-Parallel Magnetic Circuits
In fig. (a), two parallel magnetic circuits ACB and ADB connected across the common
magnetic path AB which contains an air-gap of length l g .
The reluctance of the path AB consists of (i) air gap reluctance and (ii) the reluctance
of the central core which comparatively negligible. Hence, the reluctance of the central
core AB equals only the air-gap reluctance across which are connected two equal
parallel reluctance. Hence, the m.m.f. required for this circuit would be the sum of
(i) that required for the air-gap and (ii) that required for either of two paths.
In the equivalent electrical circuit, fig.(b), the total resistance offered to the voltage
source is RT = R1+R||, R = R1+ R/2.
Relation between magnetism and electricity

It is well known that whenever an electric current flows through a conductor, a
magnetic field is immediately brought into existence in the space surrounding the
conductor. It can be said that when electrons are in motion, they produce a magnetic
field. The converse of this also true, when a magnetic field embracing a conductor
moves relative to the conductor, it produces a flow of electrons in the conductor. This
phenomenon where by an e.m.f. and hence current is induced in any conductor which
is cut across or is cut by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetic induction.
Faraday's Laws:
Faraday summed up two laws:
First Law: states that whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in
that conductor.
Second Law: states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of
change of flux-linkages.
d
e
dt
4
Lenz's Law
It states that any current produced by the emf tends to oppose the flux change.
d
e ,
dt
And if there is N turns in the circuit then
d d ( N )
e  N , e
dt dt
Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of
1 Weber to the final value of  2 Weber in time t seconds.
Initial flux linkages = N 1 , Final flux linkages = N  2
N2  N1
 Induced e.m.f. e  Wb/s, or volt
t
 
or e  N 2 1 volt
t
Induced e.m.f.:
Induced e.m.f. can be either: (i) dynamically or (ii) statically induced. In the first case,
usually the field is stationary and conductors cut across it (as in d.c. generators). But in
the second case, usually the conductors or the coil remains stationary and flux linked
with it is changed by simply increasing or decreasing the current producing this flux
(as in transformers).
Self-Induced e.m.f.:
This is the e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux linked it. If current
through the coil is changed, then the flux linked with its own turns will also change,
which will produce in it that is called self-induced e.m.f. the direction of this e.m.f. (as
given by Lenz's law) would be such as to oppose any change of flux which is, in fact,
the very cause of its production. Hence it is induction.
Coefficient of Self-induction (L):

(i) First Method for L
The Coefficient of Self-induction of a coil is defined as the weber-turns per
ampere in coil
N
L (Henry)
I
Where
N : The weber-turns
5
I : carrying current (amperes)
(ii) Second method for L

It gives the value of self-induction in terms of the dimension of the solenoid
0  r AN 2
L henry
I
(iii) Third method for L

dI
eL   L
dt
dI
If  1 ampere/second, and eL  1 volt, then L=1 henry
dt
Hence, a coil has a self-inductance of one henry if one volt is induced in it
when current through it changes at the rate of one ampere/second.
Mgnetic Hysteresis
It may be defined as the lagging of magnetisation of induction flux density (B) behind
the magnetising force (H). Alternatively, it may be defined as that quality of a
magnetic substance, due to which energy is dissipated in it, on the reversal of its
magnetism.
It is seen that B always lage behind H. the two never attain zero value
simultaneously. This lagging of B behind H is given the name (hystereis),
the close loop ACDEFGA which is obtained when iron bar is taken through
one complete cycle of magnetisation is known as (hypothesis loop).
6
Tutorial Problems No. 1
Q1: A ring has a diameter of 21 cm and a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2 . The ring is
made up of semicircular sections of cast iron and cast steel, with each joint a
reluctance equal to an air-gap of 0.2mm. Find the ampere-turns required to produce a
flux of 8 10 4 wb. The relative permabilities of cast steel and cast iron are 800 and 166
respectively. Neglect fringe and leakage effects.
Solution:   8  10 4 wb ; A  10cm 2  103 m 2 ; B  8 10 4 / 10 3  0.8wb / m 2

Air gap
H  B / 0  0.8 / 4  10 7  6.366  105 AT / m
Total air-gap length= 2  0.2  0.4mm  4 10 4 m
 AT required  H    6.366 105  4  104 255
Cast steel path
H  B /  0  r  0 . 8 / 4  10  7  800  769 AT / m
path   D / 2  21 / 2  33 cm  0 . 33 m
AT required  H    796 0.33 263
Cast iron path
H  0.8 / 4  10 7  166  3.835 AT / m; path  0.33m
AT required=3.835  0.33=1265
Total AT required = 255 + 263 + 1265 = 1783
Q 2: A shunt field coil is required to develop 1500 AT with an applied voltage of 60 v.

the rectangular coil is having a mean length of turn of 50 cm. calculate the wire size
.resistivity of copper may be assumed to be 2µΩ-cm at the operating temperature of
the coil. Estimate also the number of turns if the coil is to be worked at a current of
3A/ mm2 .
Solution:
V 60
NI  1500.........or ...N .  N .  1500
R R
N  2  10 6  50 N
 R  ohm............also...R   . 
25 A A
4
N 10 N
  ...........or ... A  25  10 4 cm 2 ...or ... A  0.25mm2
25 A
Current in the coil =3  0.25=0.75 A
NI=1500,  N=1500/0.75=2000
7
Q3: An iron-ring of mean length 30 cm is made up of 3 pieces of case-iron. Each
piece has the same length, but their respective diameters are 4, 3 and 2.5 cm. an air-gap
of length 0.5 mm is cut in the 2.5 cm. piece. If a coil of 1000 turns is wound on the
ring. Find the value of the current has to carry to produce a flux density of 0.5 wb / m 2 in
the air gap. B.H curve data of cast-iron is as follow:
B ( wb / m 2 ) : 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
H (AT/m) : 280 680 990 1400 2000 2800
7
Permeability of free space= 4   10 , neglect leakage and fringing effect
Solution: the magnetic circuit has four parts connected in series

Part 1: Air-gap 0.5mm length, B=0.5 wb / m 2 , and permeability of free
space=1 H1  B / 0  0.5 / 107 (4 )  3981
At air gap  (0.5  10 3 )  H1  199
Part 2: 2.5cm diameter, 10 cm long, cast-iron ring portion B and H are to
be related with the help of given data. In this, out of 10 cms. 0.5 mm air-gap
is cut, and this portion of ring will have cast-iron length of 99.5 mm
For B  0.5wb / m 2 ............H 2  2000 AT / m , AT2  2000  9.95  10 2  199
Part 3: 3 cm diameter, 10 cm long, cast-iron ring portion
B  0.5  (2.5 / 3) 2  0.347wb / m 2
For this B, H is read from B-H curve.
H 3  1183AT / m
AT3  1183 10  102  118.3
Part 4: 4 cm diameter, 10 cm long, cast-iron portion
B  0.5  (2.5 / 4) 2  0.195wb / m2
From, B-H curve, corresponding H is 661
AT = 199 + 199 + 118 + 66 = 582
Coil current = 582/1000 = 0.582 amp
(b) The common flux for this circuit is obtained from flux-density and the concerned
2 2
area.   0.5  ( / 4)  (2.5  10 )  0.02453102  0.2453mwb
Reluctance of total magnetic circuit
8
4
= m.m.f. / flux = 582 /( 2 .453  10 )  2372650 MKS units
Q4: in a 4-pole dynamo, the flux/pole is 15 mWb. Calculate the average e.m.f.
induced in one of the armature conductors, if armature is driven at 600 r.p.m.
Sol: it should be noted that each time the conductor passes under a pole (whether N or
S) it cuts a flux of 15 mWb. Hence the flux cut in one revolution is 15  4 = 60 mWb.
Since conductor is rotating at 600/60 = 10 r.p.m. time taken for one revolution is 1/10
=0.1 second.
 Average e.m.f. generated = N d volt
dt
2
N=1, dɸ = 60 mWb = 6  10 Wb, dt = 0.1 second
 e = 1  6  102 /0.1 = 0.6 v
Q5: an iron ring 30 cm mean diameter is made of square of iron of 2cm  2cm cross
section and is uniformly wound with 400 turns of wire of 2 mm2 cross-section.
Calculate the value of the self-inductione of the coil. Assume  r  800.
Sol.:
L   0  r AN 2 /   4  10 7  800  4  10 4 (400) 2 / 0.3  68.3mH
Q6: A circuit has 1000 turns enclosing a magnetic circuit 20 cm 2 in section. With 4 A,
the flux density is 1.0 Wb/ m 2 and with 9 A. it is 1.4 Wb/ m 2 .find the mean value of the
inductance between these current limits and the induced e.m.f. if the current falls from
9 A to 4 A in 0.05 seconds.
Sol.:
d d dB
LN  N ( BA)  NA henry  1000  20  10 4 (1.4  1) /(9  4)  0.16 H
dI dI dI
dI
eL  L ,......dI  (9  4)  5 A,.....dt  0.05s ,.... eL  0.16  5 / 0.05  16v
dt
9
CHAPTER TWO : D.C. MACHINES
One of energy can be obtained from the other form with the help of converters.
Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input to mechanical output
or vice versa are called electric machines. The process of translation is known as
electromechanical energy conversion.
An electrical machine is link between an electrical system and a mechanical system.
Conversion from mechanical to electrical: generator
Conversion from electrical to mechanical: motor
D.C. Generators
Although a far greater percentage of the electrical machines in service are a.c.
machines, the d.c. machines are of considerable industrial importance. The principal
advantage of the d.c. machine, particularly the d.c. motor, is that it provides a fine
control of speed. Such an advantage is not claimed by any a.c. motor. However, d.c.
generators are not as common as they used to be, because direct current, when
required, is mainly obtained from an a.c. supply by the use of rectifiers.
Generator Principle
An electric generator is based on the principle that never flux is cut by a conductor, an
e.m.f. is induced which will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
the essential components of a generator are:
(a) A magnetic field
(b) Conductor or a group of conductors
(c) Motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
Simple Loop Generator
Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with
a constant speed .As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD
changes continuously. Hence the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also changes but the
e.m.f. induced in one coil side adds to that induced in the other.
(i) When the loop is in position no. 1, the generated e.m.f. is zero because the coil
sides (AB and CD) are cutting no flux but are moving parallel to it.
(ii) When the loop is in position no. 2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux
and, therefore, a low e.m.f. is generated as indicated by point 2.
10
(iii) When the loop is in position no. 3, the coil sides (AB and CD) are at right angle to
the flux and are, therefore, cutting the flux at a maximum rate. Hence at this instant,
the generated e.m.f. is maximum as indicated by point 3.
(iv) At position 4, the generated e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an
angle.
(v) At position 5, no magnetic lines are cut and hence induced e.m.f. is zero.
(vi) At position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
direction of generated e.m.f. is reversed. The maximum e.m.f. in this direction (reverse
direction) will be when the loop is at position 7 and zero when at position 1. This cycle
repeats with each revolution of the coil.
Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one, if a load is connected across the ends
of the loop, then alternating current will flow through the load. The alternating voltage
generated in the loop can be converted into direct voltage by a device called commutator. We
then have the d.c. generator in fact.
Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier; it consists of a cylindrical metal ring cut into
two halves or segments C1 and C2 respectively separated by a thin sheet of mica. The
commutator is mounted on but insulated from the rotor shaft.
The ends of coil sides AB and CD are connected to the segments C1 and C2 respectively.
Two stationary carbon brushes rest on the commutator and lead current to the external load.
The purpose of brushes is simply to lead current from the rotating loop or winding to the
external stationary load. With this arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the coil
side under S-pole to the +ve brush and that under N-pole to the -ve brush.
(i) Note that segment C1 connects the coil side AB to point P of the load resistance R and the
segment C2 connects the coil side CD to point Q of the load. Also note the direction of
current through load. It is from Q to P.
(ii) After half a revolution of the loop (180° rotation), the coil side AB is under S-pole and
the coil side CD under N-pole as shown in Fig.
The currents in the coil sides now flow in the reverse direction but the segments C1 and C2
have also moved through 180°. segment C1 is now in contact with +ve brush and segment C2
in contact with -ve brush. Note that commutator has reversed the coil connections to the load.
Coil side AB is now connected to point Q of the load and coil side CD to the point P of the
load. Also note the direction of current through the load. It is again from Q to P.
Thus the alternating voltage generated in the loop will appear as direct voltage across the
brushes. This is not a steady direct voltage but has a pulsating character. It is because the
voltage appearing across the brushes varies from zero to maximum value and back to zero
twice for each revolution of the loop.
11
if we require is the steady direct voltage. This can be achieved by using a large number of
coils connected in series. The resulting arrangement is known as armature winding.
Construction of d.c. Generator
The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general construction. Any d.c.
generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa. All d.c. machines have five
principal components viz.,
(i) Field system.
(ii) Armature core.
(iii) Armature winding.
(vi) Commutator
(v) Brushes.
(i) Field system

The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the
armature rotates. It consists of a number of salient poles (of course, even number)
bolted to the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke). The yoke is usually made
of solid cast steel whereas the pole pieces are composed of stacked laminations. Field
coils are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c. exciting current. The field coils are
connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.
The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through
the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame. Practical d.c. machines have
air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. Since armature and field systems are
composed of materials that have high permeability, most of the m.m.f. of field coils is
required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce
the size of field coils (number of turns).
(ii) Armature core
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It
consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to form a
cylindrical core. The laminations are individually coated with a thin insulating film so that
they do not come in electrical contact with each other.
The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are
slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give
shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.
12
(iii) Armature winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a
suitable manner. This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in which
“working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel;
the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel
paths so as to increase the current. The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-
circuit winding; the conductors being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a
closed loop or series of closed loops.
The armature conductors are connected to form coils. As shown in Fig(i) below, shows
a single-turn coil. It has two conductors or coil sides connected at the back of the
armature. fig.(ii) shows a 4-turn coil which has 8 conductors or coil sides.
One coil side of the coil is under N-pole and the other coil side is under the next S-pole at the
corresponding position. Consequently the e.m.f. of the coil sides adds together. If the e.m.f.
induced in one conductor is 2.5 volts, then the e.m.f. of a single-turn coil will be = 2  2.5 = 5
volts. For the same flux and speed, the e.m.f. of a 4-turn coil will be = 8  2.5 = 20 V
(iv) Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in
the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes. The commutator is made of
copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the
machine. The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments in a suitable
manner to give rise to the armature winding. Depending upon the manner in which the
armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of
armature winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding. (b) wave winding.
Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricities will cause the
brushes to bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The parks may bum the brushes and
overheat and carbonize the commutator.
The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of slots or coils (or half the
number of conductors).
No. of commutator segments = No. of slots = No. of coils
It is because each coil has two ends and two coil connections are joined at each commutator
segment.
13
The coil sides are connected through commutator segments in such a manner as to form a
series-parallel system; a number of conductors are connected in series so as to increase the
voltage and two or more such series-connected paths in parallel to share the current. As
shown in figure above. If voltage induced in each conductor is 2.5 V, then voltage between
segments A and C = 4  2.5 = 10 V.
D.C. armature windings must be of the closed type in order to provide for the commutation of
the coils.
(v) Brushes
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating
commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon
(because carbon has good electrical conductivity and is soft enough not to scratch the
commutator. To improve the conductivity, sometimes we add a small amount of
copper) and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of
adjustable springs. If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of
the commutator and the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect
contact with the commutator may produce sparking.
Multiple machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole
machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have
positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the same polarity are connected
together so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal.
Types of D.C. Armature Windings
Two basic methods of making back connection and front connection (must be
connected in series) end connections are:
1. Simplex lap winding
2. Simplex wave winding
1. Simplex lap winding

The ends of any coil are brought out to adjacent commutator segments and the result of
this method of connection is that all the coils of the armature are in sequence with the
last coil connected to the first coil. Consequently, closed circuit winding results. The
name lap comes from the way in which successive coils overlap the preceding one.
1. Simplex lap winding 2. Simplex wave winding
2. Simplex wave winding
14
For a simplex wave winding, the result is that the coils under consecutive pole pairs
will be joined together in series there by adding together their e.m.f.s .
After passing once around the armature, the winding falls in a slot to the left or right of
the starting point and thus connecting up another circuit. Continuing in this way, all
the conductors will be connected in a single closed winding. This winding is called
wave winding from the appearance (wavy) of the end connections.
Armature Resistance (Ra)

The resistance offered by the armature circuit is known as armature resistance (Ra) and includes: (i)
Resistance of armature winding (ii) Resistance of brushes
The armature resistance depends upon the construction of machine. Except for small machines, its
value is generally less than 1Ω. The armature resistance can be found as under:
Let  = length of each conductor,
a = cross-sectional area
A = number of parallel paths = P (for simplex lap winding)
Z = number of armature conductors
P = number of poles
P
Resistance of whole winding, R  Z
a
R PZ
Resistance per parallel path = 
A a A
armature resistance Ra is given by:
Resistance per parallel path 1  PZ 
Ra    
A A a A
PZ
 Ra 
aA2
E.M.F. generated = E.M.F. per parallel path
Total armature current, Ia = P  current per parallel path
Applications of Lap and Wave Windings

In multiple machines, for a given number of poles (P) and armature conductors (Z), a wave winding
has a higher terminal voltage than a lap winding because it has more conductors in series. On the
other hand, the lap winding carries more current than a wave winding because it has more parallel
paths.
In small machines, the current-carrying capacity of the armature conductors is not critical and in
order to achieve suitable voltages, wave windings are used.
On the other hand, in large machines suitable voltages are easily obtained because of the availability
of large number of armature conductors and the current carrying capacity is more critical. Hence in
large machines, lap windings are used.
Note: In general, a high-current armature is lap-wound to provide a large number of parallel paths
and a low-current armature is wave-wound to provide a small number of parallel paths.
E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator

We shall now derive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in a d.c. generator. Let
= flux/pole in Wb
Z = total number of armature conductors
P = number of poles
A = number of parallel paths = 2 (for wave winding) = P (for lap winding)
N = speed of armature in r.p.m.
Eg = e.m.f. of the generator = e.m.f./parallel path
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature, d = P webers
15
Time taken to complete one revolution, dt = 60/N second
d P PN
e.m.f generated/conductor    volts
dt 60 / N 60
e.m.f. of generator, Eg = e.m.f. per parallel path
= (e.m.f/conductor)  No. of conductors in series per parallel path
P  N Z P  ZN
   E g 
60 A 60 A
Types of D.C. Generators

Generators are generally classified according to their methods of field excitation. On
this basis, d.c. generators are divided into the following two classes:
(i) Separately excited d.c. generators
(ii) Self-excited d.c. generators
The behaviour of a d.c. generator on load depends upon the method of field excitation
adopted.
Separately Excited D.C. Generators
A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external
d.c. source (a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator.
The voltage output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field
current (Eg = PɸZN/60 A). The greater the speed and field current, greater is the
generated e.m.f. It may be noted that separately excited d.c. generators are rarely used
in practice.
Armature current, I a  I L
Terminal voltage, V = Eg  I a Ra
Electric power developed = Eg I a
Power delivered to load  E g I a  I a2 Ra  I a E g  I a Ra   VI a
Self-Excited D.C. Generators

A d.c. generators are normally of self-excited type, whose field magnet winding is
supplied current from the output of the generator itself. There are three types of self-
16
excited generators depending upon the manner in which the field winding is connected
to the armature, namely;
(i) Series generator, (ii) Shunt generator, and (iii) Compound generator
(i) Series generator

In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature
winding so that whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as the
load. Since the field winding carries the whole of load current, it has a few turns of
thick wire having low resistance.
Armature current, I a  I se  I L  I
Terminal voltage, V = Eg  I ( Ra  Rse )
Power developed in armature = E g I a
Power delivered to load
 
 E g I a  I a2 ( Ra  Rse )  I a E g  I a Ra  Rse   VI a  or VI L
(ii) Shunt generator
In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it. The shunt field
winding has many turns of fine wire having high resistance. Therefore, only a part of
armature current flows through shunt field winding and the rest flows through the load.
Shunt field current, I sh  V / R sh

Armature current, I a  I L  I sh
17
Terminal voltage, V  E g  I a Ra
Power developed in armature = Eg I a , Power delivered to load = VI L
(iii) Compound generator

In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field winding on each Pole-one
is in series and the other in parallel with the armature. A compound wound generator
may be:
(a) Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature
winding.
V  I se Rse
Series field current, I se  I L , Shunt field current, I sh 
Rsh
Terminal voltage, V  Eg  I a Ra  I se Rse
Power developed in armature = E g I a
Power delivered to load = VI L
(b) Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and
armature winding.
V
Series field current, I se  I a  I L  I sh , Shunt field current, I sh 
R sh
Terminal voltage, V  E g  I a ( Ra  Rse )
Power developed in armature = E g I a , Power delivered to load = VI L
Brush Contact Drop
18
It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current flows. Obviously,
its value will depend upon the amount of current flowing and the value of contact
resistance. This drop is generally small.

Q1: an 8-pole, 240 v, simplex lap-wound armature delivers 125 A. determine (i) the
voltage per path (ii) the current per path and (iii) the current per brush.
Sol:
(i) Voltage per path = generator terminal voltage = 240 V
I a I a 125
(ii) Current per path =    15 .62 A
A P 8
(iii) Current per brush = 125/2 = 62.5 A
Q2 a 4-pole lap-wound d.c. generator has 600 conductors on its armature. The flux per
pole is 0.02 Wb .calculate (i) the speed at which the generator must be run to generate
300 v. (ii) what would be the speed if the generator were wave-wound?
Q3 an 8-pole, lap-wound armature rotated at 350 r.p.m. is required to generate 260 V.

the useful flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. If the armature has 120 slots, calculate the number
of conductors per slot.
Q4 the armature of a 6-pole, 600 r.p.m. lap-wound generator has 90 slots. If each coil
has 4 turns, calculate the flux per pole required to generate an e.m.f. of 288 volts.
Q5 the armature of a 2-pole, 200V generator has 400 conductors and runs at 300 r.p.m.
if the number of turns in each field coil is 1200, what is the average value of e.m.f.
induced in each coil on breaking the field if the flux dies away completely in o.1 s?
Q6 a 100 KW,240 V shunt generator has a field resistance of 55Ω and armature
resistance of 0.067Ω. find the full-load generated voltage.
Q7 a 4-pole d.c. shunt generator with a wave-wound armature has to supply a load of
500 lamps each of 100 W at 250 V. allowing 10 V for the voltage drop in the
connecting leads between the generator and the load and drop of 1 V per brush,
calculate the speed at which the generator should be driven. The flux per pole is 30
mWb and the armature and the shunt field resistance are respectively 0.05 Ω and 65 Ω.
The number of armature conductors is 390.
19
Q8 a 30 KW, 300 V, d.c. shunt generator has armature and field resistance of 0.05 Ω
and 100 Ω respectively. Calculate the total power developed by the armature when it
delivers full load output.
Q9 a separately excited generator when running at 1200 r.p.m. supplies 200 A at 125
V to a circuit of constant resistance. What will be the load current when the speed is
dropped to 1000 r.p.m. if the field current is unaltered? Armature resistance = 0.04 Ω
and total drop at brushes = 2 V.
Q10 a 4-pole d.c. shunt generator with a shunt field resistance of 100 Ω and armature
resistance of 1 Ω has 378 wave-connected conductors in its armature. The flux per
pole is 0.02Wb if a load resistance of 10 Ω is connected across the armature terminals
and the generator is driven at 1000 r.p.m., calculate the power adsorbed by the load.
Q11 a compound generator is to supply a load of 250 lamps, each rated at 100 W, 250
V. the armature, series and shunt windings have resistances of 0.06 Ω, 0.04 Ω and 50
Ω respectively. Determine the generated e.m.f. when the machin is connected in (i)
long shunt (ii) short shunt. Take drop per brush as 1 V.
Q12 a short- shunt d.c. compound generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. the resistances
of armature, series field and shunt field windings are 0.04, 0.03 and 60 ohms
respectively. Find the e.m.f. generated. Also find the e.m.f. generated if the same
machine is connected as long-shunt machine.
Q13 in a long-shunt compound generator, the terminal voltage is 230 V when

generator delivers 150 A. determine (i) induced e.m.f. (ii) total power generated (iii)
distribution of this power. Given that shunt field, series field, diverter and armature
resistances are 92 Ω, 0.015 Ω, 0.03 Ω and 0.032 Ω respectively.
Q14 in a 120 V compound generator, the resistance of the armature, shunt and series
windings are 0.06 Ω, 25 Ω and 0.04 Ω respectively. The load current is 100 A at 120
V. find armature current and induced e.m.f. when the machine is connected as (i) long
shunt (ii) short shunt. How will the ampere-turns of the series field be change in (i) if a
diverter of 0.1 Ω be connected parallel with the series winding? Neglect brush contact
drop and ignore armature reaction.
Q15 a separately excited d.c. generator has armature circuit resistance of 0.1 Ω and the
total brush drop is 2 V. when running at 1000 r.p.m., it delivers a current of 100 A at
250 V to a load of constant resistance. If the generator speed drops to 700 r.p.m. with
field current unaltered, find the current delivered to load.
20
CHAPTER 3 : Characteristics, Losses of D.C. Machine
The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or motor) may be divided into three Classes viz
All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature of the machine. They
also lower the efficiency of the machine.
1. Copper losses
These losses occur due to currents in the various windings of the machine.
2
(i) Armature copper loss = I a R a
2
(ii) Shunt field copper loss = I sh R sh
2
(iii) Series field copper loss = I se R se
Note. There is also brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance (resistance
between the surface of brush and surface of commutator). This loss is generally
included in armature copper loss.
2. Iron or Core losses

These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are due to the rotation of
armature in the magnetic field of the poles. They are of two types viz.
(i) hysteresis loss
It is given by Steinmetz formula. This formula is
16
Hysteresis loss, Ph   B max fV watts
Where:
Bmax = Maximum flux density in armature.
21
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals.
= NP/120 where: N is in r.p.m.
3
V = Volume of armature in m .
η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is made of such materials
which have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient (silicon steel).
(ii) eddy current loss.

In addition to the voltages induced in the armature conductors, there are also voltages
induced in the armature core. These voltages produce circulating currents in the
armature core as shown in Figure below. These are called eddy currents and power
loss due to their flow is called eddy current loss. The eddy current loss appears as heat
which raises the temperature of the machine and lowers its efficiency.
If a continuous solid iron core is used, the resistance to eddy current path will be small
due to large cross-sectional area of the core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy
current and hence eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy current can
be reduced by making core resistance as high as practical.
The core resistance can be greatly increased by constructing the core of thin, round
iron sheets called laminations. The laminations are insulated from each other with a
coating of varnish. The insulating coating has a high resistance, so very little current
flows from one lamination to the other.
Eddy current loss,
2
Pe  Ke Bmax f 2t 2V watts
Where:
Ke = Constant depending upon the electrical resistance of core and system of units
used.
Bmax = Maximum flux density in Wb/ m2 .
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals in Hz.
t = Thickness of lamination in m.
V = Volume of core in m 3 .
22
It may be noted that eddy current loss depends upon the square of lamination
thickness. For this reason, lamination thickness should be kept as small as possible.
3. Mechanical losses
These losses are due to friction and windage.
(i) Friction loss e, bearing friction, brush friction etc.
(ii) windage loss , air friction of rotating armature.
These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed, they are
practically constant.
Note. Iron losses and mechanical losses together are called stray or rotational losses.
Constant and Variable Losses

(i) Constant losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all loads are known as
constant losses. The constant losses in a d.c. generator are:
(a) Iron losses.
(b) Mechanical losses.
(c) Shunt field losses.
(ii) Variable losses

Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called variable losses. The
variable losses in a d.c. generator are:
2
(a) Copper loss in armature winding ( I a R a )
2
(b) Copper loss in series field winding ( I se Rse )
Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses
Note. Field Cu loss is constant for shunt and compound generators.
Power Stages
The various power stages in a d.c. generator are represented diagrammatically in
Figure below
A - B = Iron and friction losses
B - C = Copper losses
B Eg I a
(i) Mechanical efficiency, m  
A Mechanical power input
23
C VI L
(ii) Electrical efficiency, e  
B Eg Ia
C VI l
(iii) Commercial or overall efficiency,  c  
A Mechanical power input
Clearly  c   m  e
C output input - losses
Now, commercial efficiency,  c   
A input input
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
The efficiency of a d.c. generator is not constant but varies with load. Consider a shunt
generator delivering a load current I L at a terminal voltage V.
Generator output = V I L
Generator input = Output + Losses
= V I L + Variable losses + Constant losses
 VI L  I a2 R a  W c
 VI L  ( I L  I sh ) 2 R a  W c
 I a  I L  I sh
The shunt field current I sh is generally small as compared to I L and, therefore, can be
neglected.  Generator input = VI L  I L2 R a  Wc
Now
output VI L
  
input VI L  I L2 R a  W c
1

 IL Ra Wc 
1    
 V VI L 
The efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of Equation above is
minimum
d  I L Ra Wc 
    0
dI L  V VI L 
Ra Wc
Or  0
V VI L2
24
Ra Wc
Or
 2 Or I L2 Ra  Wc
V VI L
Variable loss = Constant loss IL ≈ Ia 
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by
Wc
IL 
Ra
Hence, the efficiency of a d.c. generator will be maximum when the load current is
such that variable loss is equal to the constant loss.
D.C. Generator Characteristics
These characteristics show at a glance the behavior of the generator under different
load conditions. The three most important characteristics of a d.c. generator are:
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/ If)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the field
current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load
saturation curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately
or self-excited. The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the
generator at no load and constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage
as the field current is varied.
2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and the
armature current (Ia). The e.m.f. E is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic
(O.C.C.). The internal characteristic is of interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be
obtained directly by experiment. It is because a voltmeter cannot read the e.m.f.
generated on load due to the voltage drop in armature resistance. The internal
characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic if winding resistances are
known because armature reaction effect is included in both characteristics.
3. External characteristic (V/IL)
This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL).
The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is
very important in determining the suitability of a generator for a given purpose.
Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) of a D.C. Generator
The generator (separately excited) is run at fixed speed (normal speed). The field
current (If) is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated
e.m.f. (E0) read of on a voltmeter connected across the armature terminals.
25
The following points may be noted from O.C.C.:
(i) When the field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. OA. This is due to the
residual magnetism in the field poles.
(ii) Over a fairly wide range of field current (up to point B in the curve), the curve is
linear. It is because in this range, reluctance of iron is negligible as compared with that
of air gap. The air gap reluctance is constant and hence linear relationship.
(iii) After point B on the curve, the reluctance of iron also comes into picture. It is
because at higher flux densities, r for iron decreases and reluctance of iron is no
longer negligible. Consequently, the curve deviates from linear relationship.
(iv) After point C on the curve, the magnetic saturation of poles begins and E0 tends to
level off.
Characteristics of a Separately Excited D.C. Generator
(i) Open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.).
Figure below shows the variation of generated e.m f. on no load with field current for
various fixed speeds. Note that if the value of constant speed is increased, the
steepness of the curve also increases. When the field current is zero, the residual
magnetism in the poles will give rise to the small initial e.m.f. as shown.
(ii) Internal and External Characteristics

In order to determine the external characteristic of a separately excited generator, the
circuit set up is as shown in Figure below. As the load current increases, the terminal
voltage falls due to two reasons:
26
(a) The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that actual e.m.f. generated E on
load is less than that generated (E0) on no load.
(b) There is voltage drop across armature resistance (= ILRa = IaRa).
Due to these reasons, the external characteristic is a drooping curve [curve 3 in] Note
that in the absence of armature reaction and armature drop, the generated e.m.f. would
have been E0 (curve 1).
The internal characteristic can be determined from external characteristic by adding
ILRa drop to the external characteristic. It is because armature reaction drop is included
in the external characteristic. Curve 2 is the internal characteristic of the generator and
should obviously lie above the external characteristic.
Voltage Build-Up in a Self-Excited Generator

If the generator (as Shunt generator) is run at a constant speed, some e.m.f. will be
generated due to residual magnetism in the main poles. This small e.m.f. circulates a
field current which in turn produces additional flux to reinforce the original residual
flux. This process continues and the generator builds up the normal generated voltage
following the O.C.C. shown in Fig. (i).
The field resistance Rf can be represented by a straight line passing through the origin
as shown in Fig. (ii). The two curves can be shown on the same diagram as they have
the same ordinate Fig (iii).
Since the field circuit is inductive, there is a delay in the increase in current upon
closing the field circuit switch. The rate at which the current increases depends upon
the voltage available for increasing it.
27
Characteristics of Series Generator
Characteristics of a Shunt Generator
Compound Generator Characteristics

When a compound generator has its series field flux aiding its shunt field flux, the
machine is said to be cumulative compound. When the series field is connected in
reverse so that its field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is then
differential compound.
In a compound generator, both series and shunt excitation are combined. The shunt
winding can be connected either across the armature only (short-shunt connection S)
or across armature plus series field (long-shunt connection G). The compound
generator can be cumulatively compounded or differentially compounded generator.
The latter is rarely used in practice. Therefore, we shall discuss the characteristics of
cumulatively compounded generator. It may be noted that external characteristics of
long and short shunt compound generators are almost identical.
External characteristic
The series excitation aids the shunt excitation. The degree of compounding depends
upon the increase in series excitation with the increase in load current.
28
(i) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the
terminal voltage increases, it is called over-compounded generator. In such a case, as
the load current increases, the series field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase the
flux and hence the generated voltage. The increase in generated voltage is greater than
the IaRa drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal voltage increases as shown by
curve A.
(ii) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current, the
terminal voltage substantially remains constant, it is called flat-compounded generator.
The series winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than the one in over-
compounded machine and, therefore, does not increase the flux as much for a given
load current. Consequently, the full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage
as indicated by curve B.
(iii) If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a flat compounded
machine, the terminal voltage falls with increase in load current as indicated by curve
C. Such a machine is called under-compounded generator.
Voltage Regulation
The change in terminal voltage of a generator between full and no load (at constant
speed) is called the voltage regulation, usually expressed as a percentage of the voltage
at full-load.
where :
VNL = Terminal voltage of generator at no load
VFL = Terminal voltage of generator at full load
Note that voltage regulation of a generator is determined with field circuit and speed
held constant. If the voltage regulation of a generator is 10%, it means that terminal
voltage increases 10% as the load is changed from full load to no load.
Uses of D.C Generator
29
1-Shunt generators with field regulation are used for ordinary lighting and power
supply purposes. They are also used for charging batteries because their terminal
voltages are almost constant or can be kept constant.
2-Series generators are not used for power supply because of their rising
characteristics. However, their rising characteristics make them suitable for being used
as boosters in certain types of distribution systems particularly in railway service.
3-Compound generators the cumulatively-compound generator is the most widely

used d.c. generator because its external characteristic can be adjusted for compensating
the voltage drop in the line resistance. Hence, such generators are used for motor
driving which required d.c. supply at constant voltage, for lamp loads and for heavy
power service such as electric railways.
The differential-compound generator has an external characteristic similar to that of a
shunt generator but with large demagnetization armature reaction. Hence, it is widely
used in are weding where larger voltage drop is desirable with increase in current.
Tutorial Problems No. 3 (A)

Q1 A shunt generator has a F.L. current of 196 A at 220 V. the stray losses are 720 W
and the shunt field coil resistance is 55 Ω if it has a F.L. efficiency of 88%, find the
armature resistance. Also, find the load current corresponding to maximum efficiency.
Sol:
Output = 220  196 = 43120 W;
η = 88 % (overall efficiency)
Electrical input = 43120 / 0.88 = 49000 W
Shunt field current = 220 / 55 4 A
 Shunt Cu loss = 220  4 = 880 W; stray losses = 720 W
Constant losses = 880 + 720 = 1600 W
 Armature Cu loss = 5880 – 1600 = 4280 W
 I a2 Ra = 4280 W
2002 Ra = 4280 or Ra =4280 / 200 = 0.107 Ω
30
2
For maximum efficiency, I Ra = constant losses = 1600 W ,
I  1600 / 0.107  122.34 A
Q2 In a d.c. machine the total iron loss is 8 KW at its speed and excitation. If
excitation remains the same, but speed is reduced by 25 %, the total iron loss is found
to be 5 KW. Calculate the hysteresis and eddy current losses at (i) full speed (ii) half
the rated speed.
Sol:
Wh  f ........and ........Wc  f 2
Wh  N ......and ......Wc  N 2
Wh  A  N .......and ........Wc  BN 2
Where A and B are constants.
Total loss W  Wh  Wc  AN  BN 2
Let the full rated speed be 1
2
Then 8  A  1  B 1 .........or .......... .8  A  B.......... ..(i )
When speed is 75 % of full rated speed, then 5  A  (0.75)  B(0.75)2 .........(ii)
Multiplying (i) by 0.75 and subtracting (ii) from it, we get
0.1875 B = 1  B = 1 / 0.1875 = 5.33 KW
 8 = 5.33 + A, then A = 2.67 KW
(i) Wh at rated speed = 2.67 KW, Wc at rated speed = 5.33 KW
(ii) Wh at half the rated speed = 2.67  0.5 = 1.335 KW

Wc at half the rated speed = 5.33  0.52 =1.3325 KW
Q3 A 10 KW d.c. shunt generator has the following losses at full load:

Mechanical losses = 290 W; Iron losses = 420 W; shunt Cu loss = 120 W;
Armature Cu loss = 595 W
Calculate the efficiency at (i) no load (ii) 25% of full-load.
Q4 A 75 KW shunt generator is operated at 230 V. the rotational losses are 1810 W

and shunt field circuit draws 5.35 A. the armature circuit has a resistance of 0.035 Ω
and brush drop is 2.2 V. Calculate (i) total losses (ii) output of prime mover (iii)
efficiency at rated load.
Q5 A short-shunt-compound generator supplies a current of 100 A at 220 V. the

resistance of the shunt field is 50 Ω, of the series winding 0.025 Ω and of the armature
0.05 Ω. Iron and friction losses amount to 1 KW. Find (i) the e.m.f. generated (ii) the
copper losses (iii) the b.h.p. of the prime mover (iv) commercial efficiency.
31
Q6 A long-shunt-compound wound generator gives 240 V at full-load output of 100
A. the resistance of the various windings of the machine are : armature (including
brush contact) 0.1 Ω, series field 0.02 Ω, interpole 0.025 Ω, shunt field (including
regulating resistance) 100Ω. The iron losses at F.L. are 1000 W, windage and
frictional losses amount to 500 W. calculate the F.L. efficiency of the machine.
Q7 the hysteresis and eddy current losses in a d.c. machine running at 1000 r.p.m. are
250 W and 100 W respectively. If the flux remains constant, at which speed the total
iron losses be halved?
Q8A shunt generator delivers 195 A at a terminal of 250 V. the armature resistance
and shunt field resistance are 0.02 Ω and 50 Ω respectively. The iron and friction
losses equal 950 W. find (i) e.m.f. generated (ii) Cu losses (iii) output of the prime
mover (iv) mechanical, electrical and commercial efficiencies.
Tutorial Problems No. 3 (B)FOR CHARACTERISTICS

Q1 the open-circuit characteristic of a d.c. shunt generator driven at rated speed is as
follows:
Field Amperes: 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 A
Induced Voltage: 60 120 138 145 149 151 152 V
If the resistance of field circuit is adjusted to 53Ω, calculate the open circuit voltage
and load current when the terminal voltage is 100V. Neglect armature reaction and
assume an armature resistance of 0.1 Ω.
32
Q2 the open-circuit characteristic of a separately-excited d.c. generator driven at 1000
r.p.m. is as follows:
Field current: 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
E.M.F. volts: 30.0 55.0 75.0 90.0 100.0 110.0 115.0 120.0
If the machine is connected as shunt generator and driven at 1000 r.p.m. and has a field
resistance of 100 Ω, fine (a) open-circuit voltage and exciting current (b) the critical
resistance and (c) resistance to induce 115 volts on open circuit.
Q3 A d.c. generator has the following magnetization characteristics.

Field current (A): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Generated e.m.f. (V): 23 45 67 85 100 112 121 126
If the generator is shunt excited, determine the load current.
(a) When terminal p.d. is 120 V, the field resistance is 15 Ω at a speed of 600 r.p.m.
and
(b) When terminal p.d. is 144 V, the field resistance is 18 Ω at a speed of 700 r.p.m.
and
Q4 the magnetization characteristic for a 4-pole, 110 V, 1000 r.p.m. shunt generator is
as follows:
Field current: 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 A
O.C. voltage: 5 50 85 102 122 116 120 V
Armature is lap-connected with 144 conductors. Field resistance is 45 ohms.
Determine:
(i) voltage the machine will build up at no-load.
(ii) The critical resistance.
(iii) The speed at which the machine just fails to excite.
33
(iv) Residual flux per pole.
Q5 the O.C.C. of a shunt generator running at 800 r.p.m. is as follows:

Field current (amp.): 1 2 3 4 5 6
Induced e.m.f. (volt): 82.5 180 225 252 273 282
If the shunt field resistance is 60 Ω, find
(i) the voltage to which the machin will build up running at the same speed (ii) the
value of field regulating resistance if the machine is to build up to 120 V when its field
coils are grouped in two parallel circuits and generator is running at half the speed.
CHAPTER 4 : D.C. Motors

A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as a d.c. motor.
Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this
force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by;
F = B.I.ℓ newtons
Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a d.c.
generator. The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.
34
Working of D.C. Motor
When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of d.c. supply:
(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) The armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry
currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in the
opposite direction.
Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field,
mechanical force acts on it.
it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to rotate the armature in

anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a driving torque
which sets the armature rotating.
When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that
conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes under the influence of next pole
which is of opposite polarity. Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor
remains the same.
Back or Counter E.M.F. and Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor

When the armature of a d.c. motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the
armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence e.m.f. is induced in
them as in a generator The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied
voltage V(Lenz’s law) and in known as back or counter e.m.f. ( Eb ). The back e.m.f.
Eb = (PɸZN/60 A) is always less than the applied voltage V, although this difference is
small when the motor is running under normal conditions.
35
Not voltage across armature circuit = V - Eb
V  Eb
If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then, I a 
Ra
V = Eb + I a Ra
This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor.
Power Equation
2
If equation above is multiplied by I a throughout, we get, VI a  Eb I a  I a Ra
This is known as power equation of the d.c. motor.
VI a = electric power supplied to armature (armature input)
Eb I a = power developed by armature (armature output)
= electric power wasted in armature (armature Cu loss)
Thus out of the armature input, a small portion (about 5%) is wasted as and the
remaining portion Eb I a is converted into mechanical power within the armature.
Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine the current drawn by
the motor. If the speed of the motor is high, then back e.m.f. ( Eb = PɸZN/60 A) is
large and hence the motor will draw less armature current and vice versa.
Condition For Maximum Power
The mechanical power developed by the motor is
Pm  Eb I a
2
Now Pm  VI a  I a Ra
Since, V and Ra are fixed, power developed by the motor depends upon armature
current. Mechanical power developed by the motor is maximum when back e.m.f. is
equal to half the applied voltage.
V V
Eb  or I a Ra 
2 2
In practice, we never aim at achieving maximum power due to the following reasons:
(i) The armature current under this condition is very large-much excess of rated current
of the machine.
(ii) Half of the input power is wasted in the armature circuit. In fact, if we take into
account other losses (iron and mechanical), the efficiency will be well below 50%.
Significance of Back E.M.F.

The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine, it makes
the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque
required by the load.
V  Eb
Armature current, I a 
Ra
36
(i) When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome the
friction and windage losses. Therefore, the armature current I a is small and the back
e.m.f. is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
(ii) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to slow
down. Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move through the field
is reduced and hence the back e.m.f. Eb falls. The decreased back e.m.f. allows a
larger current to flow through the armature and larger current means increased
driving torque. Thus, the driving torque increases as the motor slows down.
(iii) If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily in excess
of the requirement so that armature is accelerated. As the armature speed increases,
the back e.m.f. Eb also increases and causes the armature current I a to decrease. The
motor will stop accelerating when the armature current is just sufficient to produce
the reduced torque required by the load.
It follows, therefore, that back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor regulates the flow of armature
current, it automatically changes the armature current to meet the load requirement.
Types of D.C. Motors

There are three types of d.c. motors characterized by the connections of field winding
in relation to the armature via:
(i) Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. (Large number of turns of wire having high resistance).
(ii) Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the
armature. (Small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore, will possess a low
resistance).
37
(iii) Compound-wound motor which has two field windings; one connected in
parallel with the armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of
compound motor connections (like generators). When the shunt field winding is
directly connected across the armature terminals, it is called short-shunt connection.
When the shunt winding is so connected that it shunts the series combination of
armature and series field, it is called long-shunt connection.
Armature Torque of D.C. Motor

Torque is the turning moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the product
of force (F) and radius (r) at right angle to which the force acts.
T=F  r
In a d.c. motor, each conductor is acted upon by a circumferential force F at a distance
r, the radius of the armature. Therefore, each conductor exerts a torque, tending to
rotate the armature. The sum of the torques due to all armature conductors is known as
gross or armature torque Ta
Let in a d.c. motor
r = average radius of armature in m
ℓ = effective length of each conductor in m
Z = total number of armature conductors
A= number of parallel paths
i = current in each conductor = I a /A
B = average flux density in Wb/ m 2
ɸ = flux per pole in Wb
P = number of poles
Force on each conductor, F = B i ℓ newtons
Torque due to one conductor = F  r newton- metre
Total armature torque, Ta = Z F r newton-metre
=ZBiℓr
38
Now, i = I a /A,
B = ɸ /a where a is the x-sectional area of flux path per pole at radius r. Clearly,
a = 2π r ℓ / P.
   I 
 Ta  Z      a     r
a  A 
 I Z I a P
 Z   a r  ....... N  m
2 r  / P A 2 A
P 
T a  0 . 159 Z  I a   .......... .. N  m
 A
Since Z, P and A are fixed for a given machine, T a  I a
Hence torque in a d.c. motor is directly proportional to flux per pole and armature
current.
(i) For a shunt motor, flux ɸ is practically constant. T a I a

(ii) For a series motor, flux ɸ is directly proportional to armature current Ia provided
magnetic saturation does not take place. T a  I a2 , up to magnetic saturation
Alternative expression for Ta
P  ZN
Eb 
60 A
P Z 60  E b
 
A N
We get the expression of Ta as:
 60  E b 
Ta  0 . 159     Ia
 N 
E I
 Ta  9 . 55  b a ........ N  M
N
Note that developed torque or gross torque means armature torque Ta.
Shaft Torque ( Tsh )

The torque which is available at the motor shaft for doing useful work is known as
shaft torque.
39
The total or gross torque Ta developed in the armature of a motor is not available at
the shaft because a part of it is lost in overcoming the iron and frictional losses in the
motor. Therefore, shaft torque Tsh is somewhat less than the armature torque Ta. The
difference Ta - Tsh is called lost torque. Clearly,
Iron and frictional losses

Ta  Tsh  9.55 
N
As stated above, it is the shaft torque Tsh that produces the useful output. If the speed
of the motor is N r.p.m., then,
Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.)

The horse power developed by the shaft torque is known as brake horsepower
(B.H.P.). If the motor is running at N r.p.m. and the shaft torque is Tsh newton-meters,
then,
2  NT sh
B .H .P . 
60  746

Q1 A250 v shunt motor takes a total current of 20 A. the shunt field and armature
resistance are 200 Ω, 0.3 Ω respectively. Determine (i) value of back e.m.f. (ii) gross
mechanical power in the armature.
40
Q2 A 230 V motor has an armature circuit resistance of 0.6 Ω. If the full-load armature
current is 30 A and no-load armature current is 4 A, find the change in back e.m.f.
from no load to full-load.
Q3 A 4-pole, 500 V shunt motor has 720 wave-connected conductors in the armature.
The full-load armature current is 60 A and the flux per pole is 0.03 Wb. The armature
resistance is 0.2 Ω and the contact drop is 1 V per brush. Calculate the full-load speed
of the motor.
Q4 A 440 V shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.8 Ω and field resistance of 200
Ω. Determine the back e.m.f. when giving an output of 7.46 KW at 85% efficiency.
Q5 A 20 KW, 250 V d.c. shunt generator has armature and field resistance of 0.1 Ω
and 125 Ω respectively. Calculate the total armature power developed when running
(i) as a generator delivering 20 KW output (ii) as a motor taking 20 KW input.
Q6 A 250 V shunt motor on no-load runs at 1000 r.p.m. and takes 5 A. the total
armature and shunt field resistances are 0.2 Ω and 250 Ω respectively. Calculate the
speed when loaded and taking current of 50 A if armature reaction weakens the field
by 3%.
Q7 calculate the value of torque established by the armature of a 4-pole motor having
774 conductors, two paths in parallel, 24 mWb flux per pole, when the total armature
current is 50 A.
Q8 an armature of a 6-pole machine 75 cm in diameter has 664 conductors each

having an effective length of 30 cm and carrying a current of 100A. if 70% of total
conductors lie simultaneously in the field of average flux density 0.85 Wb/ m 2 ,
calculate (i) armature torque (ii) horse power putput at 250 r.p.m.
Q9 A 100 h.p., 500 v shunt motor has 4 poles and a 2 circuit wave winding with 492
armature conductors. The flux is 50 mWb per pole and the full-load efficiency 92% the
armature and commutating field windings have a total resistance of 0.1 Ω. The shunt
field resistance is 250 Ω. Calculate for full load (i) the speed (ii) the useful torque.
Q10 A 240 v, 4-pole shunt motor running at 1000 r.p.m. gives 15 h.p. with an
armature current of 50 A and field current of 1 A. the armature winding is wave-
connected and has 540 conductors. The armature resistance is 0.1 Ω and the drop at
each brush is 1 v. find (i) the useful torque (ii) the total torque (iii) useful flux per pole
and (iv) iron and frictional losses.
CHAPTER 5 : Speed, Losses, Starting, Braking and Characteristic of

D.C. Motors
Speed of a D.C. Motor
41
Eb = V - I a Ra
But V - I a Ra = Eb
Therefore, in a d.c. motor, speed is directly proportional to back e.m.f. Eb and inversely
proportional to flux per pole ɸ.
Speed Relations
If a d.c. motor has initial values of speed, flux per pole and back e.m.f. as N1 , 1 and Eb1
respectively and the corresponding final values are N 2 ,  2 and Eb 2 , then,
(i) For a shunt motor, flux practically remains constant so that 1 =  2 .
(ii) For a series motor, ɸ α I a prior to saturation.
Where I a1 = initial armature current,

I a 2 = final armature current
Speed Regulation
The speed regulation of a motor is the change in speed from full-load to no-loud and is
expressed as a percentage of the speed at full-load.
Where N o = No-load speed, N = Full-load speed

Torque and Speed of a D.C. Motor
42
For any motor, the torque and speed are very important factors. When the torque
increases, the speed of a motor increases and vice-versa. We have seen that for a d.c.
motor;
Losses in a D.C. Motor
As in a generator, these losses cause

(a) An increase of machine temperature and
(b) Reduction in the efficiency of the d.c. motor.
The following points may be noted:

(i) Apart from armature Cu loss, field Cu loss and brush contact loss, Cu losses also
occur in interpole (commutating poles) and compensating windings. Since these
windings carry armature current ( I a ),
Loss in interpole winding = I a2 ᵪ Resistance of interpole winding
Loss in compensating winding = I a2 ᵪ Resistance of compensating winding
(ii) Since d.c. machines (generators or motors) are generally operated at constant flux
density and constant speed, the iron losses are nearly constant.
(iii) The mechanical losses (friction and windage) vary as the cube of the speed of
rotation of the d.c. machine (generator or motor). Since d.c. machines are generally
operated at constant speed, mechanical losses are considered to be constant.
Efficiency of a D.C. Motor
43
The efficiency of a d.c. motor is the ratio of output power to the input power.
The efficiency of a d.c. motor will be maximum when:

Variable losses = Constant losses
Therefore, the efficiency curve of a d.c. motor is similar in shape to that of a d.c.
generator.
Power Stages
The power stages in a d.c. motor are represented diagrammatically in Figure below:
A - B = Copper losses. B - C = Iron and friction losses,

Overall efficiency, c = C/A, Electrical efficiency,  e = B/A
Mechanical efficiency,  m = C/B
Speed Control of D.C. Motors

The speed of a d.c. motor is given by:
E b
N 

(V  I a R )
Or N  r . p .m

Where R = Ra for shunt motor
= Ra + Rse for series motor
it is clear that there are three main methods of controlling the speed of a d.c. motor,
namely:
(i) By varying the flux per pole (ɸ). This is known as flux control method.
(ii) By varying the resistance in the armature circuit. This is known as armature control
method.
(iii) By varying the applied voltage V. This is known as voltage control method.
Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motors
44
1-Flux control method
The first method (flux control method) is frequently used because it is simple and
inexpensive.
the motor speed (N 1/) can be changed and hence the name flux control method. In
this method, a variable resistance (known as shunt field rheostat) is placed in series
with shunt field winding.
The shunt field rheostat reduces the shunt field current Ish and hence the flux .
Therefore, we can only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed.
2. Armature control method

This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the
armature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the motor can be changed. This is
done by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance) in series
with the armature.
N V Ia Ra RC

Where, RC = controller resistance
Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back e.m.f. (Eb) is decreased. Since
N Eb, the speed of the motor is reduced. The highest speed obtainable is that
corresponding to RC = 0, normal speed. Hence, this method can only provide speeds
below the normal speed.
3. Voltage control method
45
In this method, the voltage source supplying the field current is different from that
which supplies the armature. This method avoids the disadvantages of poor speed
regulation and low efficiency as in armature control method. However, it is quite
expensive. Therefore, this method of speed control is employed for large size motors
where efficiency is of great importance.
1- Multiple voltage control
In this method, the shunt field of the motor is connected permanently across a-fixed
voltage source. The armature can be connected across several different voltages
through suitable switchgear.
In this way, voltage applied across the armature can be changed. The speed will be
approximately proportional to the voltage applied across the armature.
2- Ward-Leonard system.
Speed Control of D.C. Series Motors

The speed control of d.c. series motors can be obtained by
(1) Flux control method
(2) Armature-resistance control method. The latter method is mostly used.
1. Flux control method

In this method, the flux produced by the series motor is varied and hence the speed.
The variation of flux can be achieved in the following ways:
(i) Field diverters: In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is
connected in parallel with series field winding as shown in Figure below.
(ii) Armature diverter: In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable
resistance (called armature diverter) is connected in parallel with the armature as
shown.
46
(iii) Tapped field control. In this method, the flux is reduced (and hence speed is increased)
by decreasing the number of turns of the series field winding. The switch S can short circuit
any part of the field winding, thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed. With full turns of
the field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field turns are cut out; speeds
higher than normal speed are achieved.
(iv) Paralleling field coils: This method is usually employed in the case of fan motors. By
regrouping the field coils, several fixed speeds can be obtained.
2. Armature-resistance control
In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the supply to the
complete motor as shown in Figure below. This reduces the voltage available across the
armature and hence the speed falls.
By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed can be
obtained. This is the most common method employed to control the speed of d.c. series
motors. Although this method has poor speed regulation, this has no significance for series
motors because they are used in varying speed applications.
Series-Parallel Control
Another method used for the speed control of d.c. series motors is the series-parallel method.
In this system which is widely used in traction system, two (or more) similar d.c. series
motors are mechanically coupled to the same load.
47
Electric Braking
Sometimes it is desirable to stop a d.c. motor quickly. This may be necessary in case of
emergency or to save time if the motor is being used for frequently repeated
operations. The motor and its load may be brought to rest by using either:
(1) Mechanical (friction) braking or
(2) Electric braking.
The following three methods of electric braking are used:
(i) Rheostat or dynamic braking
(ii) Plugging
(iii) Regenerative braking
Necessity of D.C. Motor Starter

At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e.m.f. in the armature.
Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will draw
a heavy current (Ia = V/Ra) because of small armature resistance.
This high starting current may result in:
(i) Burning of armature due to excessive heating effect,
(ii) Damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking,
(iii) Excessive voltage drops in the line to which the motor is connected. The result is
that the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be impaired and in
particular cases, they may refuse to work.
Types of D.C. Motor Starters

(1)Three-Point Starter
This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors.
Schematic diagram
(2)Drawback
(3)Four-Point Starter
48
D.C. Motor Characteristics:
The three important characteristics of a d.c. motor are:
(i) Torque and Armature current characteristic ( Ta / I a )
It is the curve between armature torque Ta and armature current I a of a d.c. motor. It is
also known as electrical characteristic of the motor.
(ii) Speed and armature current characteristic (N/ I a )
It is very important characteristic as it is often the deciding factor in the selection of
the motor for a particular application.
(iii) Speed and torque characteristic (N/ Ta )
It is also known as mechanical characteristic.
Characteristics of Shunt Motors
(i) Ta / I a Characteristic. We know that in a d.c. motor, Ta α ɸ I a
Since the motor is operating from a constant supply voltage, flux ɸ is constant
(neglecting armature reaction). Ta α I a
Hence Ta / I a characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin. The shaft torque
( I sh ) is less than Ta . It is clear from the curve that a very large current is required to
start a heavy load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be started on heavy load.
(ii) N/ I a Characteristic. The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by;
The flux ɸ and back e.m.f. Eb in a shunt motor are almost constant under normal
conditions. Therefore, speed of a shunt motor will remain constant as the armature
current varies (dotted line AB).
When load is increased, ( Eb = V- I a Ra ) and ɸ decrease due to the armature resistance

drop and armature reaction respectively. However, Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ so
that the speed of the motor decreases slightly with load (line AC).
(iii) N/ Ta Characteristic. The curve is obtained by plotting the values of N and Ta for
various armature currents. It may be seen that speed falls somewhat as the load torque
increases.
49
Characteristics of Series Motors
Note that current passing through the field winding is the same as that in the armature.
If the mechanical load on the motor increases, the armature current also increases.
Hence, the flux in a series motor increases with the increase in armature current and
vice-versa.
(i) Ta / I a Characteristic: We know that: Ta α ɸ I a , Up to magnetic saturation, ɸ α I a
2
so that Ta α I a , After magnetic saturation, ɸ is constant so that Ta α I a .
Therefore, Ta / I a curve up to magnetic saturation is a parabola (portion OA of the
curve).
However, after magnetic saturation, torque is directly proportional to the armature
current.
Therefore, Ta / I a curve after magnetic saturation is a straight line (portion AB of the curve). It
2
may be seen that in the initial portion of the curve (up to magnetic saturation), Ta α I a
This means that starting torque of a d.c. series motor will be very high as compared to a shunt
motor (where that Ta α I a ).
(ii) N/ I a Characteristic: The speed N of a series motor is given by;
Know that, I a ( Ra  Rse ) drop is quite small under normal conditions and may be
neglected.
, Up to magnetic saturation
Thus, up to magnetic saturation, the N/ I a curve follow the hyperbolic path. After saturation,
the flux becomes constant and so does the speed.
(iii) N/ Ta Characteristic. It is clear that series motor develops high torque at low speed and
vice-versa. It is because an increase in torque requires an increase in armature current, which
is also the field current.
Note. The minimum load on a d.c. series motor should be great enough to keep the speed within
limits. If the speed becomes dangerously high, then motor must be disconnected from the supply.
50
Compound Motors
Compound motors are of two types:
(1) Cumulative-compound motors in which series field aids the shunt field.
(2) Differential-compound motors in which series field opposes the shunt field.
Differential compound motors are rarely used due to their poor torque characteristics at heavy
loads.
Characteristics of Cumulative Compound Motors
Each pole carries a series as well as shunt field winding; the series field aiding the shunt field.
(i) Ta / I a Characteristic. As the load increases, the series field increases but shunt field
strength remains constant. Consequently, total flux is increased and hence the armatures
torque ( Ta α ɸ I a ). It may be noted that torque of a cumulative-compound motor is greater
than that of shunt motor for a given armature current due to series field.
(ii) N/ I a Characteristic. As explained above, as the lead increases, the flux per pole also
increases. Consequently, the speed (N α 1/ɸ) of the motor tails as the load increases.
Note: Due to shunt field, the motor has a definite no load speed and can be operated safely at
no-load.
(iii) N/ Ta Characteristic. For a given armature current, the torque of a cumulative
compound motor is more than that of a shunt motor but less than that of a series motor.
Applications of D.C. Motors
1. Shunt motors
The characteristics of a shunt motor reveal that it is an approximately constant speed motor. It
is, therefore, used
(i) Where the speed is required to remain almost constant from no-load to full-load.
(ii) Where the load has to be driven at a number of speeds and any one of which is required to
remain nearly constant
2. Series motors
It is a variable speed motor; speed is low at high torque and vice-versa. However, at light or
no-load, the motor tends to attain dangerously high speed. The motor has a high starting
torque. It is, therefore, used.
(i) Where large starting torque is required e.g., in elevators and electric Traction.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is automatically required
to reduce at high torques and vice-versa.
3. Compound motors
Differential-compound motors are rarely used because of their poor torque characteristics.
However, cumulative-compound motors are used where a fairly constant speed is required
with irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy loads.
51
Q1 A 220-V d.c. Machine has an armature resistance of 0.5Ω. If the full-load armature
current is 20 A, find the induced e.m.f. when the machine acts as (i) generator (ii)
motor.
20 A
0.5 Ω 250V
A-generator
Q2 A 4 pole, 32 conductor lap-wound d.c. Shunt generator with terminal voltage of

200 volts delivering 12 amps to the load has ra = 2 and field circuit resistance of 200
ohms. It is driven at 100 r.p.m. Calculate the flux per pole in the machine. If the
machine has to be run as a motor with the same terminal voltage and drawing 5 amps
for the mains, maintaining the same magnetic field, find the speed of the machine.
Q3 A d.c. Motor takes an armature current of 110 A at 480v. The armature circuit
resistance is 0.2 Ω. The machine has 6-poles and the armature is lap-connected with
864 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. Calculate (I) the speed and (ii) the gross
torque developed by the armature.
Q4 A 500-V, 37.3 KW, 1000 r.p.m. d.c. shunt motor has on full- load an efficiency of
90 percent. The armature circuit resistance is 0.24 Ω and there is total voltage drop of
2V at the brushes. The field current is 1.8 A. Determine (i) full-load line current (ii)
full-load shaft torque in N-m and (iii) total resistance in motor starter to limit the
starting current to 1.5 times the full-load current.
52
Q5 A 4-pole, 240V, wave connected shunt motor gives 1119 KW when running
at 1000 r.p.m. and drawing armature and field current of 50 A and 1.0 A
respectively. It has 540 conductors. Its resistance is 0.1Ω. Assuming a drop of 1
volt per brush, find (a) total torque (b) useful torque/pole (c) rotational losses and
(e) efficiency.
Q6 A 460-V series motor runs at 500 r.p.m. Taking a current of 40 A. Calculate

the speed and percentage change in torque if the load is reduced so that the motor
is taking 30 A. Total resistance of the armature and field circuits is 0.8Ω.
Assume flux is proportional to the field current.
Q7 A 200- V, d.c. shunt motor takes 4 A at no-load when running at 700 r.p.m. the
field resistance is 100 Ω. The resistance of armature at standstill gives a drop of 6 volts
across armature terminals when 10 A were passed through it. Calculate (a) speed on
load (b) torque in N-m and (c) efficiency. The normal input of the motor is 8KW.
Speed control
Q1 A 220 V d.c. shunt motor having an armature resistance of o.25 Ω carries an
armature current of 50 A and run at 600 r.p.m. if the flux is reduced by 10% by field
regulator, find the speed assuming load torque remains the same.
Q2 A 200 V shunt motor having armature resistance of 0.4 Ω and shunt field resistance
of 100 Ω drives a load at 500 r.p.m. taking 27 A. it is desired to run the motor at 700
r.p.m. assuming the load torque to be constant, find the value of resistance to be used
as field regulator. Neglect saturation effect.
Q3 A 20 h.p., 250 V shunt motor has an armature circuit resistance (including brushes
and interpoles) of 0.22 Ω and a field resistance of 170 Ω, at no load and rated voltage,
the speed is 1200 r.p.m. and the armature current is 3 A, at full-load and rated voltage,
the line current is 55 A and the flux is reduced by 6 % (due to effects of armature
reaction) from its value at no-load. What is the full-load speed?
Q4 A 220 V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and take armature current
of 40 A at full-load. By how much must the main flux be reduced to raise the speed by
50 % if the developed torque is constant?
Q5 A 230 V d.c. shunt motor takes an armature current of 20 A on a particular load.

The armature circuit resistance is 0.5 Ω. Find the resistance required in series with the
armature to reduce the speed to 50 % if (i) the load torque is constant (ii) the load
torque is proportional to the square of the speed.
Q6 a d.c. shunt machine while running as generator develops a voltage 250 V at 100
r.p.m. at no-load. It has armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and field resistance of 250 Ω.
When the machine runs as a motor, input to it at no-load is 4 A, 250 V. calculate the
speed and efficiency of the machine when it runs as a motor taking 40 A at 250 V.
Armature reaction weakens the field by 4 %.
53

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University of Technology

Control and Systems Engineering Department

CHAPTER ONE: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnetic Force (Coulomb laws):

1. Flux= mmf e.m. f

Parallel Magnetic Circuits

Relation between magnetism and electricity

Coefficient of Self-induction (L):

(ii) Second method for L

(iii) Third method for L

Solution:   8  10 4 wb ; A  10cm 2  103 m 2 ; B  8 10 4 / 10 3  0.8wb / m 2

Q 2: A shunt field coil is required to develop 1500 AT with an applied voltage of 60 v.

Solution: the magnetic circuit has four parts connected in series

(i) Field system

1. Simplex lap winding

1. Simplex lap winding 2. Simplex wave winding

2. Simplex wave winding

Armature Resistance (Ra)

Applications of Lap and Wave Windings

E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator

Types of D.C. Generators

Self-Excited D.C. Generators

(i) Series generator

Shunt field current, I sh  V / R sh

(iii) Compound generator

Brush Contact Drop

Tutorial Problems No. 2

Q3 an 8-pole, lap-wound armature rotated at 350 r.p.m. is required to generate 260 V.

Q13 in a long-shunt compound generator, the terminal voltage is 230 V when

2. Iron or Core losses

(ii) eddy current loss.

Constant and Variable Losses

(ii) Variable losses

(ii) Internal and External Characteristics

Voltage Build-Up in a Self-Excited Generator

Characteristics of a Shunt Generator

Compound Generator Characteristics

Uses of D.C Generator

3-Compound generators the cumulatively-compound generator is the most widely

Tutorial Problems No. 3 (A)

(ii) Wh at half the rated speed = 2.67  0.5 = 1.335 KW

Q3 A 10 KW d.c. shunt generator has the following losses at full load:

Q4 A 75 KW shunt generator is operated at 230 V. the rotational losses are 1810 W

Q5 A short-shunt-compound generator supplies a current of 100 A at 220 V. the

Tutorial Problems No. 3 (B)FOR CHARACTERISTICS

Q3 A d.c. generator has the following magnetization characteristics.

Q5 the O.C.C. of a shunt generator running at 800 r.p.m. is as follows:

CHAPTER 4 : D.C. Motors

it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to rotate the armature in

Back or Counter E.M.F. and Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor

Significance of Back E.M.F.

Types of D.C. Motors

Armature Torque of D.C. Motor

(i) For a shunt motor, flux ɸ is practically constant. T a I a

Alternative expression for Ta

Shaft Torque ( Tsh )

Iron and frictional losses

Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.)

Tutorial Problems No. 4

Q8 an armature of a 6-pole machine 75 cm in diameter has 664 conductors each

CHAPTER 5 : Speed, Losses, Starting, Braking and Characteristic of

(i) For a shunt motor, flux practically remains constant so that 1 =  2 .

(ii) For a series motor, ɸ α I a prior to saturation.

Where I a1 = initial armature current,