DAY-1 Agenda

 Ammeter-Voltmeter Method
 Wheatstone Bridge
 Kelvin Double Bridge

EIE/R.M.K. ENGINEERING COLLEGE 1

 Bridge circuits are mainly used to measure
unknown quantities such as resistance,
capacitance, inductance, impedance and
admittance.
 Consist of n/w of four resistance arms
forming a closed circuit.
 D.C source applied to two opposite junctions
and the detector connected to other two
junctions.
 Components to be measured in one branch
and the n/w is adjusted until the balance is
obtained (Detector indicates no output).
 High measurement accuracy.
 The accuracy is independent of null detector
characteristics.
 The balance equation is independent of
magnitude of input voltage and impedance of
detectors.
 Used in control circuits.
 Interchange of source and detector doesn‟t
affect the balance condition.
 DC Bridge: DC Source and the galvanometer
is used.

 AC Bridge: AC Source and the galvanometer

sensitive to AC voltage are used.
 Simplestway of measurement
 Components required are voltmeter and
ammeter
 Two ways of ammeter and voltmeter are:
 In Fig (a), Voltmeter indicates the voltage
drop across ammeter and the resistance.
 In fig (b), the ammeter measures the sum of
currents through voltmeter and resistance.
ADVANTAGES:
 Simplest method
 Cheap
Disadvantages:
 Rough Method
 Accuracy is limited
 Very important device used in the
measurement of medium resistance.
 It is an instrument for making comparison
measurement and operates on null deflection
principle.
 Very high degree of accuracy can be
obtained.
 Has Four arms consist of resistances P, Q, R
and S.
 Also has source of emf (battery) and the
galvanometer.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
 The bridge is balanced when potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero.
 This occurs when voltage from point „b‟ to
point „a‟ is equal to voltage from point „d‟ to
point „a‟ (or) when voltage from point „d‟ to
point „c‟ is equal to voltage from point „b‟ to
point „c‟.
 Sensitivityof wheatstone bridge is the smaller
value of current or voltage that can be
detected by the galvanometer.
 The sensitivity to unbalance can be computed
by solving the bridge circuit for small
unbalance.
 Let P, Q, R and S be the resistance at which
the bridge is balanced.
 Now let R change by amount ∆R, so that
unbalance is caused.
 To measure the D.C resistance of various
types of wires either for the purpose of
quality control of the wire itself, or of some
assembly in which it is used.
Eg: Measurement of resistance of motor
windings, transformers, solenoids and relay
coils.
 This bridge is also used extensively by
telephone companies and others to locate
cable faults.
 For low resistance measurements, resistance
of leads and contacts introduces errors.
 For high resistance measurement, the
resistance becomes large and the
galvanometer becomes insensitive to
imbalance. Also battery is replaced by Power
supply, galvanometer replaced dc VTVM.
 Change in temperature cause a change in
resistance value permanently.
 Accuracy is high due to null deflection
principle.
 Source fluctuations doesn‟t affect the balance
of the bridge.
 Results not dependent on the characteristics
and calibration of the galvanometer.
 Insufficient sensitivity of null detector may
cause error.
 Thermal emf is developed when two
dissimilar metals come in contact.
 I^2R loss
 Resistance of leads and contacts introduces
errors.
 The contact resistance and Lead resistance
are dominating for low resistance
measurement.
 Therefore special methods are required.
 CC‟ – Current Terminal
 PP‟ – Potential Terminal – Voltage drop across
this is measured
 Therefore, Contact resistance drop is
neglected.
KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE
 It is a modification of Wheatstone Bridge.

 „r‟ resistance of leads connects unknown

resistance to standard resistance
 Galvanometer is
connected to point „m‟,
resistance „r‟ is added to
standard resistance „S‟.
Hence results in a lesser
value of R

Galvanometer is connected to point „n‟,

resistance „r‟ is added to Unknown resistance
„R‟.
Hence results in a higher value of „R‟.
 Galvanometer is connected to point „d‟, „r‟ is
divided into „r1‟ and „r2‟.
Eamd = IR + (p/p+q) Emd
 DAY-2 Agenda
 Ohmmeter
 High resistance measurement
 Earth Resistance measurement

EIE/R.M.K. ENGINEERING COLLEGE 53

 Ohmmeter is a direct reading device for the
measurement of resistance.
 Though this method is very fast, simple and
convenient, its accuracy is low.
Applications of ohmmeters are:
 Measurement of resistance of heater element,
field coil of motors.
 Checking circuit continuity.
 It consist of basic d‟Arsonval movement
connected in parallel with a shunting
resistor R2.
 This parallel circuit is in series with
resistance R1 and a battery of Emf E.
 The series circuit is connected to the
terminals A and B of unknown resistance
Rx. (RX in series with meter.)
 When the unknown resistance RX = 0 (i.e.,
when the terminals A and B are shorted),
maximum current flows through the meter.
 The full scale current position is marked “0Ω”
on the scale.
 Similarly when RX = infinity (A and B are
open), the current in the meter drops to zero
and the meter indicates zero current which is
marked as “infiniteΩ”.
 Therefore the meter has Zero at extreme
right and infinity at extreme left.
 Let Rh be the value of Rx causing half scale
deflection of the meter.
 Ageing of the battery decreases the emf and
inturn the full scale current also decreases.
 So the meter doesn‟t read “0” when A and B
are shorted. This problem can be overcome
by varying R2.
 To extend the range of series ohmmeter,
shunt can be used.
 The unknown resistance is connected across
terminals „A‟ and „B‟ parallel to the meter.
 An “ON-OFF” switch is used to disconnect the
battery from the circuit when the instrument is
not in use else continuous flow of current takes
place.
 When Rx = 0 ( A and B are shorted), no current
flows through the meter and hence it shows Zero
deflection.
 When Rx = infinity (A and B are open), full
current passes through the meter, if R1 is
adjusted.
 This ohmmeter has “zero” mark on the left side
and “infinity” mark on the right hand side.
When Rx = infinity, Im = Ifs = E/(R1 + Rm)  (1)
To get full scale reading, i.e Im = Ifs, Rm<<R1
Therefore, Ifs = E Rx / Rx(R1 + Rm)  (4)
Since R1Rm is neglected
 Insulation resistance of components
 Vacuum tube circuit resistance
 Leakage resistance of capacitor
 Volume resistivity
 Surface resistivity
 Direct Deflection Method
 Loss of Charge Method
 Megaohm Bridge
 Megger
 Used to eliminate errors caused by leakage
currents.
 Fig (a) : Ammeter reading = IR + IL
 Fig (b) : Ammeter reading = IR (since IL
bypasses because of Guard Circuit)
Same as Fig(b), but
Difference is

Ammeter is replaced by
D‟Arsonval
galvanometer
 Galvanometer can detect currents from (0.1
to 1) nA
 Therefore for an applied voltage of 1KV,
resistance as high as 10^12 to 10 X 10^12 Ω.
Galvanometer measures IR, whereas IL is
bypassed through Guard Circuits.
Measurement of resistance of cable without conducting
sheath is same as Measurement of resistance of cable
with conducting sheath except that cable is immersed
in water in a tank.
Insulation resistance R is in parallel to C and
V (electrostatic voltmeter).
Capacitor is charged by means of a Battery
having „V‟ volts.
And is then allowed to discharge through
„R‟.
 Voltage drop across capacitor at any instant
„t‟ is
If R is very large, the time for fall in voltage
is very large => Time Consuming
 Leakage resistance of cable is as high as
resistance under measurement.
Following components are present
 High voltage supply: 500V or 1000V
 High gain amplifier
 Electronic voltmeter or CRO are used
 Dial on R2 is calibrated 1- 10- 100- 1000
MΩ.
 R4 gives five multipliers 0.1, 1, 10, 100 and
1000.
 Unknown resistance:
 Itis an insulation testing instrument.
 Current Coil is same as Permanent Magnet
Moving Coil Instrument.
 Two voltage (potential) coils V1 and V2.
 Torque is exerted by voltage coils when it
moves into a stronger field.
 Torque is maximum when it is under pole face
=> pointer is at the zero end of resistance
scale.
 Torque is minimum when voltage coil is in weak
magnetic field => pointer is at “infinite”
position.
 At zero end, current in the current coil is very
large
 At infinite end, current in the current coil is
very small.
 Megger is called as Insulation tester and also
insulation resistances are large.
 Voltage range controlled by Voltage selector
switch.
 Test voltages 500, 1000 (or) 2500V are
generated by hand cranked generator G.
 Breakdown at faults can be indicated by
sudden motion of the pointer to zero end.
 Earth electrode is necessary because:
1. Protects various parts of insulation, persons
working against damage incase insulation
fails. Also provides low resistance path to
leakage currents to flow to earth.
2. Over voltage due to lightning discharge or
system faults does not attain high potential
because of earth electrode.
3. Neutral is connected to earth in 3-phase
circuits to stabilize the potential.
1) Fall of Potential Method
2) Earth Tester

FALL OF POTENTIAL METHOD

 Current is passed through earth electrode (E).
 An auxiliary electrode B is inserted in earth at
a distance away from E.
A second auxiliary electrode is placed
between E and B.
The potential rises
in the proximity of
electrodes E and B.
It is constant along
the middle section.
Resistance of Earth
is :
 The position of
electrodes E and B is
fixed and the position
of electrode A is
changed and resistance
measurements are
done for various
positions of A.
A graph is plotted
between earth
resistance against the
distance
From Fig (c), it isbetween
clear that the measured value of earth
electrode depends
resistance E and A.upon the position of the auxiliary
electrode A.
Spacing between E and auxiliary electrodes A and B
 Earth tester is a special type of megger and has
additional constructional features, they are:
 A Rotating current reverser and
 A Rectifier
 Both these additional features consist of simple
commutators made up of „L‟ shaped segments.
 Mounted on shaft of hand-driven generator.
 Each commutator has four fixed brushes.
 One pair of brushes is so positioned that they
make contact alternately with one segment.
 Second pair of brushes is so positioned that they
make continuous contact with one segment.
 There are four terminals.
 Two terminals P1 and C1 are shorted to form a
common point to be connected to earth
electrode.
 Other two terminals P2 and C2 are connected to
the auxiliary electrodes P and C respectively.
 Indication of earth tester (R) is depends upon the
ratio of voltage across pressure coil and current
through the current coil.
 Deflection indicates resistance of earth directly.
 Although the earth tester is a PMMC type
instrument used only for DC, by including
Rectifying device, it can be used for AC also.
EIE/R.M.K. ENGINEERING COLLEGE 96