WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
R1 & R2 Known ratio arm R3 standard variable (adjustable) resistor R4 unknown resistor At balance condition
R4 R2 = R3 R1
Or
R2 R4 = R3 R1
This equation is independent of characteristics of detector provided Detector observes unbalance deflect with required degree of precision
Sensitivity to Unbalance
Change in one resistance Change in all resistances
Equal resistance bridge Unequal resistance bridge
Sensitivity to Unbalance
Change in one resistance Assume Battery resistance is zero
ETH
R1 R2 = E R + R R + R + R 3 2 4 1
R1 R3 R ( R + R ) + 2 4 R1 + R3 R 2 + R 4 + R
RTH =
ETH Ig = RTH + Rg
Equal Resistance Bridge:
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R
R 1 R ETH = E E 2 2R + R 4R
RTH R
and
ETH Ig = R + Rg
Deflection of Galvanometer
R Si E 4R d = Si I g = R + Rg Si is the current sensitivity
(mm/uA)
Bridge Sensitivity
d = R R = Si E S . E v = 4( R + Rg ) 4
SB
Sv=Voltage Sensitivity Of galvanometer
Unequal Resistance Bridge
ETH R1 R2 = E R + R R + R + R 3 2 4 1
ETH
R1 R2 + R1 R4 + R1R R1 R2 R2 R3 = E R R R R R ( + )( + + ) 1 3 2 4
If n = R2/R4 = R1/R3 and
R p= R4
ETH
Epn = 2 (1 + n)
Unequal Resistance Bridge
ETH
Epn = 2 (1 + n)
Bridge output (sensitivity) is maximum for n=1 and reduces at other values of n Linearity between ETH/E v/s p improves for increasing n and is poorest at n=1 so tradeoff for linearity and sensitivity is required
Problem: The Wheatstone bridge having R1 =1K and R2=100 , is used to measure an unknown resistance of 25 . Two galvanometer are available. Galvanometer A has sensitivity of 200mm/A and internal resistance of 20 and Galvanometer B has sensitivity of 600mm/A and internal resistance of 600 . Which of the galvanometer is more sensitive to a small unbalance in the bridge?
d SBridge= = S i Eth R Rth+ Rg R
VARLEY LOOP TEST
Used for detecting ground faults in cables Problem: When switch is at S1, R3=100 and when at S2, R3=99 . If the cable resistance is 0.15 /km, find the distance X. Solution: Rx = 2/3 or X = 4444.4 km
CHANGES IN ALL RESISTANCES
The change in voltage reading will be,
At Bridge Balance
then,
Where,
when the resistance changes are small (< 5%), the second order term is approximately zero and can be ignored, then
The coefficient circuit efficiency
is called the
Case 1: Equal Resistances
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R.
then r = 1, the change in voltage:
By selecting the target and reference resistances, the Wheatstone bridge circuit can amplify small changes in resistance and/or compensate for changes in temperature.
Calibration of the Bridge
Shunt
Variation of overall sensitivity without need to change E Provision for adjusting the output voltage to be precisely zero when the measured physical quantity is zero, even if the legs are not exactly matched Shunt resistor calibration for full scale deflection
LIMITATIONS:
to measure resistance values ranging from 1 to 1M with an accuracy of approximately 0.1% Resistances less than 1 ohm cannot be measured accurately Thermoelectric effect can causes problem for low resistance values measurement For low resistances low temperature coefficient is desirable to measure it accurately Measurement of resistance greater than 1 M-ohm is difficult due to high voltage supply requirements thus heat dissipation in resistors will be more which in turn will change the values of resistors Leakage in insulation as values approaches insulation resistance values
GUARDED WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Guard circuits are used to reduce or remove the leakage paths while measuring high resistances.
Using guard wire
Guard does not touch any part of the bridge circuitry and is directly connected to to the battery. This principle can be applied for any part of the bridge where leakage affects the measurement.
Three terminal resistance
This technique is used to avoid the effect of leakage current external to the bridge circuitry RL1 is in parallel with R3 (very small in comparison to RL1) and RL2 is in parallel with detector (very small in comparison to RL2)
REMOTE CONNECTED WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
RCOMP is used to compensate lead resistance Cable temperature and room temperature may differ so offset error and gain error will be in bridge output
Three wire connection
Bridge output is measured by high impedance device Gain error and offset error reduces Suitable technique for single arm variations
Four wire sensing
Drive voltages should be highly stable Opamps always maintains required excitation voltage E Opamps must have low offset, low drift, and low noise
KELVIN BRIDGE
The Kelvin bridge was designed to measure low resistances in the range of .00001 to .01 ohms.
Let G be connected to the point p between m and n such that
Rnp/Rmp = R3/R1
Then balance condition Rx + Rnp = R3/R1(R2+Rmp) By solving 1 & 2
Rx = (R3/R1)R2
KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT OF KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE
Reduces contact potential drop in the measuring circuit Circuit is used for measurement of winding resistance of machines and transformers, contact and earth conductor resistances
