INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS

THERMIONIC EMISSION
If a tungsten filament is heated to about 2000◦C, some of the
electrons in the white hot metal gain enough energy to escape from
its surface. This effect is called thermionic emission and it occurs in
other metals and metal oxides as well.
The diagram below shows an experiment to demonstrate the effect.
In the vacuum tube below there are two electrodes, called cathode
(−) and anode (+). The cathode in this case is the tungsten
filament. When the filament is switched on, it heated up and emits
electrons. These electrons accelerates towards the anode, because
it has a high positive potential. The glass tube is vacuum, so the
electrons will not collide with air molecules and moves as a beam
of electron. If the tube is not vacuum the filament may also burn.
THERMIONIC EMISSION
Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
A C.R.O consists of three main parts. They are electron gun,
deflection system and fluorescent screen.
When the filament heated up it emits electrons and moves towards
the anode in the electron gun and travels towards the plates as a
form of electron beam.
The Y-plates move the election beam vertically. This happens when
an external source of voltage – for example, an AC supply – is
connected across the Y-input terminals. The amount of vertical
movement can be amplified (magnified) by turning up the gain
control.
The X-plates moves the beam horizontally. Normally, the movement
is produced by a circuit called the time base in side the
oscilloscope. The time base is automatically applies a changing
voltage across the plates so that the spot moves from left to right
across the screen at a steady speed, flicks back to the start, moves
across gain… and so on, over again and again.
The screen of C.R.O is made up of fluorescent material, so when
the electrons strikes the screen a bright spot is produced on
the screen.

cathode
fluorescent
screen
Measuring voltages and time intervals.
A C.R.O shows a trace of a.c voltage as in the following diagram
the time base setting is 25ms/cm and the Y-gain setting is
5V/cm.

What is the maximum voltage of the supply and the time taken
to one complete oscillation?
Voltage of the supply = 5V
Time taken for one complete oscillation = 100ms
 Measuring voltages and time intervals.
The diagram shows C.R.O screen connected to voltage supply.
The Y-gain control is set at 4V for each division on the screen.

State the value of the p.d in the voltage supply.

12V
 Measuring voltages and time intervals.
•   Y-plates of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) are connected to
The
an alternating voltage of amplitude 4.0 V and frequency 25 Hz.
The Y-gain of the CRO is set at 2.0 V / division and the time-base is
set at 0.01 s / division.
Calculate the time taken for one complete oscillation.
F = , T= = 1/25 = 0.04s
On the grid below, draw the trace on the screen of the CRO.
 Resistors
Resistors keep current and voltages at the levels needed for other
components to work properly. The resistance in ohms is marked on the
side using either the colour code or resistance code. The values is only
approximate. When the resistors are made the resistance can change
slightly from one to next.

The colour codes

The fourth ring gives the tolerance.

This tell us by how much resistance
Resistance value = 27000Ω may differ from the marked value.
= 27 k Ω Gold 5% , silver 10% and
no colour 20%
Potential divider (potentiometer)
Often a power supply or a battery provides a fixed p.d. to obtain a
smaller p.d., or a variable p.d., this fixed p.d. must be split using
circuit called a potential divider (potentiometer) as shown below.

When the sliding contact is at N the p.d across the bulb is zero and not light
up. When the sliding contact moves from N to M the p.d. across the bulb
increases and it becomes brighter. The sliding contact at M gives the full p.d.
of the battery to the bulb that is 6V.
It also possible to make a potential divider connecting two
resistor in series as shown circuit below.

If the two resistors have same value of resistance, the

battery voltage is divided into same rate to each of the
resistor. In the circuit above the battery voltage of 6V is
divided into 3V to each resistor.
But when the two resistors have different value of resistance, the voltage share by the
battery to each resistor is different as shown below.

• Total resistance of the circuit = R = R1 + R2

• = 10 + 5 = 15 Ω
• Current through the circuit = V =IR
• I = V/R = 6/15 = 0.4A
• Voltage across 10 Ω resistor = V=IR
• V = 0.4 × 10 = 4V
• Voltage across 5 Ω resistor = V=IR
• V = 0.4 × 5 = 2V 
In this case the 10Ω resistor gets 4V of p.d. from the battery and 5Ω resistor
gets 2V of p.d from the battery. So the greater the resistance, the greater share of
the battery voltage.
Light dependent resistor (a light sensitive
switch)
The circuit below contains light dependent resistor (L.D.R), a
special type of resistor whose resistance falls when light shines on
it and in dark its resistance increases. The principle is used in
lamps which come on automatically at night

The LDR is a part of a potential divider, in day light the LDR has low
resistance and a low share of battery voltage-too low to switch the
bulb. In dark the resistance of the LDR rises considerably, and so
does it share of the battery voltage. Now, the voltage across the LDR
is high enough to switch bulb.
Thermistor (a temperature sensitive
switch)
The circuit below contains thermistor a special type of resistor
whose resistance falls considerably when its temperature rises.
The principle is used automatic fire alarms.

 
The thermistor is part of a potential divider. At room temperature, the
thermistor has a high resistance and the major share of battery
voltage. As a result, the voltage across the resistor is not enough to
switch on the buzzer. When the thermistor is heated, its resistance
falls, and the resistor gets a much larger share of the battery voltage.
So the buzzer is on and starts to ring.
Capacitor (a time-delay swicth)
The capacitor is designed to store electric charge (and hence
electrical energy). The energy is stored as an electric field
between two plates.
When you close the switch in the circuit below, there is a time
delay before the bulb lights up. This is because when the switch
closed it takes some time to charge the capacitor. The delay can
be increased by increasing the capacitance of the capacitor.
Diode (a rectifier)
A diode is a component that allows electric current to in one direction
only. Its circuit symbol showing below represents this by showing an
arrow to indicate direction in which current can flow. The bar shows that
current is stopped if it tries to flow in opposite direction.
Diodes are useful to for converting alternating current (which varies back
and forth) into direct current (which flows in one direction only). This
process is known as rectification and the diode act as a rectifier. For
example the d.c. motor in a drill cannot work using a.c. current, so the
diode is used to convert a.c. current into d.c. current as shown the circuit
below.
Relays
Reed relay
A magnetic relay is a switch operated by an electromagnet. With a
relay a small switch with thin wires can be used to turn on the
current in a much more powerful circuit – for example, one with
large electric motor in it.
When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, a current flows
through electromagnet and it will magnetised. This pulls the iron
armature towards it, which closes the contact C. As a result
current flows through the output circuit and motor turn on.
Reed switch
The diagram below shows reed switch used to switch on warning
lamp.
When the temperature of the air rises the resistance of the
thermistor decreases, as a result current flows through the coil
and the ends of both wires inside the coil magnetised with
opposite pole. So both the wire attract each other and the circuit
of the warning lamp completes and lights up.