Electrical Measurements &

Instrumentation
Resistance Measurement
Voltmeter and Ammeter Method

When R is much smaller

than Voltmeter Resistance

When R is much larger

than Ammeter Resistance
Example
Wheatstone Bridge

Supply Voltage is not involved in calculation but it effects

bridge sensitivity
Example
 Sensitivity of WB
• The minimum change in the variable resistor
that makes the galvanometer pointer clearly
move from zero position
• The deflection may be as small as 1mm but it
must be visible.
 Sensitivity Calculation
• Finding the Thevenin Eq Circuit considering the Galvanometer Terminals
• The Thevenin Voltage
 Sensitivity Calculation
• Thevenin Eq Resistance

Rg is Galvanometer Resistance
Example
 Low Resistance Measurement
Kelvin Bridge
When unknown resistance R3
is very small (<1Ω). The wire
resistance become significant

If Galvanometer is connected
at c. R3 -> R3 + Rac and vice
versa
 Kelvin Bridge
• Basis for Kelvin Double Bridge
• Assume Galvanometer is connected at point C
such that

• The new balance equation is

• Calculating Rab and Rcb

 Kelvin Bridge

Substituting in Balance equation

Kelvin Double Bridge
 Kelvin Double Bridge
• Assume

2
 Example
• A Kelvin Bridge has following component
values at balance. P=10k, R=15K, Q=0.1,
B=100, A=150. The galvanometer has 1µA/mm
sensitivity and a 2k coil resistance Rg. Eb=50V
and Source Resistance Rb=10. Determine the
measured value of S and the smallest change
in it that can be detected
 Earth/Ground Resistance
Measurement

If the insulation gets damaged and hot wire comes in contact with metal
chassis, the earth wire provides a path for the current to flow. This low
resistance path will cause the breaker to trip
The ground resistance should be very low ( < 5Ω) so that breaker trips in case
of short circuit
 Fall of Potential Method

Why not use just Ground and Current Electrode?

Current density increases close to electrode which
creates distortion
Ground electrode must be disconnected from
installation so that other parallel grounds don’t
interfere
 Fall of Potential Method

Resistance is varied when Potential electrode is moved

The reliable value is obtained when it is in the linear range
 Selective Measurement
• Ground Electrode doesn’t need to be
disconnected
• Electrode current is
Measured using a
Clamp meter
 High Resistance measurement
• The measurement of high resistance of the
order of 1010 Ω or more is often required in
electrical equipment. For example,
– Insulation resistance of cables,
– leakage resistance of capacitors
Voltmeter and Ammeter Method

A micro Ammeter is used to measure very small current

 Guard Wire

Ammeter Current comprises of Iv (Core to Insulation)

And Is Surface leakage current which flows across the surface
Resistance Calculated is Rv (Volume) and Rs (Surface Leakage)

Guard wire is wound around insulation and connected before

Ammeter
Example
 Guard Ring
Measuring Resistance of
insulation Material

Surface Leakage current doesn’t flow through G1

 Wheatstone for High Resistance
Measurement
R is Volume resistance of material
Resistance b is surface resistance between upper plate and guard ring
Resistance c is surface resistance between lower plate and guard ring
At balance Voltage difference across b is zero
As C is very high it can also be ignored
 Megohmmeter

Measure insulation resistance

• Electronic Type (Battery Operated)
• Hand Operated
 Megohmmeter Components
• Deflection and Control Coil at right angle in
such a way to produce torque in opposite
direction
• Permanent magnet
• DC Generator or Battery
• Pressure (Control) Coil resistance and Current
Coil (Deflection Coil) resistance to protect
instrument because of low external resistance
under test
 Megohmmeter Working
• Resistance to be measured is connected across
generator and in series with deflection coil (current
coil)
• The Control or Voltage coil is connected parallel to
generator with a resistance, so it’s deflection is
proportional to voltage applied
• At open circuit, deflection is produced by control coil
and pointer moves to ∞
• At short circuit, Deflection Coil torque makes the
pointer move to 0
• If any resistance Rx is connected, pointer is balanced
between an intermediate position
 Voltage Multiplier
• If hand-cranked megohmmeter is not desired,
Battery voltage can be raised to a suitable
level by using Voltage Multiplier
DC-DC Converter
 Locating Cable Faults
• Cable Faults are of two types
– Open Circuit
– Short Circuit or Ground
Open Circuit Fault Location
Short Circuit Fault Location
(Ground)
Short Circuit Fault Location
(Ground)
Short Circuit Fault Location
(Short Wires)