Basic Electronics

Lab Circuits

Student Name: Khizer Tahir

Roll No: BSEM-F14-006
Class: BSSE
Submitted To: Sir Abu Hurrarrah

Superior University (Lahore)

Series Circuit

A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the current has only one
path to take. The current is the same through each resistor. The total resistance of the circuit is
found by simply adding up the resistance values of the individual resistors:

Equivalent resistance of resistors in series: R = R1 + R2 + R3 +...

A series circuit is shown in the diagram above. The current flows through each resistor in turn. If
the values of the three resistors are:

R = R1 + R2 + R3 so the resistance will be R = 1kΩ + 10kΩ + 1kΩ = 12kΩ

With a 12 V battery, by V = I R the total current in the circuit is:

I = V / R = 12 / 12 = 1mA. The current through each resistor would be 1 A.

Parallel circuit

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their heads connected
together, and their tails connected together. The current in a parallel circuit breaks up, with
some flowing along each parallel branch and re-combining when the branches meet again. The
voltage across each resistor in parallel is the same.

The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up the reciprocals of the
resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal of the total: equivalent resistance of resistors
in parallel: 1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +...

A parallel circuit is shown in the diagram above. In this case the current supplied by the battery
splits up, and the amount going through each resistor depends on the resistance. If the values
of the three resistors are:

1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 so the resistance will be R = 1/720Ω + 1/1200Ω + 1/1.2Ω = 5Ω
With a 12 V battery, by V = I R the total current in the circuit is: I = V / R = 12 / 5 = 2.4 A.
Full Wave Rectifier

In Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, an ordinary transformer is used in place of a center tapped
transformer. The circuit forms a bridge connecting the four diodes D 1, D2, D3, and D4 .The AC
supply which is to be rectified is applied diagonally to the opposite ends of the bridge. Whereas,
the load resistor RL is connected across the remaining two diagonals of the opposite ends of the
bridge.

When an AC supply is switched ON, the alternating voltage Vin appears across the terminals AB
of the secondary winding of the transformer which needs rectification. The diodes D 1 and D3 are
forward biased and the diodes D2 and D4 is reversed biased. Therefore, diode D1 and D3 conduct
and diode D2 and D4 does not conduct. The current (i) flows through diode D 1, load resistor
RL (from M to L), diode D3 and the transformer secondary.
It is seen that the diode D2 and D4 are under forward bias and the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse
bias. Therefore, diode D2 and D4conduct while diodes D1 and D3 does not conduct. Thus,
current (i) flows through the diode D2, load resistor RL (from M to L), diode D4 and the
transformer secondary.
The current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction (M to L) during both the
half cycles. Hence, a DC output voltage Vout is obtained across the load resistor
Clipper Circuit

A clipper is a device that removes either the positive half (top half) or negative half (bottom
half), or both positive and negative halves of the input AC signal. In other words, a clipper is a
device that limits the positive amplitude or negative amplitude or both positive and negative
amplitudes of the input AC signal. In some cases, a clipper removes a small portion of the
positive half cycle or negative half cycle or both positive and negative half cycles. In the below
circuit diagram, the positive half cycles are removed by using the series positive clipper.

The clipper circuit does not contain energy storage elements such as capacitor but contains
both linear and no-linear elements. The linear elements used in the clippers
include resistors and the non-linear elements used in the clippers include diodes or transistors.

One of the basic clipping device is the half wave rectifier. A half wave rectifier removes either
the positive half cycle or negative half cycle of the input AC signal and allows the remaining half
cycle of the input AC signal. Thus, a half wave rectifier acts as a clipper circuit.

The half wave rectifier (clipper circuit) is made up of one diode and a resistor. Depending on the
orientation of the diode, either the positive or the negative half cycle is removed. The resistor is
mainly used to limit the current flowing through the diode when it is forward biased. The
clipping (removal) of the input AC signal is done in such a way that the remaining part of the
input AC signal will not be distorted.
Clamper Circuit

Certain application in electronic require that the upper or lower extremity of a wave to be fixed
at a specific value in such applications, a clamper circuit are used.
A circuit that places either the positive or negative peak of a signal at a desired DC level is
known as clamping circuit. A clamping circuit introduces a D.C level to an A.C signal. Thus
clamping circuit is also known as D.C restorer or a baseline stabilizer. There are two types of
clamping
1. Positive clamping occur when negative peaks raised or clamped to ground zero level in
other words, it pushes the signal upward so the negative peaks fall on the zero level.
2. Negative clamping occur when positive peak raised or clamped to ground or ton the
zero level in other words, it pushed the signal downwards so that the positive peak fall
on the zero level .
In both case the original signal does not change. But there is a vertical shift
Center Tape Transformer

A Full Wave Rectifier / Center tape Transformer is a circuit, which converts an A.C voltage into a
pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which
one conducts during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle of the
applied ac voltage.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward biased and D2
becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and D2 remains OFF. The load current flows
through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse biased and D2
becomes forward biased. Hence D1 remains OFF and D2 conducts. The load current flows
through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
Forward Biased Circuit

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage
becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3
volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to
flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving
them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite
direction towards the junction by the positive voltage.
Reverse Biased Circuit

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away
from the junction towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier
is created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.