PHYSICS PRACTICAL

LABORATORY
MANUAL
th
XII STD
NAME:_______________________________

EDITED &REWRITTEN BY MS. MRUNALI .A .NAIK

 INDEX
EX. DATE EXPERIMENT SIGNATURE
NO.
SECTION A
1. OHM’S LAW
2. METER BRIDGE (SPECIFIC RESISTANCE )
3 METER BRIDGE (LAW OF COMBINATIONS OF RESISTANCE)
4. POTENTIOMETER (COMPARING EMF OF TWO CELLS)
5. HALF DEFLECTION BY GALVANOMETER
6. CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETR TO VOLTMETER
7. FREQUENCY OF AC MAINS
ACTIVITIES
1. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR
2. CIRCUIT ASSEMBLING
3. USE OF MULTIMETER
4. CIRCUIT DRAWING
SECTION B
1. CONVEX LENS
2. PRISM
3. R.I OF LIQUID (CONCAVE MIRROR)
4. R. I OF LIQUID (CONVEX LENS AND PLANE MIRROR )
5. ZENER DIODE
6. JUNCTION DIODE
7. i.CONCAVE LENS (FOCAL LENGTH USING CONVEX LENS)
ii.CONVEX MIRROR (FOCAL LENGTH USING CONVEX LENS)
8. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS SLAB
ACTIVITIES
1. IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
2. USE OF MULTIMETER
3. REFRACTIVE THROUGH GLASS SLAB
4. CONVEX LENS

2
 SECTION A

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

OHMS LAW

AIM: To determine resistance per unit length of the given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.

APPARATUS: a resistance wire, millivoltmeter, a milliammeter, battery eliminator, a rheostat, key,

connecting wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Insert the key and adjust the rheostat to its minimum current.

3. Note down the value of the potential difference on the millivoltmeter and the corresponding current
on milliammeter.

4. repeat the same above procedure for another five sets of observations.

5.plot the graph of V(on x-axis) versus I(y-axis).

6. from the slope calculate the resistance per unit length of the given wire.

OBSERVSTIONS:
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛
1.Least count on the millivoltmeter= 𝑛𝑜. 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
=__________

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

2.Least count of the milliammeter= 𝑛𝑜. 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
=___________

3.length of the given wire ’l’=__________cm

3
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Obs. Voltage Current Resistance

𝑉
No. V in mV I in mA R= 𝐼
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean R=___________

CALCULATION:
𝑅
Resistance per unit length of the wire (by calculation) = =_________ Ω/cm
𝑙

𝑌2−𝑌1
Slope =
𝑋2−𝑋1

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Resistance per unit length of the wire = 𝑙
=_________Ω/cm

GRAPH:

RESULTS:

1. Resistance of the given wire by calculation=__________Ω

2. Resistance of the given wire by graph=___________Ω

3. Resistance per unit length of the wire by calculation=________Ω/cm

4. Resistance per unit length of the wire by graph=_________Ω/cm

4
EXPERIMENT NO.2

METER BRIDGE

(To find resistance of given wire & to determine specific resistance of its material)

AIM: to determine the resistance of the given wire and to determine specific resistance of its material

APPARATUS: meter bridge, battery , one way key, rheostat, jockey , galvanometer, resistance box, wire
of unknown resistance connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE: TO FIND THE UNKNOWN RESISTANCE

1. Connect the circuitas shown in the diagram . the unknown resistance wire X is connected in the
left gap and the resistance box in the right gap
2. Introduce a suitable resistance in the resistance box R.
3. Close the circuit and touch the jockey at one end A of the bridge wire. The galvanometer
deflection should be to one side and when touched at C it should be on the other side. This
confirm that the circuit is working perfectly.
4. Now move the jockey along the wire and find the null deflection between one third of the wire (
between 40 to 60 cm) note down the lx and lr.
5. Repeat the above procedure for few values of R and interchange the position of X and R and
take readings .
6. Calculate the unknown resistance .

TO FIND THE SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL

7. Find the length of the wire between the two terminals of the resistance coil with the help of
scale.
8. Measure the diameter of the resistance wire at four different places and record the
observations.

OBSERVATIONS: to find the diameter (d) and length (l) of the wire

Length of the wire=l=________m

5
Diameter of wire d1=________m , d2=_________m, d3=________m

Mean of d=_______m
𝑑
r= =_________m
2

to find the unknown resistance

𝐿𝑥
Obs Resistance Length X=𝐿𝑟 𝑅 Mean
No. from the box Lx Lr
1.
2.
3.
4.
After interchanging X and R
1.
2.
3.
4.

CALCULATIONS:
𝑋.𝑑^2
Specific resistance R= 4𝐿

RESULTS:

1. the value of the resistance X=_______Ω.

2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire=_______Ωm.

6
EXPERIMENT NO. 3

METER BRIDGE (series and parallel)

AIM: to verify the laws of combination (series and parallel) of resistance using a meter bridge.

APPARATUS:a meter bridge , cell, resistance wires, galvanometer , jockey, rheostat, resistance box,
connecting wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the given unknown resistance (A=X) in the left gap of the meterbridge and the
resistance box in the right gap.
3. Select a resistance from the box (say 10Ω)and touch the jockey at the two extreme ends of
the bridge wire making the galvanometer to deflect in both direction.
4. Move the jockey on the wire to obtain a null point (try to get the null deflection between 40
to 60cm) and note down the length for wire and resister box(Lx and LR)
5. Repeat the experiment for another value of R.
6. Repeat the same by interchanging the position of X and R.
7. Hence obtain the mean value X i.e A
8. Connect the resistance A and B in series in the left gap and resistance box in the right gap.
9. Select a suitable resistance to obtain null point on the wire and hence note Lx and LR .
10. Repeat for another value of R.
11. Interchange the position of XS and R and repeat for similar two observation
12. Hence obtain the mean value of XS.
13. Connect resistance A and B in parallel and follow the same procedure as above and obtain
the value XP
14. Compare the theoretical and experimental values of XS and XP.

OBSERVATIONS:-

7
 1. The values of resistance ,X= A=______Ω and B=______Ω
2. The value of series combination obtained theoretically as XS=A+B=_______
3. The value of parallel combination obtained theoretically as XP=AB/A+B=_______

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

RESISTANCE OBS. RESISTANCE FROM LENGTH MEAN

𝐿𝑥
COIL NO. BOX LX LR X=𝐿𝑅 𝑅
RΩ
1.
2.
X X=
After interchanging X and R
3.
4.
1.
2
XS XS=
After interchanging XS and R
3.
4.
1.
2.
XP X P=
After interchanging XP and R
3.
4.

RESULTS:-

1. The value of the unknown resistance X=________Ω

2. Theoretically the values of series and parallel combination of the given two resistance are
XS=______Ω
XP=______Ω
3. The values as obtained practically are :
4. XS=______Ω
XP=______Ω

8
EXPERIMENT NO. 4

POTENTIOMETER (Comparing two emf’s)

AIM: to compare the emf of two given primary cells using a potentiometer

APPARATUS:potentiometer ,two cells of different emf, galvanometer, battery eliminator, a

rheostat, , a resistance box.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram .

2. Close the key K and K1 so that the cells E and E1 are in the circuit.(K2 is kept open)
3. Touch the jockey at the two extreme ends A and B of the potentiometer wire and check the
deflection in the galvanometer ,whether showing in the opposite directions.
4. Move the jockey on the wire till the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This point on the
wire is called null point.
5. Measure the length of the wire from point A to the null point as balancing length l1αE1.
6. Open key K1 and close K2 so that E1 is out of the circuit and E2 is in.
7. Repeat the procedure above to find the balancing length l2αE2.
8. Vary the rheostat in steps for taking more observation of l1 and l2
9. From the given formula calculate the values of E1/E2.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

9
 OBS. BALANCING LENGTH FOR
𝐸1 𝐿1
NO. CELL E1 ‘ l1’ cm CELL E2 ‘l2’ cm =
𝐸2 𝐿2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Mean=____________

CALCULATIONS:

RESULTS: the ratio of the emf’s of the two given cells is_________.

10
EXPERIMENT NO. 5

RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER BY HALF DEFLECTION METHOD

AIM: to determine the resistance of a galvanometer of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to
find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS:galvanometer ,resistance box(100Ω,5KΩ), key k1 k2.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown I the circuit diagram .

2. Select a resistance say 5000 ohms or 4000ohms from the resistance box ‘R’ and insert key k1
only with k2 open.
3. Note the deflection Ɵ in the galvanometer.
4. If the value is odd like 31 or 35 make the deflection on galvanometer even by adding or
removing resistance from R.
5. Insert key k2 and without changing the value of R1 adjust the value of S such that deflection in
the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained above (Ɵ/2)
6. Note the value of S.
7. Select a value of R from the resistance box and note down the corresponding deflection in the
galvanometer.
8. Repeat the above procedure for 4 more values of R .
9. Calculate the figure of merit from the formula given.

OBSERVATIONS: Emf of the given cell, E=______ V

11
OBSERVATION TABLE:

OBS. NO. RESISTANCE DEFLECTION Shunt Galvanometer Figure of merit

𝐸
RΩ Ɵ resistance to resistance K=(𝑅+𝐺)Ɵ
𝑅.𝑆
make G=𝑅−𝑆Ω
deflection Ɵ/2
‘S’ Ω
(amp/div)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATIONS:-

RESULTS: 1. The resistance of the given galvanometer is ________Ω

2. The figure of merit of the given galvanometer is ________A/div

12
EXPERIMENT NO. 6

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

AIM: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit ) into an voltmeter of
desired range and to verify the same.

APPARATUS:galvanometer , voltmeter , rheostat, key, battery , resistance box.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connectthecircuit as shown in the figure.

2. From the given values of V (range), G and Ig calculate the value of R using the given formula.
3. Connect the resistance box in series with the galvanometer and select the resistance as
obtained from the calculations.
4. Connect this in parallel with the actual voltmeter as shown in the diagram and compare the
values.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. No. of division on the galvanometer scale ‘n’=________

2. The resistance of the galvanometer ‘G’=________
3. The full scale deflection current of galvanometer ’Ig’=_____A/ div
4. Range of voltmeter’ V’=______to ______V
5. Least count of the galvanometer converted to voltmeter (L.C) =V/n=______

OBSEREVATION TABLE:

13
OBS. Galvanometer reading Voltmeter reading Difference
NO. (error)
V2 (V) V2-V1
Deflection Potential difference
Ɵ V1=Ɵ*L.C (V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATIONS:
𝑉
Resistance of galvanometer : R=𝐼𝑔 − 𝐺

Galvanometer current Ig= K*n (K- figure of merit)

RESULTS: As the difference in actual and measured values is very small, conversion is perfect.

14
EXPERIMENT NO.7

FREQUENCY OF AC MAINS

AIM: to find the frequency of ac mains with a sonometer .

APPARATUS:230-12V ac transformer ,sonometer ,slotted weights, solenoid etc.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Put suitable weights in the hanger of a sonometer wire.

2. Arrange the solenoid right on top sonometer wire at its centreof the wire by few
distance(2mm -3mm) .
3. Connect the wire of the solenoid with the ac power supply.
4. Switch on the AC with help of the knife edges find the vibrating loop .
5. Once the loop is formed note down the length between the 2 knife edges as L1, repeat the
same for L2.hence obtain mean L.
6. Repeat the above steps by varying the weights in the hanger .
7. Hence from the formula given above calculate the frequency of the vibrating wire which is
the same as that of the ac mains

OBSERVATION:

Mass per unit length of the wire ‘m’=_________kg/m

15
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Obs. Mass in hanger Tension Vibrating length Frequency

1 𝑇
No. m Kg T=m x g L1 (m) L2 (m) Mean L (m) n=2𝑙√𝑚

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean frequency n=________Hz

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:The frequency of ac mains is ________Hz.

16
ACTIVITY NO. 1

USE OF MULTIMETER

AIM: To measure resistance , voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given circuit using
multimeter.

PROCEDURE:

1. For continuity test

Turn the multimeter knob to ohmmeter range of least value. Touch the two lead points with each other
and adjust the pointer to zero reading on resistance scale (maximum deflection).this zero lies on the
extreme right of the multimeter scale.

Now touch the two leads with the two points,one with each point,between which continuity is to be
tested . if the multimeter pointer gives zero value of resistance , the two points under test have
continuity. In case of a loose contact, the pointer will not come to zero and read some resistance value.
If there is some break (discontinuity) in between the points,the pointer will not move at all. It will saty
at extreme left of the multimeter scale which corresponds to infinite resistance (no current from the
multimetercell).

2. Measuring of DC Voltages

Turn the multimeter knob to D.C voltage range of 15V (maximum voltage on battery eliminator is 12V).
Connect the black wire lead (connected to negative of multimeter )to the negative output terminal of
the battery eliminator. Connect the red wire lead (connect to positive of multimeter )to the positive
output terminal of the battery eliminator.

The battery eliminator had different tapping connected to output terminal with eliminator panel knob.
These tappings have outputs of 1.5V,3.0V,…..,9.0V,10.5V and 12V.

Keeping eliminator panel knob at zero, switch on the eliminator. The multimeter will give zero reading.

Rotate the panel knob to different tapping one by one. Note the corresponding multimeter reading. The
reading may not be the same as marked on tapping. It is for this reason that a voltmeter is always used
for noting the eliminator output while using it in some experiments.

17
ACTIVITY NO.2

CIRCUIT ASSEMBLING

AIM: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say ohms law circuit)

APPARATUS: A voltmeter ,ammeter, rheostat, key, 1.5V battery,

MATERIAL:resistance wire, connecting wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Draw the circuit diagram as shown above

2. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in arrangement
3. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulation, if any
4. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making
connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards
the +ve terminal of the battery
5. Determine the least count of the voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.
6. Adjust the rheostat so as to pass minimum current.
7. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that the ammeter and voltmeter are working
properly.
8. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a small current passes through thr resistance
wire .
9. Note down the value of potential difference V from the voltmeter and current I from the
ammeter

18
 10. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that bothe ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions
readings and not in fraction.
11. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter
12. Take atleast six sets of independent observations.
13. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length
by the metre scale
14. Record your observations.

UTILITY: it is used for measuring an unknown resistance.

19
ACTIVITY NO.3

POTENTIAL GRADIENT OF POTENTIOMETER

AIM:To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

APPARATUS:potentiometer

MATERIALS: charges battery, a low resistance rheostat, a voltmeter of range (0-2V), ammeter, one way
key, jockey, connecting wires etc.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in the figure above.
2. Do the connections as shown in the diagram.
3. Touch the end of the jockey to the end Q of the potentiometer.
4. Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives full scale deflection (2V).
5. Touch the jockey at end P at 0(zero) cm. the voltmeter will give zero deflection
6. Touch the jockey at marks separated by 50cm length of wire . note the voltmeter reading in
each case
7. Record your observation in a tabular column.

20
OBSERVATION:

Obs Length of Voltmeter reading Ratio

𝑉
no. potentiometer wire V (Volts) R= 𝐿
L (cms)
1. 0
2. 50
3. 100
4. 150
5. 200
6. 250
7. 300
8. 350
9. 400

RESULT: the ratio V/L is constant. This quantity is called potential gradient of the wire.

21
ACTIVITY NO. 4

CIRCUIT DRAWING

AIM:To draw diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor
/rheostat,key,ammeter and a voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order
and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, a one way key.

MATERIAL: An unknown resistance,connecting wires, a piece of sandpaper.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Open circuit diagram(components not connected in proper order). It is in the figure above

Ammeter: it should be connected in series.

Voltmeter: it should be connected in parallel.

Rheostat: it should be connected in series (in place of the resistance coil).

Resistance coil: it should be connected in parallel (in place of the rheostat)

One way key: it should be connected in series.

Correct circuit diagram (components connected in proper order)

22
 SECTION B

EXPERIMENT NO.1

CONVEX LENS

AIM: To find the values of v for different values of u in case of a convex lens and hence find its focal
length by plotting graph between u and v.

APPARATUS:-Convex mirror ,convex, optical needles, optical stands for mirrors and lens, scale.

RAY DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the lens object and image as shown in the ray diagram.
2. Now remove the lens from the stand and find its focal length (face the lens opposite to the wall
with bright light in the background and see where you get the clearest images on the wall , that
will be the focal length of the lens)
3. Now fix the object pin on one fixed position (say 0 or 5cm), after some distance place the lens
(the lens remains fixed on one position throughout the experiment) and after some distance say
(20 to 25cm) place the image pin.
4. We’ll see a image coinciding with object. But the parallax error should be removed.
5. To remove the parallax error we need to move the images pin such that both the pins move
together when we move our eyes.
6. After removing the parallax error measure the object distance and image distance.
7. Find the focal length
8. Bring the object 5cm in front and repeat the same procedure.
9. Draw graph of v v/s u and find the focal length by graph.

OBSERVATIONS: Focal length of the given lens: _______cm

23
OBSERVATION TABLE:
𝑈.𝑉
Obs. Object distance Image distance f=𝑈+𝑉
No. U cm V cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean focal length ‘f’ =___________

GRAPH:

RESULTS:

1. The focal length of the lens (theoretically)=________ cm

2. The focal length of the lens (graphically)=__________cm

24
EXPERIMENT NO. 2

PRISM

AIM: To plot the graph showing the variation of the angle of deviation with the angle of incidence for a
glass prism.

APPARATUS: glass prism, soft board, pins, white paper, sharp pencil, meter scale, protractor etc.

RAY DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the white paper to the soft board with the help of pins
2. Take the prism and keep it fixed at one position ,draw its outline with the help of a pen,remove
the prism and with help of the protractor mark normal at exactly 90° at one edge of the glass
prism outline.
3. For the incident ray at an angle 40° place the protractor exactly at the normal line touching the
face of prism and count 40° from 90° and draw your incident ray, place the prism exactly on the
outline and place two pins on the incident line drawn.
4. Now try to see the pins from the opposite face of the prism and place two pins in line ( or
covering) with the image .
5. Once aligned ,remove the pins place and mark the emergent ray .
6. Join the incident line and emergent line (inside the prism) to get the angle of deviation.
7. Plot a graph of δ versus i and find the angle of minimum deviation.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE i 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60°

ANGLE OF DEVIATION δ

25
GRAPH:

RESULTS: the angle of minimum deviation is__________°

26
EXPERIMENT NO.3

R.I OF LIQUID

AIM: to find the refractive index of a liquid using a concave mirror.

APPARATUS: a concave mirror, clamp stand,Pins, transparent liquid .

RAY DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Find the rough focal length of the concave mirror.

2. Keep the mirror at the base of the vertical clamp stand with the reflecting surface upward.
3. Fix an optical needle in the clamp stand horizontally ,keep its tip at twice the rough focal
lengthand on a vertical line through the pole of the mirror.
4. Coincide the tip of the needle with tip of its image and move it to remove parallax.
5. Using scale calculate the distance as real depth
6. Repeat the same procedure by pouring liquid in the concave mirror.
7. Take 2 more sets for each depth.
8. Calculate the refractive index.

OBSERAVTION TABLE:
𝑅
Obs. No. Real depth Apparent depth µ=𝑅′
R R’
1.
2.
3.

RESULTS: The refractive index of given liquid is µ=______

27
EXPERIMENT NO. 4

R. I OF LIQUID (CONVEX LENS AND PLANE MIRROR)

AIM:To find the Refractive Index of a Liquid by using ConvexLens and Plane Mirror.

APPARATUS: A convex lens , retort stand , pin , liquid , plane mirror half meter scale.

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE :

a) For focal length of the convex lens

1. Take a convex lens and find its focal length .
2. Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand .
3. Place the convex lens on the plane mirror .
4. Screw the optical needle tightly in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally above the lens
at a distance equal to its rough focal length.
5. Bring the tip of the needle to the vertical principal axis of the lens , so that the tip of the needle
appears to touch the tip of its image.
6. Move the needle up and down and remove parallax between the tip of the needle and the tip of
its image.
7. Measure the distance between the tip and the upper surface of the lens using a plumb line and
half meter scale.
8. Also measure the distance between the tip and the surface of the plane mirror.

b) For focal length of the combination.

9. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plabe mirror and put the conex lens over it with its
same face above as before (A plano concave liquid lens is formed between a plane mirror and a
convex lens )
10. Repeat step 6, 7 and 8

28
 11. Record your observation as given below.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Rough focal length of convex lens=________cm

2. Table for the distance of needle tip from lens and mirror

Arrangement Distance of needle tip

𝑋1+𝑋2
From lens surface From plane mirror Mean X= Focal length x
2
X1 (cm) X2(cm) (cm) (cm)
Without liquid F1=
With liquid F=

Radius of curvature R=____________cm

CALCULATION :

1 1 1
= −
𝐹2 𝐹 𝐹1
𝑅
µ=1+
𝐹2

RESULTS :The refractive index of a given liquid is _________

29
EXPERIMENT NO. 5

ZENER DIODE

AIM: To draw the characteristic curve of a zener diode and to determine reverse breakdown voltage.

APPARATUS: zener diode (Vz=6V) , battery eliminator 10V, a high resistance rheostat,
voltmeter,milliammeter, 20Ω resistance, key, connecting wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

1. Least count of voltmeter (V1)=_________ V

2. Least count of voltmeter (V0)=_________V
3. Least count of milliammeter (I1)=_______mA

Obs. No. Input voltage Input Current Output Voltage

V1 volts I1 Amp. V0 volts
1. 0.0
2. 0.5
3. 1.0
4. 1.5
5. 2.0
6. 2.5
7. 3.0
8. 3.5
9. 4.0
10. 4.5
11. 5.0
12. 5.5
13. 6.0
14. 6.5
15. 7.0
16. 7.5
17. 8.0

30
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram .

2. Keep V1=0; I1=0
3. Increase V1, and I1 starts flowing and V0 becomes less than V 1. Note the values of V1, I1 and
V0.
4. Go on increasing V1 in smalln steps of ).5V and note the corresponding values of I1 and V0 (I1
and V1increases)
5. At one stage as V1 is increased further , I1 increases further , I1 increases by large amount and
V0 does not increase. This is a reverse breakdown situation.
6. As V1 is increased further, only i1 increases and V0 becomes constant.
7. Increase V1 to a value of 8V noting the corresponding values.
8. Plot the graph of V0 v/s V1 and find the reverse breakdown voltage.

GRAPH:

RESULTS: The reverse breakdown voltage of the given Zener diode is _________volts.

31
EXPERIMENT NO. 6

JUNCTION DIODE

AIM:To draw I-V characteristics curve of a p-n junction in forward and reverse bias.

APPARATUS:pn junction diode (BY 126 or IN 4001), voltmeter (0 to 2V) for forward bias and ( 0-5V) for
reverse bias , multimeter , rheostat, and so on.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Forward bias characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram where the diode with its p-terminal is connected to
the positive terminal of the cell and n-terminal to the negative terminal of the cell.
2. Adjust the multimeter in the milliammeter rang or use a milliammeter and a voltmeter of rage
0-2V
3. Adjust the rheostat and note the values of I and V
4. Repeat the experiment for 10 sets of observations. Plot a graph of I against V.

OBSERVATIONS:

i) L.C. of voltmeter for forward bias=________V

32
OBSERVATION TABLE:

For forward Bias

Obs. Current P.d across diode

No. I amps V volts

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

GRAPH:

RESULT:The curve plotted for forward bias clarify the characteristics of a junction diode.

33
EXPERIMENT NO. 7 (i)

CONCAVE LENS

AIM: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.

APPARATUS: Convex lens, optical needles, concave lens, lens holders.

RAY DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Rough focal length of the convex lens=________cm.

2. Distance between the two lenses1 (L1L2)=________cm.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
𝒖𝒗
Obs. Distance of I (L1i) cm U= l(L1i)-l(L 1L2) V= L 2i’ cm F= cm
𝒖−𝒗
No. object needle cm
l(OL1) cm
1.
2.
3.
4.

PROCEDURE:

1. Find the rough focal length of the length.

2. Fix the lens on the bench marked as L1

34
 3. Take the optical needle as object needle (O) and mount it on the line drawn and place it at a
distance nearly 1.5 times the rough focal length of the lens
4. Adjust the height of the object needle to make its tip lie on the horizontal line through the
optical centre of the lens . note down length L 1O.
5. Mount the image needle on other side of the convex lens , adjust its tip such that it coincides
with the tip of the inverted image.
6. Adjust the position of the image needle so as to mark the position of the image I. note down the
distance LI.
7. Keep the concave lens fixed on the holder on the images side of the convex lens, at some
distance away from the convex lens.
8. We see an inverted and enlarged image of the object needle.
9. Mount the thick optical needle called image needle on the image side and adjust its height so as
to coincide its tip with the tip of the inverted image.
10. Adjust the position of the images needle I’ to remove parallax . note down this distance L2 I’.
11. Repeat the experiment for 3 more values of lengths OL1 ,i.e by adjusting the position of the
object needle by 2cm for each value.
12. Then, from the formula given calculate the focal length of the given concave lens.

RESULTS:Thefocal length of the given concave lens is _________ cm.

35
EXPERIMENT NO.7(ii)

CONVEX MIRROR

AIM: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex mirror using a convex lens.

APPARATUS: Convex mirror, convex lens , optical needles, optical stands for mirror and lens, scale.

RAY DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

Rough focal length of the convex lens=________cm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

OBS. Length of object Distance Distance of Radius of Focal length

NO. needle from the between image from curvature of the
lens lens and lens R =l (LM)- convex
L (LO) cm mirror L (LI) cm l(LI) cm mirror
𝑅
L (LM) cm f= cm
2

Mean= __________

36
PROCEDURE:

1. Find the rough focal length of the length.

2. Fix the lens on the bench marked as L
3. Take the optical needle as object needle (O) and mount it on the line drawn and place it at a
distance nearly 1.5 times the rough focal length of the lens.
4. Adjust the height of the object needle to make its tip lie on the horizontal line through the
optical centre of the lens . note down length LO.
5. Keep the convex mirror on the other side of the lens keeping its reflecting surface facing
towards the lens.
6. closing one eye see the inverted image of the object needle (formed by the reflection from the
convex mirror)
7. adjust the height of the needle so that the two tips are seen in one line.
8. Remove the parallax error by moving the convex mirror back and forth , note down the distance
of the mirror from the lens (LM).
9. Remove the convex mirror. With your left eye still closed look at the other end of the optical
bench . an inverted and enlarged image will be seen . the tip of the image must lie in the middle
of the lens.
10. Keep an image needle on the same side as that of the mirror and adjust its height so as to
remove the parallax with inverted image .
11. Note down the distance of the image needle from lens.
12. Repeat the experiment for 2 more adjustment of the object needle from the lens. Hence, from
the formula calculate the focal length of the given mirror.

RESULT: mean focal length of the given convex mirror is ________ cm.

37
EXPERIMENT NO. 8

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS SLAB

AIM: To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

APPARATUS: three glass slab of different thickness but of same material, travelling
microscope,lycopodium powder.

RAY DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust the travelling microscope to make it horizontal, also adjust the position of the piece so
that the cross wires are clearly visible.
2. Determine the least count of the vernier scale on the microscope..
3. Now take a piece of a paper and mark a black cross on it , place it under the microscope(it will
serve as point P)
4. Make the microscope vertical and focus on the cross P.
5. Note the microscope reading (same way as taken for vernier calipers) as R1 cm on the vertical
scale.
6. Place the glass slab of some thickness on the mark P.
7. Raise the microscope upward and focus it on the image P1 of the cross mark . note the reading
R2 cm on the vertical scale.
8. Sprinkle some lycopodium powder on the surface of the glass slab, raise it further and note
down the reading.
9. Repeat the same procedure for other glass slabs of different thickness.

38
OBSERVATION TABLE:

OBS. Microscope reading for Real depth Apparent Refractive

NO. Cross mark Cross mark Lycopodium depth index
X=R3-R1 Y=R3-R2 (cm) 𝑹𝟑−𝑹𝟏
without with slab powder µ=𝑹𝟑−𝑹𝟐
slab R2 (cm) R3 (cm) (cm)
R1 (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean=__________

GLASS SLAB MSR VSR VSR X LC R= MSR+ (VSR

X LC)
THICKNESS 1 R1
R2
R3
THICKNESS 2 R1
R2
R3
THICKNESS 3 R1
R2
R3

RESULTS: The refractive index of the material of the given glass slab is ________.

39
ACTIVITY NO.1

CHARACTERISTICS OF LDR

AIM: To study of light (by varying distance of the source ) on an L.D.R.(light dependent resistor)

APPARATUS: light source, light dependent resistors (L.D.Rs) of different variety, resistance measuring
arrangement.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the source of parallel rays of light facing LDR.

2. Measure the resistance (dark) of LDR using multimeter.
3. Put on the light source ,vary the distance by a step of 5cm and (either by moving LDR away from
the source or otherwise ) and note dpwn the corresponding resistance.
4. Plot the graph of R v/s d2

OBSERVATION :

1. Dark resistance (in absence of light )of an LDR is _______Ω

2. Power supply voltage ,V=_________Volts

40
Obs Varying distance ‘d’ Current Resistance in Ω
𝑉
No. I R= 𝐼
In cms In m d2 m2 In mA In A
1. 5 0.05
2. 10 0.1
3. 15 0.15
4. 20 0.2
5. 25 0.25

GRAPH:

RESULT: For an LDR the resistance is directly proportional to the square of the distance between LDR
and the source of light.

41
ACTIVITY NO.2

IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

AIM: To identify a diode ,an LED, a transistor , an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of
such items.

APPARATUS: multimeter , battery,eliminator,reversing key.

THEORY:

For identification ,appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

 A diode is a two terminal device . it conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when
reverse biased. It does not emits light while conducting.
 A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when forward biased
and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting.
 A transistor is a three terminal device. It terminal represent emitter (E),base(B) and collector(C).
 An IC(integrated circuit ) is a multi-terminal device in the form of a chip.
 A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse biased.it
conducts even when operated with A>C. voltage.
 A capacitor is also a two terminal device . it does not conduct when either forward biased or
reverse biased . (hence it does not conduct with the DC voltage). However, it conducts with AC
voltage

PROCEDURE:

1. If the item has four or more terminal and has the form of a chip, it is an IC(integrated circuit)
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3. If the item has two terminal, it may be a diode, an LED, a resistor or capacitor.

To differentiate proceed as follows.

Make a series circuit with battery eliminator, reversing key, the item and the multimeter with range set
in milliamperes. Switch on the battery eliminator and watch the movement of the multimeter pointer.

1. If the pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and dies not move when reversed and
there is no light emission,the item is a diode.
2. If the pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and
there is light emission,the item is a LED.
3. If the pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is a
resistor.
4. If the pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed , the
item is a capacitor.

42
ACTIVITY NO. 3

REFRACTION THROUGH GLASS SLAB

AIM: To observe refractive and lateral deviation (displacement) of a beam of light incident obliquely on
a glass slab.

APPARTUS: glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.

RAY DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

When a ray of light is incident on a parallel faced glass slab, it emerges from it in the same direction as
the incident ray. It only suffers a lateral displacement, proportional to the slab thickness (t).

The lateral displacement is given d=t sec r sin (i-r)

PROCEDURE:

Fix a white paper sheet using drawing pins on a drawing board.

Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary ABCD ,Draw
a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle I with the normal . PQ will represent
an incident ray.Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at a distances 10cm or more between
them.See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at point 3 and 4 (10cm or more
apart) such that these two pins cover the images of the first two pins, all being along a straight line.

Remove the glass slab . draw a straight line RS through point 3 and 4 to represent the emergent ray. Join
QR to represent the refractive ray.

Draw a normal at point R on the face DC and measure angle e. it comes to be equal to angle i.

Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measure lateral displacement d.

43
ACTIVITY NO. 4

CONCAVE MIRROR

AIM: To study the nature and size of the images formed by a concave mirror on a screen by using a
candle and screen (for different distance of the candle from the mirror

APPARATUS: An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror with holder, a burning candle, a
cardboard screen.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
1 1 1
From mirror formula, + =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

When u=infinity

When u=-2f,

When u=-f

When u< (-f), v becomes positive, image becomes virtual.

Hence as the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the concave mirror, its images
(position of screen ) moves from mirror focus towards infinity. The two cross each other at distance 2f ie
at the centre of curvature of the mirror.

For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not fall on the screen.

PROCEDURE:

1.Find rough focal length of the concave mirror by the usual method.

44
2. Mount the concave mirror in a holder in first upright and keep it near one end of the optical bench,
keeping mirror face upright.

3.Mount the cardboard screen on a second upright and keep it at distance equal to the rough focal
length of the mirror from first upright.

4. mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it near the other end of the optical bench.

5.adjust heights so that the inverted image of the erect flame of the burning candle is formed on the
screen. Move the screen to make the image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the focus of the concave
mirror.

6. the image will be real, inverted and much more diminished.

7. as the burning candle is moved towards the mirror, the screen has to be moved away from it for
getting a sharp image of heflame. The inverted image size increases.

8. when the position of the candle approaches the centre of curvature of the mirror, the screen also
approaches the same position. The image size will be equal to the actual flame size.

9. now interchange the uprights. Bring the candle upright nearer to the mirror than the screen upright.

10.move the candle yet nearer. The screen has to be moved away for getting an enlarged inverted real
image on the screen.

11. As the candle reaches the focus of the mirror, the screen may not be able to gets its image which will
be formed at infinity i.e. Beyond the length of the optical bench.

CONCLUSION:

This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical predictions.

45