: PIONEER ACADEMY : PIONEER : 10 : PIONEER ACADEMY : PIONEER : 11 : 10 : PHYSICS

: 3.3 : SOUND WAVES : : 4.2 : [E] RESISTANCE :

RESISTANCE :
The opposition of a conductor to current (flow of electrons) is called its resistance. A good conductor has low resistance & a poor conductor has high resistance. The resistance of a wire of certain material :[Factors upon which Resistance depends] 1) Length of the conductor : The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length, i.e. the resistance increases as its length increases : longer the wire more is its resistance than a shorter wire. Doubling the length of a wire, doubles the resistances of the wire. 2) Cross-sectional area [thickness] : The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its crosssectional area, i.e. a thin wire has more resistance than a thick wire, doubling the cross-section area halves the resistance. 3) Temperature : The resistance of the wire increases with temperature. 4) Depends on the type of material : Silver has lowest resistance(best conductor) than the copper. Unit of resistance is Ohms () & it is denoted by symbol R.

THE OHM [OHMS LAW] :

It states that, the current (I), through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the p.d. (V) across the two points and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. i.e. I = V/R. R =V/I. Smaller the current (I), for a given V, greater is R & vice versa. 1 Ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which the current is 1 Ampere when a voltage of 1 V is applied across it. OR V = IR
\

RESISTORS :
Conductors intended to have resistance are called resistors. Symbol is Variable resistors are used as a potentiometers, symbol is A potentiometer can be used in two ways : (1) Rheostat : Rheostats are used for changing current in a circuit by connecting its one of the end & the sliding contact while the other end is left open. The rheostat is represented as a two terminal resistance with a sliding arm contact. Figure shows a rheostat connected in series with an ordinary resistance in a series circuit. As the slider arm moves from point A to B, the amount of rheostat resistance (AB) is increased. Since the rheostat resistance and the fixed resistance are in series, the total resistance in the circuit also increases, and the current in the circuit decreases. On the other hand, if the slider arm is moved toward point A, the total resistance decreases and the current in the circuit increases.

(2) Potential divider : Potentiometer is used for changing p.d. (voltage) in a circuit & has three terminals. Two ends and a slider arm are connected in a circuit. In A of figure 8-78 a potentiometer is used to obtain a variable voltage from a fixed voltage source to apply to an electrical load. The voltage applied to the load is the voltage between points B and C. When the slider arm is moved to point A, the entire voltage is applied to the electrical device (load); when the arm is moved to point C, the voltage applied to the load is zero. The potentiometer makes possible the application of any voltage between zero and full voltage to the load. The current flowing through the circuit of figure 8-78 leaves the negative terminal of the battery and divides, one part flowing through the lower portion of the potentiometer (points C to B) and the other part through the load. Both parts combine at point B and flow through the upper portion of the potentiometer (points B to A) back to the positive terminal of the battery. In B of figure 8-78, a potentiometer and its schematic symbol are shown. Some examples are the volume control in radio receivers and the brightness control in television receivers.

MEASURING RESISTANCE :
Resistance is measured by ammeter-voltmeter method. In this method : the current (I) through resistor/conductor is measured by Ammeter and the voltage (V) across it is measured by a voltmeter. Then the resistance R is calculated by : R = V/I (Ohms Law).
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EXPERIMENT TO MEASURE RESISTANCE USING VOLTMETER & AN AMMETER : Setup the circuit as shown in Fig. using a resistance R of 1 m of SWG 34 constantan wire. By altering the rheostat changes both the p.d. V & the current I in the resistance. 4.5 V Record in a table five values of I & the corresponding values of V. + Calculate the value of R for each pair of readings of V & I.
Current (I Amp.) Resistance R () : R = V/I
+

p.d (V volts)

A Ammeter
(0-1A)

R
Rheostat (0 - 25 )

Plot the graph of V I. The graph is a straight line passing through the origin. This shows that V I & the gradient of the graph is the value of the resistance R. It is observed that : for each case value of R is the same. Ohms Law is proved.

+ V Voltmeter (0-5V)

V I GRAPHS : OHMS LAW :

(1) METALLIC CONDUCTORS : Metals & some alloys give V I graphs that are a straight line through the origin. V I so long at constant temperature. Doubling V doubles I. The gradient of the graph (V/I) = R = Resistance of the 0 Current (I-Amp) conductors so they obey Ohms Law. The resistance of these type of conductors do not changes when the p.d. does (V I). These conductors are called ohmic or linear conductors.
P.d (V-volts)

 RESISTORS IN SERIES :
When resistors are connected in series, the net resistance R(combined) is the sum of the resistances of each resistors. Same current (as that of cell/battery) flows through each resistor. Voltage across each resistor is different, depending upon the value of the resistor (V = IR). The total voltage V across all resistors equals the separate voltages across them (V = V1+ V2+)
V = V1+ V2 + V3 I R1 R2 R3 I

V1 V1 = I R 1

V2 V2 = I R 2 R = R1 + R2 + R3

V3 V3 = I R3

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL :
When resistors are connected in parallel, the net resistance R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3 +1/Rn . Voltage across each resistor is the same. Current across each resistor is different, depending upon the value of the resistor (I =V/R). The total current I is the sum of the currents in the separate branches ( I = I1+ I2+ In). The combine resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than the value of either resistor alone.
R1 I1 I R2 I2 I3 R3 1 R = 1 R1 + 1 + R2 1 R3 I = I1 + I2 + I3

For the simple case of two resistors: R1 R2 R =

R1 + R2

RESISTIVITY :
Experiments shows that the resistance R of a wire of a given material is : (i) Directly proportional to its length l, i.e. R l, (ii) Inversely proportional to its cross-section are A, i.e. R 1/A (doubling A halves R). Combining these two statements, we get : , where is a constant, called resistivity of the material. If we put l = 1m & A = 1 m2. Then = R. The resistivity of a material is numerically equal to the resistance of a 1 m length of it of cross-section area 1 m2. The unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (m). Knowing for a material, the resistance of any sample of I material can be calculated. The resistivity of metals increases at higher temperature & decreases for most other materials.

POTENTIAL DIVIDER :
Two resistors R1 & R2 are in series with a supply of voltage V. The current in the circuit is (Ohms Law) :

+ V

R1

V1

R2 V2

So the voltage across R1 is

and voltage across R2 is

Also the ratio of the voltages across each resistor is :

INSTRUCTIONS Potentiometers find their most sophisticated application as voltage dividers, where shaft position determines a specific voltage division ratio. However, there are applications where we don't necessarily need a variable voltage divider, but merely a variable resistor: a two-terminal device. Technically, a variable resistor is known as a rheostat, but potentiometers can be made to function as rheostats quite easily. In its simplest configuration, a potentiometer may be used as a rheostat by simply using the wiper terminal and one of the other terminals, the third terminal left unconnected and unused:

Moving the potentiometer control in the direction that brings the wiper closest to the other used terminal results in a lower resistance. The direction of motion required to increase or decrease resistance may be changed by using a different set of terminals:

Be careful, though, that you don't use the two outer terminals, as this will result in no change in resistance as the potentiometer shaft is turned. In other words, it will no longer function as a variable resistance:

Build the circuit as shown in the schematic and illustration, using just two terminals on the potentiometer, and see how motor speed may be controlled by adjusting shaft position. Experiment with different terminal connections on the potentiometer, noting the changes in motor speed control. If your potentiometer has a high resistance (as measured between the two outer terminals), the motor might not move at all until the wiper is brought very close to the connected outer terminal. As you can see, motor speed may be made variable using a series-connected rheostat to change total circuit resistance and limit total current. This simple method of motor speed control, however, is inefficient, as it results in substantial amounts of power being dissipated (wasted) by the rheostat. A much more efficient means of motor control relies on fast "pulsing" of power to the motor, using a high-speed switching device such as a transistor. A similar method of power control is used in household light "dimmer" switches. Unfortunately, these techniques are much too sophisticated to explore at this point in the experiments. When a potentiometer is used as a rheostat, the "unused" terminal is often connected to the wiper terminal, like this:

At first, this seems rather pointless, as it has no impact on resistance control. You may verify this fact for yourself by inserting another wire in your circuit and comparing motor behavior before and after the change:

If the potentiometer is in good working order, this additional wire makes no difference whatsoever. However, if the wiper ever loses contact with the resistive strip inside the potentiometer, this connection ensures the circuit does not completely open: that there will still be a resistive path for current through the motor. In some applications, this may be an important. Old potentiometers tend to suffer from intermittent losses of contact between the wiper and the resistive strip, and if a circuit cannot tolerate the complete loss of continuity (infinite resistance) created by this condition, that "extra" wire provides a measure of protection by maintaining circuit continuity. You may simulate such a wiper contact "failure" by disconnecting the potentiometer's middle terminal from the terminal strip, measuring voltage across the motor to ensure there is still power getting to it, however small:

It would have been valid to measure circuit current instead of motor voltage to verify a completed circuit, but this is a safer method because it does not involve breaking the circuit to insert an ammeter in series. Whenever an ammeter is used, there is risk of causing a short circuit by connecting it across a substantial voltage source, possibly resulting in instrument damage or personal injury. Voltmeters lack this inherent safety risk, and so whenever a voltage measurement may be made instead of a current measurement to verify the same thing, it is the wiser choice.

(2) SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES : The typical V I graph for semiconductor diode shows that the current passes only in one direction when a p.d. is applied to it but is almost zero when it acts in opposite direction. A diode therefore has a small resistance when connected in one direction (forward direction) & a very large resistance when connected in other direction (reversed direction). It conducts only in one direction & is a non-ohmic conductor. (3) FILAMENT LAMPS : The V I graph for a filament lamp (torch bulb) bends over as V & I increases. i.e. the resistance(V/I) increases as I increases & makes filament hotter so more light energy is emitted. (4) THERMISTOR [VERIATION OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE] : CHP. (5) LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR [LDR] (VARIATION OF RESISTANCE WITH LIGHT INTENSITY) : CHP.