5.

0 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

5.1 PIPELINE WALL THICKNESS

5.1.1 General

The wall thickness calculation is based on ASME B31.8 [Ref. 13] for steel
pipeline. It is used to verify that the selected wall thickness and material grade of
pipeline is sufficient for pressure containment with respect to the design pressure,
design factor, nominal pipe diameter and specific minimum yield strength of the
pipeline.

Based on Guide To Pipeline Engineering: BSP-12.G.101 [Ref. 4] and Pipeline

Engineering: DEP 31.40.00.10 - Gen [Ref. 9], the wall thickness selection and
material grade for onshore pipeline is governed by the conditions stated below:-

• The onshore nominal pipe wall thickness shall not be less than 4.0 mm, in
order to avoid installation problems.

• Diameter to wall thickness ratio (D/t) shall not exceed 96, in order to facilitate
high quality welds, coating and construction.

5.1.2 Wall Thickness Calculation for Steel Pipe

As per the Guide to Pipeline Engineering: BSP-12.G.101 [Ref. 4], the minimum
wall thickness for steel pipe for a given design pressure is determined using the
following formula.
PD
t min =
2 S y FET

And t req = t min + C. A.

Where,

P = Design pressure

Sy = Specified minimum yield strength

tmin = Minimum wall thickness

treq = Required wall thickness

F = Design factor = 0.5

E = Weld joint factor (usually = 1)

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 19 of 35

 T = Temperature derating factor
1.0 for temperature ≤ 120°C (250°F)

D = Outside diameter

C.A. = Corrosion allowance

Refer to Appendix A for calculations.

5.2 PIPELINE IN-SITU STRESS CHECK AND NATURAL BEND RADIUS

CALCULATION (OPERATION CASE AS PER ASME B31.8 ED 2003)

5.2.1 General

The in-situ stress check and natural bend radius calculation is based on ASME
B31.8 Edition 2003. This analysis covers the design requirements needed to
satisfy restrained and unrestrained pipe conditions. Based on these conditions, the
natural bend radius is determined.

5.2.2 Design for Longitudinal Stress

The restraint condition is a factor in the structural behaviour of the pipeline. The
degree of restraint may be affected by aspects of pipeline construction, support
design, soil properties and terrain. Guidance in categorizing the restraint condition
is as follows;

a) Piping in which soil or supports prevent axial displacement of flexure at

bends is “restrained”.

• Straight sections of buried piping

• bends and adjacent piping buried in stiff or consolidate soil

• Sections of above ground piping on rigid supports

b) Piping that is freed to displace axially or flex at bends is “unrestrained”.

• Above ground piping that is configured to accommodate thermal

expansion or anchor movements through flexibility

• Bends and adjacent piping buried in soft or unconsolidated soil

• Pipe subjected to an end cap pressure force

• An unbackfilled section of otherwise buried pipeline that is sufficiently

flexible to displace leterally or which contains bend

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 20 of 35

5.2.3 Calculation of Longitudinal Stress Component

• The longitudinal stress due to internal pressure in restrained pipelines is;

SP = 0.3SH

where SH is the Hoop Stress

• The longitudinal stress due to internal pressure in unrestrained pipelines is;

SP = 0.5SH

where SH is the Hoop Stress

• The longitudinal stress due to thermal expansion in restrained pipelines is;

ST = E α (T1 – T2)

where,

E = the elastic modulus at ambient temperature

T1 = installation temperature of the pipe

T2 = coldest or warmest operating temperature of the pipe

α = the coefficient of thermal expansion

• The nominal bending stress in straight pipe or large radius bends due to
weight or other external loads is;

SB = M/Z

where,

M = the bending moment across the pipe cross section

Z = the pipe section modulus

• The nominal bending stress in fittings and components due to weight or other
external loads is;

SB = Mg / Z

where Mg is the resultant intensified moment across the fitting or component.

The resultant moment shall be calculated as

Mg = [ (0.75iiMi)2 + (0.75ioMo)2 + Mi2 ] ½

Mi = in-plane bending moment

Mt = torsional moment
502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 21 of 35
 Mo = out-of-plane bending moment

ii = in-plane stress intensification factor (ASME B31.8 appendix E)

io = out-of-plane stress intensification factor (ASME B31.8

appendix E)

The product 0.75i ≥ 1.0

• The stress due to axial loading other than thermal expansion and pressure is;

SX = R/A

where,

A = cross section area of the pipe

R = external force axial component

5.2.4 Summation of Longitudinal Stress in Pipe

• Restrained pipe

The net longitudinal stresses in restrained pipe are

SL = SP + ST + SX + SB

The maximum permitted value of | SL | is 0.9ST, S is the specified minimum

yield strength and T is the temperature derating factor

• Unrestrained pipe

The net longitudinal stresses in unrestrained pipe are

SL = SP + SX + SB

The maximum permitted value of | SL | is 0.75ST, S is the specified minimum

yield strength and T is the temperature derating factor

5.2.5 Combined Stress

• Restrained pipe

The combined biaxial stress state of the pipeline can be calculated using
either one of the following equations;

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 22 of 35

 i) | SH - SL | or

ii) [ SL2 – SLSH + SH2 ] ½

the maximum permitted value for the combined biaxial stress is kST, where S
is the specified minimum yield strength, T is the temperature derating factor
and k is,

For loads of long duration the value of k shall not exceed 0.9

For occasional non-periodic loads of short duration the value of k shall

not exceed 1.0

Refer to Appendix D for calculation.

5.3 ROAD CROSSING ANALYSIS

5.3.1 General

This analysis covers the design required to ensure safe operation of an uncased
pipeline for road crossing (road and buried section at road crossing).

The stresses imposed on the pipeline crossing the road are mainly due to internal
pressure and external loads which include the backfill cover and traffic loadings.
The total combined stress due to these loads shall not exceed the allowable stress
of the pipe, determined in accordance with API RP 1102 [Ref. 12].

5.3.2 Road Crossing for Steel Pipeline

Assumption

For design purpose, the following assumptions are made:

1. The pipeline is designed to withstand a vehicle load of 177.9kN uniformly

distributed over a contact area of 0.093m2 (As recommended by API RP 1102
in section 4.7.2.2.1).

2. No pipe casing is considered at the road crossing. [Ref 8]

3. A minimum backfill cover of 1.2 m from road surface to the top of the pipe.

4. Backfill soil type to be considered during detail design stage.

5. The unit weight of backfill soil is taken as 18.9 kN/m3 as suggested by API RP
1102.

6. Uniform distribution of vertical load on pipeline.

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 23 of 35

 7. The bored diameter Bd is equal to pipe diameter and flexible pavement is
found on road surface.

8. Design factor of 0.5 is considered in the analysis as per ANSI B 31.8 [Ref.
13].

Design Approach

Based on API RP 1102 [Ref. 12], the following are the steps considered in the
calculations:

1. Calculate the circumferential stress due to earth load, SHe.

2. Calculate the external live load due to highway vehicle, W and determine the
impact factor.

3. Calculate the cyclic circumferential stress, SHh and the cyclic longitudinal
stress, SLh due to live load.

4. Calculate the circumferential stress due to internal pressure, SHi.

5. Calculate principal stresses, S1 in circumferential direction, S2 in longitudinal

direction and S3 in radial direction.

6. Calculate effective stress, SE.

7. Check SE against allowable stress.

8. Check welds for fatigue.

Governing Equations

The following equations are governed [Ref. 12].

1. Circumferential stress due to earth load

SHe = KHe Be Ee γ D
2. Applied surface live load

w = P / Ap
3. Cyclic circumferential stress due to highway vehicle

∆S Hh = K Hh G Hh RLFi w

4. Cyclic longitudinal stress due to highway vehicle

∆S Lh = K Lh G Lh RLFi w

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 24 of 35

 5. Stress due to internal pressure

P( D − (t w − CA)
S Hi =
2(t w − CA)

6. Principal stresses

S1 = S He + ∆S Hh + S Hi

S 2 = ∆S Lh + Eα (T1 − T2 ) + ν ( S He + S Hi )

S3 = − P

7. Total effective stress

( S1 − S2 ) 2 + ( S2 − S3 ) 2 + ( S3 − S1 ) 2
SE =
2

8. Stress check

S E ≤ F × SMYS

9. Check for fatigue on welds

S Lh ≤ F × S FG for Girth Weld

S Hh ≤ F × S FL for Longitudinal Weld

The above equations bear the following meanings as per API RP 1102 [Ref. 12]:
KHe = Stiffness factor for circumferential stress from earth load
- [Fig. 3]

Be = Burial factor for earth load

- [Fig. 4]
Ee = Excavation factor for earth load
- [Fig. 5]

γ = Unit weight of soil

D = Pipe outside diameter

PV = Design wheel load (see note 1)

- [Table 1]

A = Contact area over which wheel load is applied = 0.093 m2

- [Para 4.7.2.2.1]
KHh = Highway stiffness factor for cyclic circumferential stress
502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 25 of 35
 - [Fig. 14]

KLh = Highway stiffness factor for cyclic longitudinal stress

- [Fig. 16]

GHh = Highway geometry factor for cyclic circumferential stress

- [Fig. 15]

GLh = Highway geometry factor for cyclic longitudinal stress

- [Fig. 17]

R = Highway pavement type factor

- [Table 2]

L = Highway axle configuration factor

- [Table 2]

Fi = Impact factor
- [Fig. 7]

P = Design pressure

t = Pipe wall thickness

CA = Corrosion allowance

S1 = Maximum circumferential stress

S2 = Maximum longitudinal stress

S3 = Maximum radial stress

E = Young’s modulus

α = Coefficient of thermal expansion

T1 = Design temperature

T2 = Installation temperature (conservative approach) (see note 2)

v = Poisson’s ratio

F = Design factor
• F = 0.9 for equivalent stress check
• F = 0.5 for fatigue check
• F = 0.5 for Hoop Stress check
Notes:
1. The live load due to vehicle used in the design is based on a tandem axle vehicle load of
177.9 kN (recommended by API RP 1102) placed on the road surface and is uniformly
distributed over a circular contact area of 0.093m2.

For design purposes, only the load from one of the wheel sets (tandem axle consists of 4
wheel sets) needs to be considered i.e.
502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 26 of 35
 The design wheel load, Pw is:

Pw = 177.9/4 = 44.5 kN

Tandem axle loading is chosen based on the type of road surface, pipe diameter and depth of
burial (Ref. API RP 1102).

2. The installation temperature is taken at 19.4°C.

Refer to Appendix B for calculation.

5.4 ANTI BUOYANCY CALCULATION

5.4.1 General

The anti buoyancy calculation is used to calculate the specific gravity of a

pipeline. This analysis covers the design requirements to ensure the stability of the
pipeline at the bottom of the river / channel.

5.4.2 Governing Equations

The following equations are governed

1. Total Outside Diameter

= OD + 2( t2 + t3 )

2. Steel Pipe Inside Diameter

= OD – 2t1

3. Internal Coating Inside Diameter

= Steel Pipe Inside Diameter – 2t2

Weight Per Unit Length :

4. Content

∏
= * (OD – 2(t1 + t2)) * Product SG * 1000 * g
4 * 1000000

5. Steel Pipe

∏
= * ( OD – t1 ) *t1 * Steel Density * g
1000000

6. External Corrosion Coating

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 27 of 35

 ∏
= * ( OD + t3 ) * t3 * ρ2 * g
1000000

7. Concrete Coating

∏
= * ( OD + 2(t3 + t4) * t4 * ρ3 * g +
1000000

∏
* ( OD + 2(t3 + t4) * t4 * 1025 * g * wa/100
1000000

8. Internal Coating

∏
= ( OD – 2t1 – t2 ) * t2 * ρ1 * g
1000000

9. Field Joint Material 1

∏
=[ (( OD + 2t3)2 – OD2 )] / 10002 * ρ4 *g
4

10. Field Joint Material 2

∏
=[ ( Total OD2 – (OD + 2t3)2 )] / 10002 * ρ4 *g
4

11. Buoyancy

∏
= * (OD + 2(t3+t4))2 * 1025 * g
4 * 1000000

12. Pipeline in Air (N/m)

= [( Steel pipe + Content + Internal Coating ) * 12.2 +
(12.2 – 2*cb1/1000) * External Corrosion Coating +
(12.2 – 2cb2/1000) * Concrete Coating +
( 2*cb1/1000) * Field Joint Material 1 +
( 2*cb2/1000) * Field Joint Material 2] / 12.2

13. Pipeline in Air (kg/m)

= Pipeline in Air / g

14. Pipeline Submerged (N/m)

= Pipeline in Air (N/m) - Buoyancy

15. Pipeline Submerged (kg/m)

= Pipeline Submerged (N/m) / g

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 28 of 35

 16. Pipeline Specific Gravity

= Pipeline in Air (N/m) / Buoyancy

5.4.3 Notations

1. Pipeline Outside Diameter = OD

2. Pipeline Wall Thickness = t1

3. Internal Corrosion Coating Thickness = t2

4. Internal Corrosion Coating Density = ρ1

5. External Corrosion Coating Thickness = t3

6. Concrete Coating Thickness = t4

7. External Corrosion Coating Density = ρ2

8. Concrete Coating Density = ρ3

9. External Corrosion Coating Cutback = cb1

10. Concrete Coating Cutback = cb2

11. Field Joint Material Density = ρ4

12. Water Absorption in Concrete = wa

13. Gravitational Force = g

As per BSP requirement, the minimum allowable Pipeline Specific Gravity is 1.2.

If it is found that the pipeline specific gravity is lesser than 1.2, the pipeline will
be concrete coated. The minimum concrete coating thickness as per BSP
requirement is 50 mm.

Refer to Appendix F for calculation.

5.5 STRESS DURING CONSTRUCTION

5.5.1 General

This section presents the calculations for determining the maximum allowable
spacing between slings or support during pipe lifting. It also includes the
calculations for the allowable bend angle and radius for COLD bends.

A maximum permanent bending strain of 2% resulting from installation is

acceptable in general. The strain induced in a pipeline by bending it along a radius
R is given by:

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 29 of 35

 ε = D 2R

Where,

ε = bending strain in outer fibre

D = pipe outer diameter (m)

R = bending radius (m)

The induced bending stress is;

σ = Eε

where :

σ = bending stress (MPa)

E = Young’s Modulus of elasticity (MPa) [ = 2.05 x 105 for

carbon steel ]

ε = bending strain as above

The maximum angle with reference to the minimum bend radius is stated below:

180S
θ=
πR

The terms are defined as follows:

R = Minimum bend radius (m)
θ = Bend angle (degree)
S = Length of pipe – 2T (m)

Refer to Appendix E for calculation.

5.5.2 Maximum Span Length

Consider two scenarios of pipe stringing during installation phase shown below.
The pipe is assumed to be supported in pinned-pinned condition.

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 30 of 35

 The maximum allowable span length (supports spacing during pipe stringing or
sling spacing during pipe lifting) are calculated based on the limiting bending
stress of the pipe. The allowable bending stress SB is determined from API RP
2A-WSD [Ref. 16]:
(i) SB = 0.75 (SMYS)
for D/t ≤10340 / SMYS (SI Units)

(ii) SB = (0.84 – 1.74 D (SMYS)/Et) SMYS

for 10340/SMYS < D/t ≤ 20680/SMYS (SI Units)

(iii) SB = (0.72 – 0.58 D (SMYS)/Et) SMYS

for 20680/SMYS < D/t ≤ 300 (SI Units)

(Note: SMYS is in the unit of MPa)

Assuming simply supported beam (conservative), the maximum spacing, L is then

calculated as follows:
1. Maximum Bending Moment
WL2
M =
8

2. Maximum Allowable Bending Stress

MD
FB =
2I

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 31 of 35

 Combining both equations and limiting FB within SB, the maximum allowable
spacing between slings or supports is given by:

16 IS B
L=
WD

The previous equations bear the following definitions:

D = Pipe outside diameter (mm)

I = Moment of inertia of pipe (m4)

W = Total dry weight of pipe per unit length (N/m)

M = Maximum bending moment (Nm)

SB = Maximum allowable bending stress (MPa)

L = Max allowable spacing between slings/support (m)

E = Young’s modulus of steel (MPa)

t = Pipe steel wall thickness (mm)

SMYS = Specified minimum yield stress (MPa)

Refer to Appendix C for calculation.

502046-RV-L-004 Rev04 Page 32 of 35