NAME: _________________

FATHER’S NAME: ______________

CLASS: _________________
ROLL NO.: _________________
 INDEX
No. Date Experiment Initial Remarks

Determine resistance of voltmeter drawing graph

1.
between (R) and (1/V)

Investigate the relationship between current

2. passing through a tungsten filament lamp and the
potential applied across it.
Determine the relation between current and
capacitance when different capacitors are used in
3.
AC circuit using different series and parallel
combinations of capacitors.
Draw characteristics of semiconductor diode and
4. calculate forward and reverse current
resistances.

Study of the variation of electric current with

5.
intensity of light using a photocell.

6. Determine resistance of wire by slide wire bridge.

Determine electromotive force (e.m.f) of a cell

7. using potentiometer.

Determine internal resistance of a cell using

8.
potentiometer.

9. Study the characteristic of NPN transistor.

10. Verify truth table for logic gates.

11. Make a fire alarm using gates.

12. Make burglar alarm using NAND gate.

Determine time constant by charging and

13.
discharging a capacitor through a resistor.
EXPERIMENT NO. 1 DATE: ______________

DETERMINE RESISTANCE OF VOLTMETER BY DRAWING GRAPH

BETWEEN (R) AND (1/V).

APPARATUS
Voltmeter, resistance box, two keys, sandpaper, connecting wires, graph paper.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and make the connections
according to the circuit diagram.
3. Keep the value of resistance R equal to zero and close
the key K to complete the circuit.
4. The voltmeter will show the deflection. Record the
voltmeter reading. This is the electro-motive force E of
the battery.
5. Now introduce resistance R from the resistance box, say starting from 500 Ω, with which the
deflection in voltmeter will be decreased. Note the value of resistance R and the
corresponding reading of voltmeter V.
6. Increase the resistance R in suitable steps (say 500 or 1000 Ω) and note the corresponding
voltmeter readings in each case.
7. Take six such readings and enter result in a tabular form.
8. Calculate the reciprocal values (1/V) of voltmeter readings.
9. Plot a graph between R and 1/V taking R along (X-axis) and 1/V along
(Y-axis). It will be a straight line. Produce this straight line backwards so
that it meets the X-axis, as shown in figure. The intercept on the X-axis
then gives the value of the resistance X of the voltmeter.
V
10. Also calculate the resistance X of voltmeter by the formula X = E−V R

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1
OBSERVATIONS
1. Least count of voltmeter = __________ V

2. EMF of battery = E = _________________ V

S No. Resistance Voltmeter 𝟏 Resistance of voltmeter

𝐑 Reading 𝐕 𝐕
(𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬)−𝟏 𝐗= 𝐑
(𝛀) 𝐕 (𝐄 − 𝐕)
(𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬) (𝛀)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATIONS
The resistance X of a voltmeter is given by

V
X= R
(E − V)

X1 = _____________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

X2 = _____________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

X3 = _____________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

X4 = _____________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

X5 = _____________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

X6 = _____________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

2
Mean Resistance of Voltmeter ‘X’

X1 +X2 +X3 +X4 +X5 +X6

X=
6

= =
6

RESULTS
1. The calculated value of resistance of voltmeter is _____________________________ Ω.

2. The graphical value of resistance of voltmeter is ______________________________ Ω.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be clean and tight.
2. The positive terminal of voltmeter should be connected to positive pole of the battery.
3. The battery used must supply a voltage equal to the maximum reading of the voltmeter.
4. Voltmeter of smallest least count and of low resistance should be used.
5. The plugs of the resistance box not in use should be pressed tightly.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

3
EXPERIMENT NO. 2 DATE: ______________

INVESITGAE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT PASSING

THROUGH A TUNGSTEN FILAMENT LAMP AND THE POTENTIAL
APPLIED ACROSS IT.

APPARATUS
36W, 12 V car bulb, bulb holder, 12 V battery, high resistance rheostat, voltmeter, ammeter, key,
sandpaper, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and make the connections according to the circuit diagram.
3. Adjust the rheostat to have maximum resistance
and close the key K to complete the circuit.
4. Record the reading of the voltmeter which
measures the potential difference V applied to
the lamp and that of ammeter which measures
the current I through it.
5. Now decrease the resistance of the rheostat
almost in even steps until full voltage is applied.
Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter for each step and enter the result in a
tabular form.
It is safe to ‘over-run’ the lamp for short periods so that
higher temperatures than those at which it would normally
operate can be investigated.
6. Calculate the resistance of the tungsten filament lamp for
each observation by the formula,
V
R=
I
7. Plot a graph between voltage V and current I as shown in
figure taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis and discuss
the result.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

4
OBSERVATIONS
1. Least count of voltmeter = _____________________ V

2. Least count of ammeter = ______________________ A

S No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Resistance of Lamp

V I 𝐕
𝐑=
(𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬) (𝐀) 𝐈
(𝛀)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATIONS
The resistance R of a tungsten filament lamp is given by
V
R=
I
R1 = __________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

R 2 = __________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

R 3 = __________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

R 4 = __________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

R 5 = __________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

R 6 = __________________________________ = ____________________________ Ω

5
RESULTS
The observations show that
• The ratio V/I increases as the voltage increases.
• The graph between V and I is not a straight line (as in case of Ohmic conductor)
but it is a curve.
Thus, the heated filament is non – ohmic.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be clean and tight.
2. Use the voltmeter and ammeter of small least count.
3. Zero error of voltmeter and ammeter should be checked.
4. Voltmeter should be connected in parallel and ammeter in series with the bulb.
5. The resistance of rheostat should be decreased in small steps.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

6
EXPERIMENT NO. 3 DATE: ______________

DETERMINE THE RELATION BETWEEN CURERNT AND CAPACITANCE

WHEN DIFFERENT CAPACITORS ARE USED IN AC CIRCUIT USING
DIFFERENT SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS.

APPARATUS
AC milliammeter, AC voltmeter, capacitors of different capacitances, step-down transformer,
sandpaper, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and make the connections according to the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the primary coil of the transformer with A.C.
mains and note the voltmeter reading.
4. Now insert the plug into the key K1 to put capacitor
C1 in the circuit. Note the reading of milli-ammeter
and capacitance of the capacitor used.
5. Take out the plug from the key K1 and put the plug in
key K 2 to put capacitor C2 in the circuit. Note the
corresponding reading of milli-ammeter.
6. Similarly repeat the observations with other
capacitors turn by turn at the same voltage supply
and enter the result in a tabular form.
7. Calculate the ratio of current to capacitance, i.e. I/C, in
each case. The ratio remains constant.
8. Plot a graph between capacitance C and current I taking C along X-
axis and I along Y-axis. It will be a straight line passing through the
origin as shown in figure verifying the fact that current is directly
proportional to the capacitance of a capacitor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

7
OBSERVATIONS
1. A.C. voltage applied across the capacitors = ___12____ V (constant)

2. Frequency of A.C. supply = __________ Hz (constant)

Capacitance Current 𝐈
= 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
S No. C I 𝐂
(𝛍𝐅) (𝐦𝐀) (𝐦𝐀/𝛍𝐅)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATIONS
For I/C
I1
1. = _______________________________ = _______________________________ mAF
C1

I2
2. = _______________________________ = _______________________________ mA/
C2

I3
3. = _______________________________ = _______________________________ mA/
C3

I4
4. = _______________________________ = _______________________________ mA/
C4

I5
5. = _______________________________ = _______________________________ mA/
C5

I6
6. = _______________________________ = _______________________________ mA/
C6

RESULTS
The ratio I/C remains constant and the graph between I and C is a straight line. This
shows that I ∝ C in an A.C. Circuit.

8
PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be clean and tight.
2. The milli-ammeter and the voltmeter should be A.C. type.
3. Do not touch a capacitor once it put in the circuit.
4. The capacitors should be discharged after performing the experiment, i.e., by touching its
terminals with the uninsulated ends of a flexible wire.
5. The current from A.C. mains should be off while making connections.
6. A step-down transformer of 12 V should be used, and capacitances of the capacitors should
be in range of 4μF to 10μF.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

9
EXPERIMENT NO. 4 DATE: ______________

DRAW CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE AND

CALCULATE FORWARD AND REVERSE CURRENT RESISTANCES.
APPARATUS
Semi-conductor diode, voltmeter, milliammeter, micro-ammeter, 500 Ω rheostat, 1 kΩ resistor,
3 V battery, sandpaper, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in figure (forward bias) and make the connections
according to the circuit diagram.

3. Adjust the variable power supply at 0 V and close the key K to complete the circuit. Note the
voltmeter reading to record forward voltage VF and the corresponding milli-ammeter
reading to record forward current IF .
4. Increase the voltage VF from 0 V in very small steps, say of 0.1 V. Note the reading of
voltmeter and milli-ammeter simultaneously at each step up to the full range of the power
supply.
5. Now reverse the connections of the semi-conductor diode as shown in second figure, for
reverse characteristics.
6. Take several readings of voltmeter and microammeter
by changing the voltage in regular steps of at least 2
volts up to 10 volts. This is known as reverse biasing.
7. Plot a graph between forward current IF and forward
voltage VF taking VF (in volts) along X-axis and IF (in
mA) along Y-axis using the first quadrant of the axis
(along +ve X- and Y-axis) as in figure.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

10
OBSERVATIONS
FORWARD BIAS
1. Least count of milli-ammeter = __________________________ mA

2. Least count of voltmeter = _______________________________ V

Forward Forward Resistance

Forward Current
S No. Voltage 𝐕
𝐈𝐅 (𝐦𝐀) 𝐑 𝐅 = 𝐈 (𝛀)
𝐕𝐅 (𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

REVERSE BIAS
1. Least count of microammeter = __________________________ 𝜇A

2. Least count of voltmeter = _______________________________ V

Reverse Voltage Reverse Resistance

S No. Reverse Current 𝐈𝑹 (𝐦𝐀) 𝐕
𝐕𝑹 (𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬) 𝐑 𝑹 = 𝐈 (𝛀)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

11
RESULTS:
The shape of the graph shows that when a voltage is applied across the diode in the
direction as shown in the circuit diagram (forward biased). The electron moves towards
the positive (P) end and the holes towards the negative (N) end. Ultimately the resulting
current through the semi-conductor diode increases with the applied voltage of less
than one volt. At reverse biasing there is no appreciable increase in the current even if
the voltage is increased appreciably.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be clean and tight.
2. Connections must be made and measuring instruments should be connected according to
the circuit diagrams.
3. Zero error of voltmeters and milli-or micro-ammeter should be checked.
4. The voltage applied should be increased in regular but small steps.
5. Diode should not be operated beyond its rated voltage.
6. Voltage should never be increased beyond the maximum readings of the voltmeters and
milli- or micro-ammeter.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

12
EXPERIMENT NO. 5 DATE: ______________

STUDY THE VARIATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT WITH INTENSITY OF

LIGHT USING A PHOTOCELL.
APPARATUS
Photocell, galvanometer, battery, rheostat, key, electric bulb with case, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and make the connections according to the circuit diagram.
3. Now draw a straight line on table with a piece of
chalk using meter scale. Place the lamp and photo
cell on this line facing each other in such a way that
the position indicator mark on the bases of their
stands are on the side of meter scale. Fix the meter
scale along which the distance between photocell
and electric bulb can be measured. Both the lamp
and the photocell should be at same height as shown in figure.
4. Make the room dark and switch on the lamp and open the window of photocell. Adjust the
distance d between lamp and photocell until micro-ammeter shows full scale deflection.
5. Measure the distance d from the surface of the photocell to the filament of the lamp and
record the reading of micro-ammeter (in μA).
6. Increase the distance of lamp from the photocell such that the reading of the micro-ammeter
decreases in even steps, say of 5 μA. The change in distance should be in the same line
without any change in the angle of incident light. Note the micro-ammeter reading and the
corresponding reading of distance. Take ten such readings.
7. Again, note a set of reading of distance by increasing the micro-ammeter reading in even
steps, say 5 μA. Take ten such readings and enter the result in a tabular form.
8. Take the mean of the two distances for increasing and
decreasing current in micro-ammeter in each step.
1
9. Calculate the inverse square values (d2 ) of distances.
10. Plot a graph between I and 1/d2 taking 1/d2 along X-axis and I
along Y-axis. It will be a straight line passing through the origin
as shown in figure verifying the fact that photo-electric current
is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

13
OBSERVATIONS
1. Least count of micro-ammeter = __________ μA

Photoelectric Distance between photocell & lamp ‘d’ (cm) 𝟏

S No. Current I Distance Distance Mean 𝐝𝟐
(𝛍𝐀) increasing decreasing (𝐜𝐦−𝟐 )

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

CALCULATIONS
1 1
i) (d1 )2
= v) (d5 )2
=

1 1
ii) (d2 )2
= vi) (d6 )2
=

1 1
iii) (d3 )2
= vii) (d7 )2
=

1 1
iv) (d4 )2
= viii) (d8 )2
=

14
 1 1
ix) (d9 )2
= x) (d10 )2
=

Take two points from the graph and calculate I × 1/d2 .

RESULTS
1
The graph between I and d2 is a straight line passing through the origin which verifies
that the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be clean and tight.
2. The height of the photocell and the bulb must be same.
3. The window of the photocell should be opened only when the light is to fall on it.
4. The photo-voltaic cell should not be exposed to light for a long time continuously.
5. Light from the lamp should fall normally on the photocell.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

15
EXPERIMENT NO. 6 DATE: ______________

DETERMINE RESISTANCE OF WIRE BY SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE.

APPARATUS
Slide wire bridge, resistance box, unknown resistance, galvanometer, rheostat, cell, tapping key,
connecting wires, sandpaper.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires and the binding screws of meter bridge with
sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram as
show in figure. And make the
connections according to the
circuit diagram by placing the
given wire whose resistance is to
be measured in left gap and a
resistance box in the right gap.
3. To check the circuit, take out a
suitable resistance, say 5 Ω, from
the resistance box and insert the
plug of key K. Touch the jockey with the end A of the bridge wire and note the direction of
the deflection in the galvanometer. Again, touch the jockey with the other end C of the wire
and note the direction of the deflection. If the direction is opposite to the first the
connections are correct. If the deflection is again in the same direction or there is no
deflection at all, then make the connections right and tight and test again.
4. Now tap the jockey on wire AC and locate the position of null point (say D), i.e., where the
deflection of galvanometer will be zero. Adjust the value of resistance of the resistance box R
to obtain the null point near the middle of the wire AC.
5. Measure the lengths LX and LR and calculate the value of unknown resistance X by the
L
relation X = R (LX )
R
6. Take at least two more readings by selecting values of R one or two ohms above and below
the first value and find out null point in each case. Find out the mean value of unknown
resistance X.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

16
 OBSERVATIONS
1. Least count of Galvanometer = __________ div.

S No. Known Length of wire 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐢𝐫𝐞 Unknown Mean

Resistance 𝐋𝐗 𝐋𝐑 Resistance Resistance
𝐑 (𝛀) (𝐜𝐦) (𝐜𝐦) 𝐋𝐗 𝐗 𝐀 (𝛀)
𝐗= 𝐑
𝐋𝐑
(𝛀)
1.

2.

3.

CALCULATIONS
The value of unknown resistance X is given by

LX
X= R
LR

X1 = ( )( )=( )( )

X2 = ( )( )=( )( )

X3 = ( )( )=( )( )

Mean X,
X1 +X2 +X3
X= = _________________________________________
3

RESULTS
The mean value of the resistance of a given wire = _____________________________ Ω

PRECAUTIONS
1. The ends of the connecting wires and the binding screws of the meter bridge should be
clean with sandpaper.
2. All connections should be clean and tight.
3. The plugs of the resistance box not in use should be pressed tightly.
4. The circuit of the cell should be closed first and then galvanometer circuit to avoid self-
induction.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

17
EXPERIMENT NO. 7 DATE: ______________

DETERMINE ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f) OF A CELL USING

POTENTIOMETER.
APPARATUS
Potentiometer, battery, two-way key, rheostat, ammeter, key, shunt, wire, galvanometer,
sandpaper, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram and make the connections according to the circuit diagram.
Positive terminals of the battery Eb and cells should be connected to a common terminal A.
Negative terminal of the cells should be connected with a two-way key.

3. Adjust a small resistance in the rheostat and close the key K1 . Now insert the plug into key 1
of two-way key to bring Leclanche’ cell of e.m.f El in the circuit.
4. Test the accuracy of connections by placing jockey at ends A and B of the potentiometer
wire. The galvanometer should show opposite deflections. If it is not so, then check that
connections are right and tight. If the connections are correct, then either the resistance in
the rheostat is too high or e.m.f Eb of battery is too small. Decrease the resistance in the
rheostat until the opposite deflections are obtained at two contact points of the jockey on
the potentiometer wire. If necessary, increase the number of cells in the battery Eb .
5. Now tap the jockey on wire AB and locate the position of balance point (say C), i.e., where
the deflection in galvanometer will be zero. Adjust the value of resistance in the rheostat to
obtain the balance point on the tenth or ninth segment of the wire AB.
6. Measure the length of wire from end A to the balance point C. Let it be Ll .
7. Now bring the Daniel cell of e.m.f Ed in the circuit by inserting the plug into key 2 of two-
way key and removing plug from key 1. Without changing the previous position of the
rheostat contact, obtain a new balance point (say C’)
8. Measuring the length of wire from end A to the balance point C’. Let it be Ld .
9. Take six such readings by decreasing the resistance in the rheostat slightly each time and
enter the result in a tabular form.
10. Calculate the ratio of e.m.f of two cells by the formula.
El Ll
=
Ed Ld

18
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATIONS
S No. Balancing length of Balancing length of Ratio of EMFs
Leclanche’ cell (𝐋𝐥 ) Daniel cell (𝐋𝐝 ) El Ll
=
(𝐜𝐦) (𝐜𝐦) E d Ld
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATIONS
Mean of Ratio of balancing lengths

Ll L L L L L
) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l)
(
Ll Ld 1 Ld 2 Ld 3 Ld 4 Ld 5 Ld 6
( ) =
Ld 1 6

Ll + + + + +
( ) =
Ld 2 6

L L L L L L
( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l)
Ll Ld 1 Ld 2 Ld 3 Ld 4 Ld 5 Ld 6
( ) =
Ld 3 6

19
 Ll + + + + +
( ) =
Ld 4 6

L L L L L L
( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l) + ( l)
Ll Ld 1 Ld 2 Ld 3 Ld 4 Ld 5 Ld 6
( ) =
Ld 5 6

Ll + + + + +
( ) =
Ld 6 6

Mean Ratio 𝑳𝒍 /𝑳𝒅

Ll
( )=
Ld

Ll
( )=
Ld

EMF of other (Daniel) cell, can be calculated by the following formula

Ld
Ed = El ( )=( )( )=
Ll

RESULTS
1. The ratio of EMFs of two given cells = ______________________________________________

2. The EMF of other cell is found to be = ______________________________________________ volts

PRECAUTIONS
1. The positive poles of the battery and the cells must be connected to the common terminal A
of the potentiometer wire.
2. The current should be passed only for a short duration necessary for taking readings. Take
out key K1 after every reading to avoid heating of the wire potentiometer.
3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire nor should it be rubbed along the
wire.
4. The EMF Ed of the battery should be constant and greater than either of the cells to be
compared.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

20
EXPERIMENT NO. 8 DATE: ______________

DETERMINE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL USING

POTENTIOMETER.
APPARATUS
Potentiometer, battery, ammeter, resistance box, rheostat, two keys, galvanometer, cell, shunt
wire, sandpaper, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in figure and make the connections according to the
circuit diagram. Positive terminal of the battery and cell should be connected to a common
terminal A of potentiometer.

3. Adjust a small resistance in the rheostat and close the key 𝐾1 only. Test the accuracy of
connections by placing jockey at ends A and B of the potentiometer wire. The galvanometer
should show opposite deflections. If it is not so, then check that connections are right and
tight. If the connections are correct, then either the resistance in the resistance is too high or
e.m.f 𝐸𝑏 of battery is too small. Decrease the resistance in the rheostat until the opposite
deflections are obtained at two contact points of the jockey on the potentiometer wire. If
necessary, increase the number of cells in the battery 𝐸𝑏 .
4. Now tap the jockey on wire AB and locate the position of balance point (say C), i.e. where the
deflection in galvanometer will be zero. Adjust the value of resistance in the rheostat to
obtain the balance point on the tenth or ninth segment of the wire AB. Keep the rheostat at
this setting throughout the rest of the experiment.
5. Measure the length of wire from end A to the balance point C. Let it be 𝐿1 . Determine 𝐿1
three times and calculate the mean value of 𝐿1 .
6. Now take out a resistance R, say 10 Ω, from the resistance box (R.B.) and close the key 𝐾2 .
Obtain a new balance point (say 𝐶′).
7. Measure the length of wire from end A to the balance point C’. Let it be 𝐿2 .
8. Repeat the procedure given in steps 6 and 7 with different values of R (say 20, 30, 40 and 50
Ω) and enter the result in a tabular form.
9. Calculate the value of 𝑅/𝐿2 .
10. Plot a graph between R and 𝑅/𝐿2 taking R along x-axis and 𝑅/𝐿2 along y-axis. It will be a
straight line. Produce this straight line backwards so that it meets the x-axis at point A, as
shown in figure below. The intercept OA on the X-axis then gives the value of the internal
resistance r of the cell.
11. Also calculate the value of internal resistance r of the cell by the formula
𝐿2
𝑟 = 𝑅 ( − 1)
𝐿1

21
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATIONS

Balancing Length (cm) 𝒍𝟐

Resistance R 𝒓=( − 𝟏) 𝑹 Mean r
S. No. 𝒍𝟏
(𝛀) (𝛀)
𝒍𝟏 (without R) 𝒍𝟐 (with R) (𝛀)
1.

2.

3.

4.

CALCULATIONS
l1
r = ( − 1) R
l2

r1 =

r2 =

r3 =

r4 =

22
 r1 + r2 + r3 + r4
r=
4

r=

RESULTS
The internal resistance of cell is found to be ____________________.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Let the current to flow only at the time of taking observations, open the circuit for a minute
or so after each observation.
2. The e.m.f of the battery E should be of higher value than e.m.f of the cell.
3. The keys should be closed at the time of observations.
4. The jockey should not be moved along the wire.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

23
EXPERIMENT NO. 9 DATE: ______________

STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN NPN TRANSISTOR

APPARATUS
NPN transistor, DC power supplies, microammeter, variable resistance of 500 Ω, 50 Ω & 10 Ω,
2.2 𝑘Ω, milliammeter, high resistance voltmeter.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in figure and make the connections according to the
circuit diagram. While connecting the transistor carefully identify its emitter, base and
collector.

3. Close the key K to complete the circuit.

Input Characteristics
4. Close the key 𝐾1 and adjust the potentiometer 𝑅3 such that value of collector-emitter voltage
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0 volt. Keeping the value of base-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0 volt by potentiometer 𝑅1 ,
note the value of base current 𝐼𝐵 .
5. Using potentiometer 𝑅1 increase the value of 𝑉𝐵𝐸 in very small steps, say of 0.1 V and note
the corresponding value of 𝐼𝐵 .
6. Now adjust the value of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 and repeat the above the procedure i.e. note the base
current 𝐼𝐵 for each increase of 0.1 𝑉 in base-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 .
7. Similarly, repeat the above procedure for collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 6 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 and enter
the result in a tabular form.
8. Plot a graph between base current 𝐼𝐵 and base-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 (for constant value of
collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) as shown in figure taking 𝑉𝐵𝐸 (in volts) along x-axis and 𝐼𝐵
(𝜇𝐴) along y-axis.
Output Characteristics
9. Open the key 𝐾1 and adjust the potentiometer 𝑅1 such that value of base current 𝐼𝐵 = 10 𝜇𝐴.
Keeping the value of collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 by potentiometer 𝑅3 , note the
value of collector current 𝐼𝐶 .
10. Using potentiometer 𝑅3 increase the value of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 in very small steps, say of 0.2 – 1 V and
note the corresponding value of 𝐼𝐶 .
11. Now adjust the value of 𝐼𝐵 = 20 𝜇𝐴 and repeat the above procedure i.e. note the collector
current 𝐼𝐶 for each increase of 0.2 – 1 V in collector emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 .
12. Similarly, repeat the above procedure for base current 𝐼𝐵 = 40 𝜇𝐴, 60 𝜇𝐴, 80 𝜇𝐴 and enter
the result in a tabular form.
13. Plot a graph between collector current 𝐼𝐶 and collector-emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (for constant
values of base current 𝐼𝐵 ) as shown in figure taking 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (in volts) along x-axis and 𝐼𝐶 (in mA)
along y-axis.

24
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OBSERVATION
a) OUTPUT CHARACTERISITCS
Collector Collector-
Base-Current
No. of Current Emitter
Set No. 𝑰𝑩
Observations 𝑰𝑪 Voltage
(𝝁𝑨)
(𝒎𝑨) 𝑽𝑪𝑬 (𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕)

01

02

03

25
b) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Collector-
Base-Emitter
Emitter Base Current
No. of Voltage
Set No. Voltage 𝑰𝑩
Observations 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑽𝑪𝑬 (𝝁𝑨)
(𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔)
(𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕)

01

02

03

RESULT
The input and output characteristics curves of the transistor are shown in the graph.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be tight and clean.
2. While making or breaking any connection, both power supplies should be switched off.
3. Carefully, identify the base, emitter and collector of the transistor before using it.
4. The values of base current 𝐼𝐵 collector current 𝐼𝐶 and collector voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 should not
exceed their noted limits.
5. Use always low power supply units.
6. Transistor soldering require special care, because it is very sensitive to heat and high
voltage.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

26
EXPERIMENT NO. 10 DATE: ______________

VERIFY TRUTH TABLE FOR LOGIC GATES

APPARATUS
DC power supply, AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR gates, LED indicator module, two key plugs,
connecting wires.

PROCEDURE
AND GATE
1. Take an AND gate connect its input terminal A with key 𝐾1 and then with the positive
terminal of the power
supply. Similarly, connect the
other input terminal B with
key 𝐾2 and then with
positive terminal of the
power supply.
2. The output terminal of AND
gate Y is connected with LED
indicator and then with the
negative terminal of the power supply.
3. Keep both key plugs 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 OFF, then there is not any current at inputs A and B, say both
at 0, the output Y is also OFF, i.e., at 0, so LED remains OFF.
4. Put the key plug in 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 OFF< then input terminal A is ON, i.e., at 1 and B is OFF, i.e., at
0. Then the output terminal Y is also OFF, i.e., at 0, so LED remains OFF.
5. Put the key plug in 𝐾2 and keeping 𝐾1 OFF, then the input terminal A is OFF i.e., at 0 and B is
ON, i.e., at 1, so output terminal Y is also OFF, i.e., at 0, therefore, LED remains OFF.
6. Now put the key plug in both 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 , then the both input terminals A and B are ON, i.e., at
1, 1, so at output terminal Y the LED lighted up, which shows that it is ON i.e., at 1.

OR GATE
1. Take an OR gate, connect its
input terminal A with key 𝐾1
and terminal B with key 𝐾2
and then to the positive
terminal of power supply.
2. The output terminal Y of OR
gate is connected with LED
indicator and then with the
negative terminal of the
power supply.
3. The working of OR gate is that; if either input is ON or if both are ON, the output is also ON.
It can be verify as given below.
4. Keeping both key plugs 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 OFF, there is not any current at input terminals A and B,
i.e., they are both at 0, 0. Therefore, the output terminal Y is also OFF, i.e., at 0, so LED
indicator is also OFF.
5. Put the key plug in 𝐾1 and keeping 𝐾2 OFF. The input terminal A is OFF, i.e., at 0 and B is ON,
i.e., at 1. So, at output terminal Y LED is ON, i.e., at 1.
6. Now put key plugs in both 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 , then both input terminal A and B are ON, i.e., at 1, 1. At
output terminal Y, the LED is ON, i.e., at 1, which verify the above table.

27
NOT GATE
1. Take a NOT gate, connect its input A
with a key 𝐾 and then to the positive
terminal of the battery.
2. The output terminal Y of NOT gate is
connected with LED indicator and then
to the negative terminal of battery.
3. The working of NOT gate is that, the
output is ON, if the input is OFF. It can
be verify as given below.
4. Put the key plug in 𝐾, the input terminal A is ON, i.e., at 1. So the output terminal Y is OFF,
i.e., at 0 state. So LED remains OFF.
5. Now takeoff the key plug, so input terminal A is OFF, i.e., at 0 state. The output terminal Y is
ON, i.e., at 1 state, so LED indicator is ON, which verify the truth table.

NAND GATE
1. Connect the NAND gate as shown in the figure.
By keeping both keys OFF,
so both input terminals A
and B are OFF, i.e., at 0
state. SO that the output
terminal Y of NAND gate
is ON, i.e., at state 1. So
LED is ON, i.e., at state 1.
2. Put the key plug in 𝐾2 and
𝐾1 remains OFF, so the
input terminal A is OFF and B is ON, i.e., A at 0 and B at 1 state. The output terminal Y is ON,
i.e., at state 1, so LED is ON, i.e., at 1.
3. Put the key plug in 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 remains OFF. So the input terminal A is ON, i.e., at 1 and B is
OFF, at 0 state. So that the output terminal Y is also ON, i.e., at state 1 and the LED is ON, i.e.,
at 1.
4. Put the both key plugs in 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 . So both input terminals A and B are ON, i.e., on state 1.
The output terminal Y of the NAND gate is OFF, i.e., at 0. So LED is also OFF, i.e., at 0 state.

NOR GATE
1. Connect the NOR gate
as shown in figure.
2. NOR gate only work, if
both inputs i.e., A and B
are OFF. It can be
verify as under:-
3. Keeping both keys 𝐾1
and 𝐾2 at OFF, i.e., the
output terminal
becomes ON, i.e., state 1. So LED is ON, i.e., at 1.
4. Put the key plug of 𝐾1 OFF and 𝐾2 ON, i.e., input terminal A is 0 and B is 1. The LED indicator
will be OFF, i.e., at state 0.
5. Similarly, put the key plug 𝐾1 ON and 𝐾2 OFF, i.e., input terminal A is ON and B is OFF. The
output terminal will be zero and LED indicator will be OFF, i.e., at 0 state.

28
6. Now put the both keys 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 ON, i.e., the input terminals A and B are ON, i.e., both input
terminals are at 1 and 1. So output terminal Y is OFF, i.e., at 0 state, so LED remains OFF, i.e.,
on state 0.

OBSERVATIONS
Truth Tables
For AND Gate (𝐀. 𝐁 = 𝐘) For OR Gate (𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐘)

A B Y A B Y

̅)
For NOT Gate (𝐗 = 𝐗 ̅)
For NAND Gate (𝐀. 𝐁 = 𝐘

A B Y A B Y

̅)
For NOR Gate (𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐘

A B Y

RESULTS
The truth tables for logic gates are verified.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be clean and tight.
2. For good results use logic bread board.
3. Do not use long connecting wires.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

29
EXPERIMENT NO. 11 DATE: ______________

MAKE BURGLAR ALARM USING NAND GATE.

APPARATUS
Two NAND gates, two resistors of 100 𝑘Ω, electronic bell, connecting wires, power supply 5 V
DC, key plugs.

PROCEDURE
1. Draw a neat and clean circuit diagram of connections.

2. Connect two resistances of each 100 𝑘Ω with the terminal of bistable latches and the output
of NAND gate with an electronic bell and then to a power supply of 5 V D.C as shown in
figure.
3. The working of the burglar alarm is given below.
When 𝐾1 is on the input terminal 𝑆1 is ON, i.e., at state 1 and if 𝐾2 is also ON, the input
terminal 𝑅1 is ON, i.e., at state 1. So, the 𝑄 is OFF, i.e., at 0 and then Q’ is ON, i.e., at 1, so bell is
ringing.
4. Now, if 𝐾1 is OFF, so 𝑆1 is at state 0, 𝐾2 is ON, i.e., at state 1, so Q flip to 1 and Q’ is 0, i.e., OFF,
so bell is not ringing.
5. It 𝐾2 is OFF and 𝐾1 is also OFF, then Q flops back to 0 state and Q’ becomes 1, i.e., ON, so bell
is ringing again.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

30
OBSERVATIONS
Truth Tables

A B P Q

RESULTS
The truth table of AND, OR gate is made successfully and verified.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be clean and tight.
2. Clean the terminals of components with sandpaper.
3. Do not use A.C.
4. Do not use long connecting wires.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

31
EXPERIMENT NO. 12 DATE: ______________

MAKE A FIRE ALARM USING GATES

APPARATUS
AND, OR gates, smoke sensor, heat sensor, alarm, connecting wires, power supply, alarm bell.

PROCEDURE
1. Draw the neat and clean circuit diagram of connection as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the AND gate, OR gate, smoke sensor, heat sensor and alarm with DC power supply
as shown in figure.

3. The function of fire alarm is as given below.

4. Smoke turns the smoke sensor ON, so point A is ON, i.e., at state 1. Similarly, heat turns the
heat sensor ON, so input terminal B is also ON, i.e., on state 1. As a result, both input
terminals of AND gate are ON, so output terminal P is also ON, i.e., on state 1, so exhaust is
ON.
5. As the input terminals of OR gate are on state 1, 1, so output terminal Q is also ON, i.e., at
state 1, therefore, fire alarm ringing.
6. If there is only smoke, the smoke sensor is ON, but the heat sensor is OFF, so input terminal
A is ON, i.e., at 1 and B is OFF, i.e., at 0 state. Therefore, the output terminal P of AND gate is
OFF, but the output terminal Q of OR gate is ON, so alarm is ON.
7. If heat sensor is ON, but smoke sensor is OFF, then the input terminal A is OFF, i.e., at state 0
and B is ON i.e., at state 1. Therefore, output terminal of AND gate is OFF and output
terminal of OR gate is ON. So, alarm is again ringing.
8. If both smoke and heat sensor are remained OFF, then the input terminal A and B of AND
and OR gates are at OFF, so the both output terminals P and Q are OFF. Therefore, no alarm
is ringing.
9. The above working of fire alarm can also be verified by the given truth table.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

32
OBSERVATIONS
Truth Tables

A B P Q

RESULTS
The truth table of AND, OR gate is made successfully and verified.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Use the smoke and heat sensors, very carefully.
2. Do not use long connecting wires.
3. Clean all the terminals with sandpaper.
4. Use bread board for better results.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

33
EXPERIMENT NO. 13 DATE: ______________

DETERMINE TIME CONSTANT BY CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A

CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR.
APPARATUS
Galvanometer, power supply, large value capacitor, key, stopwatch.

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit as shown in figure with capacitor of 1000 𝜇𝐹 capacitance and resistor of
10 𝑘Ω. It is often necessary to use a series combination of resistors to obtain the large
resistances required in the experiment. The
resistance of a resistor may be determined from
the colored bands on the resistor. (for the resistor
color code).
2. Record the value of the capacitance C and the
resistance R in data table.
3. Close the switch to position A and note the voltage
rise of the capacitor on the voltmeter. When the
capacitor is fully charged, move the switch to
position B, and note the voltage decrease as the
capacitor discharges. In the following procedures, the voltage is read as a function of time.
You should try trial time runs to become familiar with the procedures.
4. Simultaneously close the switch to position A and start the timer. Read and record the
capacitor voltage at small time intervals (e.g. 3 – 5 s) until the capacitor is fully charged (𝑉𝑜 ).
The switch may be opened (and the timer stopped) to stop the charging process after a
given interval without appreciable error if a high – quality, low – leakage capacitor is used.
5. After the capacitor is fully charged, open the switch to the neutral position and reset the
timer. Then, simultaneously close the switch to position B and start the timer. Read and
record the decreasing voltage at small time intervals. Open the switch when the capacitor is
discharged.
6. Record the readings in the table.
7. Compute the quantity (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉) for the charging and discharging processes, respectively.
Then, using a calculator, find the value of 𝑙𝑛 (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉) and 𝑙𝑛 𝑉.
8. On a graph paper plot 𝑙𝑛 (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉) versus 𝑡 for both sets of data. On the other graph, plot 𝑙𝑛 𝑉
versus 𝑡 for both sets of data. Draw the straight lines that best fit the data and determine the
slope of each line. Record the slopes in the data tables. Compute the time constants from the
average slope values.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

34
OBSERVATIONS
Capacitance of capacitor = C = ________________.

Resistance of Resistor = R = ___________________.

Voltage of power supply = Vo = _______________.

Charging Discharging

S.No. Voltmeter Voltmeter

Time 𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽 Time t
Reading V 𝒍𝒐 (𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽) Reading V 𝒍𝒐 𝑽
t (s) (volts) (s)
(volts) (volts)

Slope (charging) = _______________

Slope (discharging) = _______________

Average slope = _______________

RC from slope = _______________.

RC from known value = _______________.

Percentage Error

Percentage Error =

Percentage Error =

RESULT
The time constant of the given capacitor is found to be _______________ with _______________ % error.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Positive terminal of battery is connected with the positive terminal of capacitor.
2. All connections must be tight and clean.
3. Zero error in ammeter, should be removed.
4. The time to discharge must be taking very slow.

DATE: ____________________ TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: ____________________

35
References
G.S. Sarwar (2012 – 13), Practical Physics for Class XII, Iqra Publishers
Muhammad Ilyas Khan, Physics Practical for XII, Ahmed Academy
G. L. Squires (4th Edition), Practical Physics, Cambridge University Press
C. L. Arora, B. Sc. Practical Physics, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Sanjay Bhatnagar, Lab Manual Practical Book Physics, Saraswati Books.
Ghayyur Abbas Zaidi, Physics Practical Notebook FSc. Part 2, Star.

36