PHYSICS PRACTICAL RECORD WRITING

FOR CLASS XII

@

Educate  Enrich  Enlighten

TOPIC
EXPERIMENTS 1 TO 8
ACTIVITIES 1 TO 6
 PHYSICS
CLASS XII
RECORD WRITING AND LAB SESSION INSTRUCTIONS

* Records must be written in a blue ball point or dot pen. Ink pens or gel inks are not

allowed.

* All images & graphic illustrations should be done on left blank side of the record with

pencil

* Everybody should carry their observation manual with them in every lab class.

* Lab sessions will not be carried out for the students who are absent for a lab class with

out completing the session that they have missed.

* Lab records should be consequently complete along with the lab sessions each day.

* Without completing the record portions of previous lab, one will not be allowed to per

form the next lab.

* Aim, Apparatus , Principle , Formaula and Procedure Should be done on right side (Ruled

Page)

* Tabular Column, Diagrams, Model Graphs and Calculations should be done on left side

(Unruled Page).

* The record books should be covered & name labelled prior to all.

* The index should be completed along with the lab cycles.

* All the regular routine Experiments carried out during the lab cycles should be per

form daily on a regular basis in order to perform well in the final lab cycle.

02
 PHYSICS
CLASS XII
PRACTICAL EXAM MODEL PAPER

PHYSICS PRACTICAL EXAMINATION : 042 MAX MARKS : 30

TIME : 3Hrs

PART A
1. To determine the mass of two different objects using a beam balance. (7M)

2. To study the relationship between force of limiting friction and normal reaction and to find
the co- efficient of friction between a block and a horizontal surface. (7M)
3. To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), Current (AC) and check continuity of a given circuit
using Multimenter. (3M)

PART B

Practical Record (5M)

Project (3M)
Viva (5M)

03
Circuit Diagram
Meter Bridge

04
 EXPERIMENT - 1
Aim: To find Resistance of a given wire using Metre Bridge.

Apparatus
A meter bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator),
a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a
r e s i s t ance wire, a meter scale, a set square, connecting wires
and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by, X = (100 − l) x R
l
Where R is known resistance placed in the left gap and
unknown resistance X in the right gap of meter bridge.  cm is the

length of meter bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.

Procedure
For Resistance

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined
in the right gap between C and B. Take care that no part of the

wire forms a loop.

3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between
A and B.
4. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box.
Plug the key K.

05
Obervations
1. Length of given wire, L = ..........cm.
2. Table for unknown resistance (X)

Serial No of Resistance from Balancing B C = (100 -  ) Unknown resis-

Obs the Resistance box Length AB =  tance
(cm)
(1) R (4) (100 − l)
(cm) X=R
l
(ohm) (3) (ohm)
(2) (5)

1. .......... .......... .......... X1=............

2. .......... .......... .......... X2=............

3. .......... .......... .......... X3=............

4. .......... .......... .......... X4=............

06
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end
of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer
shows deflections in opposite directions, the connections are
correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault
in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the
fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till
galvanometer gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is
touching the wire is null point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that
there is no deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is
nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e between 45 cm to 55 cm).
10. Note position of point D (with the help of set square) to know
balancing length, AD =  .
11. Take at least four set of observations in the same way by changing
the value of R in steps.
12. Record your observations.

07
08
 Calculations
1. Calculation for X
1. From position of D, find  cm and write in column 3 of Table 1.
2. Find length (100 -  ) Cm and write in column 4.
3. Calculate X and write in column 5.
X1 + X2 + X3 + X 4
=Mean X = ........ohm
4

Result
1. The value of unknown resistance, X = ..... Ω

Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations

are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of par
allax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two
mutually perpendicular directions.

8. The wire should not make a loop.

Sources of Error
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.

3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

4. The screw guage may have faults like back lash error and wrong
pitch.

09
(i) In series

(ii) Resistances in series

10
 EXPERIMENT - 2
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistance using a
meter bridge.
Apparatus
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a
galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistance wires or
two resistance coils known resistances, a set square, sand paper and
connecting wires.

Theory
(i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by,
( 100 −  )
r= X R where R is the resistance from the resistance box in

the left gap and  is the length of the metre bridge wire from
zero end upto balance point.
(ii) When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series, then their
combined resistance, R s= r1 + r2

Procedure
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2 .
2. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as in Resistivity
(Specific Resistivity)Experiment. (If r1 and r2 are not known.)

3. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in figure in the

right gap of metre bridge and find the resistance of this

combination. Take at least three sets of observations.

4. Record your observations as follows.

11
Observations
Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (X)
Resistance Serial No of Resistance Balancing Length Resistance Mean resistance
Length
Coil Observations From the DC = 100-  (ohm
resistance AD =   100 − l
(1) (2) (cm) r= xR (7)
Box’R’ (ohm) (cm)  l 
(5) (6)
(3) (4)

r1 only 1.

r1 =
2. .......................

3.

r2 only 1.

2. r2 =
.......................

3.

r1 and r2 1.

In series

Rs =
2.
.......................

3.

12
Calculations
1. Calculations for r1 only, r2 only, r1 and r2 in series. using forumla
100 −  

γr =  xR
  
2. Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of R s = ........
Theoretical value of R s = r1 + r2 = ..........
Difference (if any)=.............

Result
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical
values of R s are same. Hence, law of resistances in series is verified.

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations

are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of
parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two
mutually perpendicular directions.

8. The wire should not make a loop.

13
21
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

14
 EXPERIMENT - 3

AIM : To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection

method and to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS
A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery elimi-
nator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys,
a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of given range,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY
(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half
deflection method is given by,
R .S
G= ... ( 1 )
R−S
Where R is the resistance connected in series with the
galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.

(ii) The figure of merit,

E
k= ... ( 2 )
( G) θ
R +

Where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and θ is the deflection produced with
resistance R.
(iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer,

Ig = nk ... ( 3 )

Where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale

on either side of zero.

15
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION
1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection meth-
od

Serial No. Resistance Deflection Shunt resis- Half deflec- Galvanome-

tance tion ter resistance
Of Obs R in the galva-
nometer Ѳ S RS
(ohm) θ G=
R−S
(ohm) 2 (ohm)

(3) (6)
(5)
(4)
(1) (2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
2. Table for figure of merit

Serial No. Number of e.m.f. of the Resistance Deflection Figure of

Of Obs cells cells E(V) from R.B. merit
or reading Ѳ(div.)
(Battery of battery R (ohm)
eliminator) E
eliminator k=
(R + G) θ
(3)
(2) (6)
(1) (4)
(5)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n =......

16
PROCEDURE

(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half-deflection method

1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.

3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance
box R and insert the key K 1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in
number and within the scale.

5. Note the deflection., let it be θ

6. Insert the key K 2 also and without changing the value of R,

adjust the value of S, such that deflection in the galvanometer

reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5 i.e., θ 2 .
7. Note the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R
and adjusting S every time.

(b) Figure of merit

9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its
E.M.F. by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the cell and –ve of

voltmeter with –ve of the cell. Let it be E.

10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ
(say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed.

12. Note the value of resistance R and deflection θ .

13. Now change the value of R and note galvanometer deflection
again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with

different voltage like 2, 4, 6, 8, volts from the battery eliminator.

15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

17
18
 1.Calculation for G
RS
(i) Calculation G, using formula, G = and write it in
R−S
column 6 of Table 1.
(ii) Take mean of values of G recorded in column 6 of Table 1.
2. Calculation for k
E
(i) Calculate k, using formula, k = and write it in
(R + G) θ
column 6 of Table 2.
(ii) Take mean of values of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2.

RESULT
1. Resistance of given galvanometer = ...... Ω
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer =____________ A div .

PRECAUTIONS :

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be
introduced in the circuit (otherwis e for small resistance

an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or amme

ter can be damaged).

SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

19
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

20
 EXPERIMENT - 04
AIM: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and
figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

APPARATUS`
A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0-3 volts range, or
battery eliminator,10,000Ω resistance box, one way keys, a rheostat
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY
The series resistance required for conversion,
V
R
= −G
Ig
Where V is the range of conversion.

PROCUDURE

1.Calculate the value of series resistance R to be connected in series with

the galvanometer for the given range V (say 3 volts).
2.Connect a resistance box in series with galvanometer and take out
the plugs of resistance R. Now, the given galvanometer is ready for use
as a voltmeter of range V volts.

3 For verification make the connections as shown in the circuit

diagram. Here AB is a rheostat being used as a potential divider. A and
B are the fixed terminals and C is the variable terminal of the rheostat.

4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box.
Insert the key K and adjust the movable contact of the rheostat so

that deflection in the galvanometer becomes maximum.

5. Note the reading of voltmeter and galvanometer. Convert the
galvanometer reading into volts.

21
CALCULATIONS

Resistance of the given galvanometer, (G) = ______________.

Figure of merit, (K) = ______________. A/div

Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, (n) = ______________.

Current for full scale deflection, I= = ...... = ______________.

g nk

Range of conversion, V = ...... ______________.

V
Resistance to be placed in series with the galvanometer, R = − G = ......
Ig

VERIFICATION

v 6
Least count of the galvanometer converted into voltmeter  = 
 = 0.2v
 n  30
Table for verification for converted voltmeter

Serial No. Reading of converted galvanometer into volt- Difference

Of Obs meter (Error)
Standard
Deflection P.D. in volts
voltmeter V2  V1
Ѳ V1 = θ× L.C. reading (V)

(V) V2
(4)
(1) (2a) (2b) (V)
(3)
1.
2.
3.
4.

22
6. Find the difference, if any, between the readings of voltmeter and
galvanometer. The difference gives the error.

7. Move the variable contact C of the rheostat and take at least five
observations covering the whole range of the voltmeter i.e., 0-3 volts.
8. Record your observations.

Result : As the difference in actual and measured value of potential

difference (as recorded , in column 4 is very small) the
conversion is perfect

RECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.
4. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the same
range, as the range of conversion.

5. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.

23
24
25
 EXPERIMENT - 05
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs
1 1
between u and v or between and .
u v

APPARATUS

An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two

outer uprights with lateral movement), a convex lens with lens hold-
er, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a kitting needle and a
half metre scale.

THEORY

The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is,

1 1 1 1 u−v uv
= − ⇒ = ⇒f =
f v u f uv u−v

where, f = focal length of convex lens

u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens

v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.

PROCEDURE

To determine rough focal length

1. Mount the concave lens in lens holder.

2. Go out in the open and face the lens towards distant tree or

building.

3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted

wall (screen) and move the lens forward and backward to get a

sharp image on the wall.

4. Measure the distance between the lens and the wall (Screen).
This will be equal to the rough focal length of the lens.

26
OBSERVATIONS

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = _____ cm

1 1
Table for u, v; and
u v

Serial Position of Observed Corrected dis-

uv
No. of distance tance f=
u-v
Obs.

Object nee- Lens O Image OA = OC = u v (cm)

(cm)
dle A (cm) (cm) needle C (cm) u (cm) v (cm)
(cm)
(1) (2a) (4b) (5)

(2b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (4a)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

27
To set the lens

5. Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the up-
right at 50 cm mark

6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular
to the length of the Optical bench,

7. Keep the upright fixed in this position throhgh out.

To set the object needle.

8. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (0). Mount it in

outer laterally moveable upright near zero end.

9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in
full cms) nearly 1.5 times the obtained rough focal length of the

lens.
10. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizon-
tal line through the Optical centre of the lens.

11. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object nee-

dle upright.
To set the image needle

12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other
end of the optical bench, An inverted and enlarged image of the

object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lie in the middle
of the Lens.

13. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth up-
right near the other end of the optical bench.

14. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in
line with the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.

15. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The im-
age tip and the image needle tip have parallax.

28
29
 16. Remove the parallax tip to tip.

17. Note the position of the index mark on base of the image nee-
dle upright.

18. Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright
of the lens, the object needle and the image needle in the table
against observation 2.

To determine index correction

19. Find the index correction for distance between optical centre of

lens and tip of the object needle and also for distance between opti-
cal centre of lens and tip of the image needle as described.

To get more observations

20. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get

observation 2 and 1. Repeat the experiment.

21. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of
observation 2) in steps of 1 cm to get observations 4, 5 and 6. Re-

peat the experiment.

22. Record all the observations as given ahead.

CALCULATIONS

Calculations of focal length by graphical methods.

(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along

X1-axis and v along Y-axis. According to sign conventions, in this

case, u is negative and v is positive. Plot the various points for dif-

ferent sets of values of u and v from observation table second quad-

rant. The graph comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown
in graph between u and v.

Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bi-
secting Yo X 1 and meeting the curve at point A. Draw AB and AC
perpendicular on X1- and Y-axes, respectively.

30
 y

v
A C

450
O
x u B

31
 The values of u and v will be same for point A. So, the coordinates of
point A must be (2f, 2f), because for a convex lens, when u = 2f, v =
2f.

Hence, AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f

∴ =f OB
= and f
OC
2 2

∴ Mean value of f = _________ cm

32
33
RESULT

The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from:

vu
1. focal length, f =
u − v ----------- Cm.
2. (u – v) graph = ______ cm and

PRECAUTIONS
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same
height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a
distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.

3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only

real, inverted image of it is formed.

4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

34
35
 EXPERIMENT - 06
AIM : To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by
plotting a graph between angle of incidence and the angle of

deviation

APPARATUS
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil,

half-metre scale, office pins graph paper and a protractor.

THEORY

The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by,

 A + Dm 
sin  
n=  2 
A
sin  
2
where, Dm is angle of minimum deviation and A is angle of the prism

PROCEDURE

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the

help of drawing pins or tape.

2. Draw a straight line XX1 parallel to the length of the paper

nearly in the middle of paper.

3. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3, ... on the straight line XX’ at suitable

distances of about 5cms.

4. Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3, ... on points Q1, Q2, Q3 ... as

shown in diagram:
5. Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3, ... making angles of
35°, 40°, ____ 60° (write value of the angles on the paper)
respectively with the normals.

36
OBSERVATIONS
Angle of prism ‘A’ = ______

Serial No. of Obs. Angle of incidence ∠i Angle of deviation ∠D

1. 35°

2. 40°

3. 45°

4. 50°

5. 55°

6. 60°

37
 6. Mark one corner of the prism as A and take it as the edge of
the prism for all the observations.
7. Put it prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX1 and

point Q1 in the middle of AB.

8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line

R1Q1. The distance between the pins should be 10 mm or more.

10. Look the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.

11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the

two images.
12. Fix two office pins P3 and P4 vertically, and 10mm apart such

that the open right eye sees pins P4 and P3 and images of P2
and P1 in one straight line.
13. Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their pricks on the paper.
14. Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q2, Q3, ... for i = 40°,........,60°.

To measure B in different cases

15. Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 (pin pricks) to
obtain emergent rays S1T1, S2T2, S3T3, __________.

16. Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3, ... inward in the boundary of the

prism to meet produced incident rays R1Q1, R2 Q2, R3Q3, ... at

points F1, F2, F3, ….
17. Measure angles K1F1S1, K2 F2S2, K3F3S3, ... These give angle of

deviation D1, D2, D3 ….

18. Write values of these angles on the paper.

To measure A
19. Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives
angle A.
20. Record your observations.

38
 y

angle of de-
viation (D)

angle of Incidence (i)

39
CALCULATIONS
Plot a graph between angle of incidence i and angle of deviation
D by taking i along x -axis and D along Y - axis. From this graph,

find the value of angle of minimum deviation Dm corresponding to

the

lowest point of the graph.

Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, Dm = _________

 A + Dm 
sin  
Then, n=  2 
A
sin  
2
RESULT
(i) i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i)
increases, the angle of deviation (D) first decreases,

attains a minimum value (Dm) and then starts increasing

for further increase in angle of incidence.

(ii) Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = __________

(iii) Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = ______

PRECAUTIONS
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-600.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.

3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm.

4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident

and emergent rays.

5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.

40
41
 EXPERIMENT - 07
AIM : To determine refractive index of a glass slob using a travelling
microscope.

APPARATUS

Three glass slabs of different thickness but same material, a travel-

ling microscope, lycopodium powder. A slab is a piece of transparent
material with rectangular faces. All faces are transparent and op-
posite faces are parallel. The dimension along which the light trav-

els inside the slab is called its thickness.

A Short Description of a Travelling Microscope

It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It

can be moved up and down, carrying a Vernier scale moving along
the main scale.
In any position, the reading is taken by combining main scale and

vernier scale reading.

THEORY

real thickness of slab

From relation, n=
apparent thickness of slab

42
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope = cm.
Table for Microscope Readings
Value of 1MSD (S) = ____________cm
Total No of VSD (N) = ________________

S
Last count LC =
N

Serial No. Reading on verical scale when microscope Real thick- A p p a r e n t R e f r a c -

is focussed on ness (R3 – R1) thickness (R3 tive index
Cross-mark Cross-mark L yc o p d i u m (cm) R − R1
– R2) (cm) n= 3
R3 − R2
without slab with slab R2 powder R3
R1 (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
n1 + n 2 + n 3
Mean n =
3

43
PROCEDURE
Adjustment of travelling microscope

1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a

window so that sufficient light falls on it.

2. Adjust the levelling screws so that the base of the microscope
becomes horizontal.

3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye

piece so that the cross wires are clearly visible.

4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the

microscope
Other steps

5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope.

The mark will serve as point P.

6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P,

so that there is no parallax between the cross-wires and the

image of the mark P.
7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R1) on

the vertical scale

8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.

9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image

P1 of the cross-mark
10. Note the reading (R2) on the vertical scale as before (Step 7).
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface

of the slab.
12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the

particle near S.

13. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale again (Step 7).

44
45
 14. Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
15. Record observations in tabular form as given below.

RESULT
R 3 − R1
The ratio is constant.
R3 − R2
It gives refractive indox of the material of the glass slab.

PRECAUTIONS

1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only
to avoid back lash error.

SOURCES OF ERROR
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

46
47
 EXPERIMENT - 08
AIM: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward

bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt
battery, a high resistance rheostat, one 0–3 volt voltmeter, one 0–50

volt voltmeter, one 0–100 mA ammeter, one 0–100 µA ammeter, one

way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.

THEORY

Forward-bias characteristics: When the p-section of the diode is

connected to positive terminal of a battery and n-section is con-

nected to negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to

be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward

current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At

about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases suddenly.

The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward current

increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.

Reverse-bias characteristics. When the p-section of the diode is

connected to negative terminal of high voltage battery and n-sec-

tion of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same bat-

tery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.

When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small

reverse current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But
when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value, the
reverse current suddenly increases to a large value.

48
OBSERVATIONS
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter = ______ V
Least count of voltmeter = ______ V
Zero error of voltmeter = ______ V
Range of milli-ammeter = ______ mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = ______ mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = ______ mA

1. Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

Serial No. of Obs. Forward-bias VoltageVf(v) Forward current IF (mA)

(1) (2) (3)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter = _____ V
Least count of voltmeter = _____ V
Zero error of voltmeter = _____ V
Range of micro-ammeter = _____ µA
Least count of micro-ammeter = _____ µA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = _____

49
 This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large

current flow) is called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The

breakdown voltage may starts from one volt to several hundred volts, de-

pending upon dopant density and the depletion layer.

PROCEDURE :

For forward-bias

1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.

3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter

(mA).

4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative

end and insert the key K. Voltmeter V and milli-ammeter mA will

give zero reading.

5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bi-

as voltage (Vf) of 0.1 V. Current remains zero.

6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current

remains zero. (It is due to junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).

7. Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.

8. Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current- Cur-

rent increases first slowly and then rapidly, till Vf becomes 0.7 V.

9. Make Vf= 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “for-

ward break. down” stage.

10. If the Vf increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the for

ward current does not change much. Now take out the key at once.

11. Record your observations as given ahead.

50
2. Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current
Serial No. of Obs. Reverse-bias Voltage VR (V) Reverse current IR (µA)

(1) (2) (3)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

51
 For reverse-bias

12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

13. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.

14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter
(V) and micro-ammeter (µA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near

positive end and insert the key K. Voltmeter (V) and

micro-ammeter (µA) will give zero reading.

16. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias

volt age (VR) of 0.5 V, a feebly reverse current starts flowing.
17. Increase (VR) in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly

and then rapidly till VRbecomes 20 V. Note the current.

18. Make VR = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents

“reverse break. down” stage. Note the current and take out the

key at once.

19. Record your observations as given ahead.

CALCULATIONS
For forward-bias

Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage VF and forward current

IF taking VF along X-axis and IF along Y-axis.

52
Foward bias

∆I Resistance :
I ∆V
(ma) ∆v R= Ω
∆I

V(volt)

Reverse bias

V(volt)

Resistance :
∆V
R= Ω I
∆I ∆V µA
∆I

53
For reverse-bias

Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage VR and reverse current IR

(column 3) taking VR along X-axis and IR along Y-axis.

RESULT
Junction resistance for forward-bias ______________ Ohms.
Junction resistance for reverse-bias ______________ Ohms.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not
being used.

3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

2. Error may be due to carelessness of the student.
3. The terminals of battery may not be connected properly.

54
53
 ACTIVITY - 1
AIM : To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), Current (AC) and check

continuity of a given circuit using Multimenter.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

Apparatus .Three carbon resistors one standard resistance coil, a

battery eliminator with tapping (2V, 4V and 6V) a step down

transformer (6-0-6 V) with two tapping (2V and 4V) a resistor of 100
ohm, a plug key and multimeter.

THEORY
Multimeter.It is a single measuring device acting as on ammeter
a voltmeter and an Ohmmeter. For this reason it is also called
AVO meter.
It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating
as well as direct voltage in addition to resistance. For this purpose
Its panel is divided into five different sections.
There are many ranges in each sections so that it can measure
from micro (10-6) to mega (106)units. Rotations of a Knob changes
the sections and the range in one sections.
- Rotations of knob for change in ammeter range , brings shunt
resistance of different values incircuit in parallel with the coil.
- Rotations of Knob for change in voltmeter range, brigs series
resistance of different values in circuit in series with the coil.
- Rotation of knob for change in Ohmmeter range brings different
resistances in circuit in series with the multimeter cell.

55
56
 1. Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic
circuits and their values vary over a very wide range .A colour
code is used to indicate the value of the resistance.
2. A carbon resistance has four different coloured range or bands
on its surface. The first three bands a,b and determine the value
of the resistance and the fourth band d gives of accuracy called
tolerance. The resistance of carbon resistor ,R (a,b 10c ± T%) Ω
3. To read the value of carbon resistance , the following sentence is
of great helpful.
B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The bold face letter B,B,R O,Y,G,B,V,G and W, in above sentence corre-
sponding the colour Black , Brown ,Red ,Orange ,Yellow ,Green ,Blue
,Violet, Gray and white respectively for a and b while for the third c
they correspond to the multipliers 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
108, and 109 respectively.
4. The following table provides the colour code for the carbon resistors.
Letter Colour Figure Multiplier Colour Tolerance
(Help to memory) a.b. (c) (for the fourth band) T
B Black 0 100 Gold 5%

B Brown 1 101 Silver 10%

R Red 2 102 No Colour 20%

O Orange 3 103

Y Yellow 4 104
G Green 5 105

B Blue 6 106
V Violet 7 107
G Grey 8 108
W White 9 109
Gold
Silver

57
58
PROCEDURE
(a) Resistance
1. Mark the given carbon resistors as R1,R2,R3.
2. Note the colour of first ,second ,third and fourth ring for each resistor.
3. Plug in the probes of the multimeter in appropriate terminals .
Select the appropriate range, short the other ends of probes and
adjust Zero. Turn the terminal marks ‘Adjust’ such that the
needle of the meter shows full scale deflection and reads Zero
Ohm.
4.Separate the metallic of the probes .Insert the resistor R1 to be
measured in between the metallic ends of the two probes and read
the deflection of the pointer the range selected.
5.Repeat the step 4 for other resistors R2 and R3 each time selecting
the appropriate range and testing the Zero.
6.Now convert using colour code table, the value s of resistors in
Ohm and Write their values with tolerance.

D.C Voltage
1. Select a D.C Source of potential Difference , 6V battery eliminator
or a battery
2. Plug the probes in com and red in +.
3. Select D.C .Volt , by turning the selector switch to range 10v.D.C
Volts

4.Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery
terminal marked +and black on - and not the reading
5.Insert red probe in terminal marked 4V, 2V in succession
and note reading

59
OBSERVATIONS
(a) For measurement of resistance:

Resistor Used Colour and codes of rings Value and toler- Value by
ance from colour Multimeter Difference
code ( Ω ) (Ω )
1 2 3 4
R1

R2
R3

(b) Measurement of Voltage

A.C or D.C Obs Voltage Voltage reading as measurement Difference in Voltage

Volts S.No between by multimeter V(Volt) reading and volt. marked
terminals V1 – V0 (volts)
VO(Volt)

60
(c) A.C Volts
1. Turn the selector A.C (200 volts)
2. Touch and press the probes other ends to two terminal of A.C
source of potential drop and note the reading.
3. Use red probe in terminal 4V and 2V in succession and
record the reading.
(d) Continuity of given Circuit
1. Set the selector switch to Ohm range M Ω
2. Touch and press the ends of probes at A and B. Full Scale
defection indicates continuity.
3. Similarly check in succession the continuity between
Terminals B and C and terminals C and D.
Never place the probes ends between terminals connected with the
terminals of the battery.
In digital electronic multimeter for continuity test rotor is set to mark
0 and a buzzer sounds when probes are connected to ends components
teased.

INFERENCE
1. The measured values by multimeter match with decoded
values of resistors.
2. A.C and D.C voltages marked on Voltage sources match
with voltage measured by multimeter.
PRECAUTIONS
Instructions for handling the multimeter should be gone
through thoroughly as it is a very handy instrument

61
62
 ACTIVITY - 2

AIM: To assemble the components of Given Electrical Circuit

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

Apparatus .A Voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range
a battery ,a rheostat one way key.
Material : An unknown resistance of resistance coil , connecting
wires , a piece of sand Paper

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the components (Resistors , inductor etc) in series
with each other as shown in diagram and then in series with
the battery
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit to measure to
current
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resis-tor to measure
the potential difference
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is
completed

63
64 96
 ACTIVITY 3

AIM : To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising

at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter.
Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6V), rheostat, two resistors,
one-way key. D.C Ammeter (0 –3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0 –3)V.

THEORY
An open circuit is the combination of primary components of
electric circuit in a such a manner that on closing the circuit,
no current is drawn from the battery.

PROCEDURE

Ammeter. It should be connected in series, with the battery

eliminator.
Voltmeter. It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat. It should be connected in series (in place of resistance
coil) with the battery eliminator.
Resistance coil. It should be connected in parallel (in palace of
rheostat).

One-way key. It should be connected in series to the battery

eliminator.

65
29
Correct circuit diagram (components connected in proper order)

66
PRECAUTIONS
1. Draw the given open circuit in auxillary notebook.
2. Check which components are connected in proper order and
which are not.

3. Take out the key plug before connecting the components.

4. Always connect the voltmeter in parallel across the point for
which you need to measure the potential difference.
5. Always connect the ammeter in series.

67
68
 ACTIVITY - 4
AIM :To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and

a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATRIAL

Apparatus. Multimeter.
Material. Above mixed collection of items.

THEORY
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have

to be considered.

1. A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward

biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not
emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.

2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two-terminal device. It

also conducts when, forward biased and does not conduct when
reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glows.

3. A transistor is a three-terminal device. The terminals represent

emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).

4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in the form

of a chip. [See figure (UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]

5. A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when either for-

ward biased or reverse biased. (Infact there is no forward or re-

verse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with

A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two-terminal device. It does not conduct

when either forward biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor

is connected to a D.C. source, then multi meter shows full scale

current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is because that
initially a capacitor draw a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure.

69
OBSERVATIONS

No. of Number of Name of de- No. of Obs. Possible cur- Name of device
Obs. legs vice rent flow
1. More than 3 IC 4. Unidirectional, Diode

emit no light
2. Three Transistor 5. Unidirectional, LED
emits light
3. Two Capacitor, 6. Both directions Resistor
Diode, LED or (steady)
resistor
7. Initially high Capacitor
but decays to
zero

70
PROCEDURE
1. If the item has four or more terminals and has the form of a chip,
it is an I.C. (integrated circuit).

2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.

3. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or

a capacitor.

To differentiate proceed as ahead:

Connect the battery eliminator, reversing key, the items to be iden

tified and the multimeter. switch on the circuit and carefully

observe the movement of the pointer of the multimeter.

(i) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and

does not move when reversed and there is no light emission,
the item is a diode.

(ii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and

does not move when reversed and there is light emission, the
item is a LED.

(iii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and

also when reversed, the item is a resistor.

(iv) If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way

and also when reversed, the item is a capacitor.

71
72
 ACTIVITY - 5
To use a multimeter to:

(a) see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a

diode and an LED.

(b) check whether a given electronic component (e.g. diode,

transistor or IC) is in working order.

APPARATUS

A multimeter, an IC (integrated circuit

7408 or 7432 each with 14 legs), a diode and an LED.

Two possibilities arise

(a) IC (integrated circuit). Look for number of legs of the device.

Eight or more than eight leg imply that the component is an IC.

(b) Unidirectional flow of current.

Case of junction diode

1. Connect the +ve marked end of the diode to +ve terminal of a 6

V variable D.C. battery adjusted to minimum voltage.

2. Select the D.C. current at 10 m.A range by using the selector

switch. Insert one the metallic ends of probe in terminal P(+)

and the black metallic end into the terminal marked common.

73
74
3. Connect the other metallize end of red probe to the free end of the
diode and the metallic end of black probe into the –ve terminal of
the battery eliminator and read the value of current by varying the

output of the eliminator. Since the diode is forward biased, it allows

the current to pass.

4. Now reverse the terminals of the diode such that the end marked –ve

is at higer potential and the one marked + is at lower p o t e n t i a l .

Again observe the current in multimeter on the appropriate D.C.

milliampere scale. No current reading multimeter would indicate

that the diode allows the flow of current in one direction. only, i.e.,
the current is unidirectional in a diode.

5. Now replace the diode by the LED and repeat the steps to establish

that an LED also allows the flow of current only when it is forward
biased as well as emits light.

(e) Checking whether diode, transistor in IC is in working order

1. A diode will conduct only in one direction i.e., first connect the

ends of diode to the two metal ends of the probes and reverse the
connecting points. If it conducts in one case, then diode is in

working order. If conducts in both cases or does not conducts

both cases, then it is damaged.

75
76
2. Select any two terminals between which there is no conduction

in forward or biasing, these will be emitter and collector, if it is

not so transistor is damaged. Now use third terminal as base and

check whether it conducts with one of the terminals and does not

conduct with other terminal showing lower resistance in forward

biasing between base-emitter end higher resistance in forward

biasing between base ad collector.

3. See the number marked on IC 7408 or 7432 Fig. (a) and (b) and
its specification from the manual. Check the functioning of
various gates e.g., four AND gates on 7408 or four OR gates on 7432

(14 terminals on each). On 7408, two terminals for 0 V and 5 V

and 4 gates (AND) each gate with input A, B and output Y, i.e.,. 3

terminals or 2 + 4 X 3 = 14 terminals in all.

77
78
 ACTIVITY - 6
AIM: To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the

source) on an LDR.

APPARATUS
Light source, light dependent resistors (L.D.R s) of different variety, a

multimeter (or meter bridge), a source of intense light (a lamp bulb

with battery eliminator) and a convex lens.

Light Dependent Resistor

The light dependent resistance are the devices for detecting and mea-

suring electromagnetic waves (light etc.). Its working is based upon

the principle of variation of the photoconductivity when radiation is

incident upon it and absorbed by it.

A light dependent resistor is prepared from cadminum sulphide. Its

resistance depends upon the intensity and duration of light incident

on it.

A good quality LDR shows a resistance variation from 1 M W in com-

plete darkness to about 10 W in full day light. The intensity of light

decreases inversely with increase the square of distance.

PROCEDURE
1. Turn the selector switch and set it on R for the measurement o
resistance in multimeter.

2. Plug the metallic ends of black probe in terminal marked com

mon in multimeter and that of red in terminal marked as P

(or +). Short the other metallic ends and adjust the ‘R adjusting’

to get full scale deflection reading at zero ohm in the meter.

79
OBSERVATION RECORD

Table for Light Exposure Time and Resistance

Serial No. of Obs. Distance of source Resistance of L.D.R. R Decrease in Resistance

from L.D.R. (cm) (ohm) R (ohm)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

80
3. Touch the metallic probes to the two metal ends of the L.D.R. [Fig.

(a)] and read the value of resistance when (a) the source is kept

at a distance of 2 cm, fixing the source of light in a stand and

keeping the L.D.R. vertically below it.

(i) Moving the source to 4 cm distance from the L.D.R. and

(ii) Moving the source to 6, 8 and 10 cm from L.D.R. and

repeating observation three more times.

CONCLUSION

When the distance between light source and L.D.R. increases the
resistance of L.D.R. decreases.

Note. Same activity can be done by varying the exposure time in

steps for same source of same LDR and for same distance.

PRECAUTIONS

1. No stray light should fall on the L.D.R. It is better to work in a

dark room.

2. Connect L.D.R. carefully to the voltage source.

81
82