Analog Measuring

Equipments
 Single Phase Wattmeter

It is the principle of electrodynamometer.

Both ac and dc power of any shaped
waveform can measure. Basic principle of
electrodynamometer is a moving coil
placed in the magnetic field produced by
two fixed coil.
Construction of Single Phase Wattmeter
The fixed coils or field coils are of two
separate elements connected in series and
carry the total line current (ic). The movable
coil located in the magnetic field of the fixed
coils is connected in series with a current
limiting resistor (R) across the power line and
carries a small current (ip). The instantaneous
value of current in the movable coil is ip=
e/Rp; where e is the instantaneous voltage
across the power line and Rp is the total
resistance of the movable coil and its series
Resistance. The deflection of movable coil is
proportional to the product of these two currents ic
and ip and we can write the average deflection over
one period as
θav = K·(1/T)o∫T ic·ipdt (1)
where K is instrument constant.
Assuming ic is equal to the load current i but actually
ic= ip + i) and using the value for ip= e/Rp; then equation
(1) reduces to
θav = K·(1/T)o∫T i· (e/Rp)dt
= (K/Rp) (1/T)o∫T e·I dt = K’(1/T)o∫T e·i dt
(2)
 By definition the average ac power in a circuit
Pav = (1/T)o∫Te·i dt (3)
From equation (2) & (3) we can write
θav = K’Pav; the deflection is
proportional to the average power. Now
e and i are sinusoid ally varying quantities of the
form e = Emsinωt and i = Imsin(ωt±θ) then
equation (2) reduces to θav =
K”EmImcosθ (4)
where θ is phase angle between current and
voltage.
Only drawback of electrodynamometer type
wattmeter is that it consumes some power
for maintenance of its magnetic field; though
it is negligibly small in comparison to the
load power. This can be minimized when if
the current coil carry exactly the load
current, which means the current through
the potential coil should be equal to zero. In
compensated wattmeter the effect of current
in the potential coil is cancelled by the coil in
the compensative winding kept inside
the current coil.
 LCR Bridge
A bridge circuit is used to measure unknown
inductance, capacitance and very small value
resistances. Bridge circuit driven by dc source
is called a dc bridge, which measures
unknown resistances. When the same is
driven by ac source then it is called an ac
bridge, which measures unknown
capacitance, inductances and resistances. A
bridge circuit has four arms and across the
fourth arm we connect unknown
components for measurement.
An LCR bridge is an ac bridge which
comprises of a series resonance circuit across
its fourth arm and out of them one is the
unknown component. To note current or
voltage across the bridge a headphone is
connected instead of a galvanometer
because galvanometer is a dc current
sensitive meter. A bridge operates under the
principle called balance or null condition
when current through the headphone is zero
and p.d. across it is equal.
Construction of LCR Bridge
At condition of balance
z1zd = z2z3
or, Rb(Rd+jωLd+1/jωCd) = RaRc
or, RbRd+jωLdRb – jRb/ωCd = RaRc
Equating the real and imaginary terms we get
RbRd = RaRc and jωLd -j/ωCd = 0
and ωLd = 1/ωCd
thus f = 1/2π√(LdCd)
Thus the bridge can also be used for
measurement of unknown frequency.
 Q-meter
The overall efficiency of a coil and a capacitor
or a circuit used for Rf applications is best
evaluated using the Q-value. Quality factor
(Q) can be defined as
Q = 2π × maximum energy stored / energy
dissipated per cycle
When Q value is less than 10 it is called low Q
where energy dissipation is more and such
circuit is used for radiation of energy as an
antenna does.
On the other hand when Q value is more
than 10 it is called high Q where energy
storing is more and such circuit is
oscillator.
The principle of Q-meter is based on
series resonance; the voltage drop across
the coil or capacitor is Q times the
applied voltage (where q is the ratio of
reactance to resistance XL/R).
Basic circuit of Q-meter
If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit, a
voltmeter across the capacitor can be
calibrated to read Q directly.
At resonance XL = XC and EL= IXL, EC= IXC,
E=IR
Q = XL/R = XC/R = EC/e
In the above equation if E is kept constant ,
the voltage across the capacitor can be
measured by a voltmeter calibrated to read
directly in terms of Q.
The oscillator energy is coupled to tank
circuit. The circuit is tuned to resonant by
varying capacitor C until the electronic
voltmeter reads the maximum value. The
resonance output voltage E corresponding to
EC, is E =Qe, that is Q = E/e since e the voltage
supplied by the oscillator is known , the
electronic voltmeter can be calibrated to read
Q directly.
 Ohmmeter
The meter that measures the value of
resistance in ohm is known as ohmmeter.
An ohmmeter can be of (i) series type –
where the resistance to be measured is
connected in series. Other one is (ii) Shunt
type - unknown resistance to be measured
is connected across the meter, i.e., in shunt.
Basically a galvanometer is used to convert in
to an ohmmeter as described below.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Type
The current to be measured or line current I flows
through two paths – one through the galvanometer
and the rest through the low resistance in shunt.
Thus I = IG+ IS.
Now the potential difference across the
galvanometer VA- VB = IG .G = IS .S
where G and S are resistances of galvanometer coil
and shunt respectively. Now IS / IG = G/S
or, 1+ (IS / IG) = 1+ (G/S)
or, (IG+ IS)/IG = (G+S)/S
or, IG = I∙S/(S+G)
A galvanometer can be converted into an
ammeter to measure current by connecting a
low resistance in shunt as shown in the
previous diagram. On the other for the
measurement of voltage a high resistance
should be connected in series with the
galvanometer.
Again the same galvanometer can be
used to measure resistance in ohm and then
it is called an ‘ohmmeter’.
Circuit of a series type ohmmeter and
its dial
Battery is used as a source of voltage for the
circuit and the galvanometer will measure
the current that flows through the circuit
depending on the value of the unknown
resistor. As the galvanometer is a dc current
sensitive meter thus the amount of
deflection of its coil (pointer) is directly
proportional to the current. So the deflection
θ is proportional to the current I and the
current I = V/ (RX+R+G) when RX=R1 the value
of current is I1 and the corresponding
deflection will be θ1.
Now when unknown resistance is Rx=R2 then
the corresponding current will be I2 and the
deflection is θ2. In this way the deflection of
the galvanometer is calibrated in terms of
resistance. Here the resistance R is the
resistance used for zero adjustment and G is
the resistance of the galvanometer coil. When
resistance across two probes are zero (probes
are shorted) a high current will flow and the
meter will show maximum deflection, i.e., on
the right hand side of the dial
but by adjusting the value of R the
pointer will send back to zero, i.e., at the right
hand side of the dial. So the right hand end of
the dial is marked as zero. On the other hand
when two probes are kept open then the
circuit will behave as an open circuit (infinite
resistance) and the current through the meter
will be zero and results no deflection. So
pointer on the dial will remain at left and the
position of the scale is marked as infinity. The
intermediate position of the
Scale of the dial is calibrated using known
values of resistances and recording currents
and their corresponding deflections.
Drawbacks:
(i) It can not measure very low value of
resistance (10Ω<) because sum of the value
of zero adjustment resistor and
galvanometer coil resistor will be more.
(ii) Can not measure very high value (>50 MΩ)
resistor because of low voltage of battery.
Shunt Type Ohmmeter
As mentioned here the unknown resistor (Rx)
to be measured is connected in parallel (shunt)
with the meter. When the unknown resistance
Rx= 0; i.e., when terminal A and B are shorted
then the current bypasses through the short
circuit path and hence the meter current 0 and
the position of the needle at that time is
marked as “0”.
Similarly the mark “α” on the scale when
the terminals A and B are kept opened; i.e.,
Rx= α and full current flows through the meter,
by appropriate selection
Of the value of R1 the pointer can be made to
read full scale deflection current. This position
of the pointer on the scale is marked as “α”
ohms. Intermediates marking can be done by
connecting known values of standard resistors
connecting across terminal A and B. An
On/Off switch disconnects the battery after
measurement.
The shunt type ohmmeter is suited for
measurement of low values of resistance.
 Comparison of shunt and series type
Shunt type ohmmeter Series type ohmmeter
1. Unknown resistance 1. Unknown resistance
to be measured is to be measured is
connected in shunt. connected in series.
2. On/off switch is must 2. No such switch is
to disconnect the required.
battery after
measurement. 3. Measures medium
3. Measures very low and high value of
value of resistance. resistance.
Shunt type Ohmmeter Series type Ohmmeter

4. On the dial ‘0’ 4. On the dial ‘0’

value of resistance value of resistance
marked at left and marked at right and
infinity at right. infinity at left.
 Multimeter
An electrical meter used for multiple
measurements like current, voltage and
resistance. The basic meter is a
galvanometer, which can convert into a
voltmeter for measurement of voltage or an
ammeter for measurement of current or into
an ohmmeter for measurement of resistance.
As the meter can measure current in ampere
(A), voltage in volt (V) and resistance in ohm
(O), thus the meter is also known as
AVO-meter.
When a high resistance connected in series with a
galvanometer it becomes a voltmeter. The series
high resistance will allow a very small current to
galvanometer for its deflection without disturbing
the main circuit current.
When a low resistance connected in shunt with a
galvanometer it becomes a ammeter. The shunt
low resistance will allow a very large current to
flow through itself and allows a proportionate
small current through galvanometer. Thus
galvanometer is protected from burnout.
DC micro-ammeter
DC milli-ammeter
DC voltmeter
AC voltmeter
Ohmmeter section of Multimeter
Complete circuit of a Multimeter
 Digital Multimeter

Digital meter offers:

• High accuracy
• High input impedance

• Smaller in size
 The major classes of digital meters are:
• Panel meter
• Bench type meter
• System meter
For any digital meter the essential two
things are:
(i) an A/D converter, (ii) a visible readout
display
Schematic block diagram of digital Multimeter
Basic meter is a dc voltmeter. Current through
the component is converted into voltage by
passing it through a precision low shunt
resistance. On the other hand the ac current is
converted into dc by employing rectifier and
filters. For resistance measurement, the meter
includes a precision low current source that is
applied through the unknown resistance and
the developed voltage is digitized and read
out as ohms.