Measurement of Resistance

Types of Resistances :
•Low resistance (<1Ω) 4 terminal resistance

ex: Armature resistance, Forward bias resistance,

Series field Resistance, ammeter shunts,
contacts, switches etc..
•Medium Resistance (1Ω to 100KΩ) 2 terminal resistance

ex: Shunt field Resistance, Slide wire

Resistance(Potentiometer), electronic circuits.
High Resistance (>100KΩ) 3 terminal resistance
ex: Insulation, Reverse bias Resistance, Leakage
Resistance, Res of Vaccum Tube, Earth Resistance
 Methods of Measurement of
Resistance
• Low Resistance • High Resistance
1) Kelvins Double Bridge Method 1)Direct Deflection Method
2) megaohm Method
3) Megger
• Medium Resistance 4) Loss of charge Method

1) V-A Method or A-V method

2) Substitution Method
3) Wheatstone Bridge Method
4) ohm meter Method

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
Theritically, ammeter •Simple and theoretical oriented
resisance is zero and •Requires two meter and calculations
voltmeter resistance is
infinity. But practically, it •Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
is impossible to have Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
such resistances I
+ VA -
A A
+ + + + IV Ix
I
VS V V Rx Vx VS V V Rx

- - - - -

Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
V V V V V Rx
Measured Rx:
V
Rmeas   x A  R x  A Measured R x: Rmeas   
I I x  I V 1 I V / I x
I I I
if Vx>>VA Rmeas Rx if Ix>>IV Rmeas  Rx

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance small resistance

Find relative error in both the cases By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Voltmeter-ammeter method

• Relative error=(Rmeas-R)/R= Ra/R • Relative error=(Rmeas-R)/R= -R/Rv

• Error is zero, if R is higher • Error is zero, if R is smaller

The accuracy of this method depends on the accuracy of the two meters.
Similarly, the reading is not available directly and require to be calculated
form the readings
The division point between the two circuits is at the resistance value for
which the relative errors due to both methods are equal

The resistances which are greater than the above value , we can use fig.a
For the resistacnes whicha are lesser than the above value, we can use fig.b

Practical circuit for V-A method

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Ohmmeter
•Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
•Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter, shunt ohmmeter
Resistance to
be measured Nonlinear scale
Standard
resistance
15k
Rx
R1 50
Battery
Rm Meter Infinity
VS resistance

Vs
R  R R Meter
x 1 m
I

Basic series ohmmeter Series Ohmmeter scale

Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 series ohmmeter

• Series type ohmmeter is a popular design and extensively used in portable

instruments.
• Difficulties arises in this method are, internal battery whose voltage
drains/decreases with time and age. So the full scale current drops down
and the meter does not read ‘0” when terminals are shorted. so, the
resistance R2 provides an adjustment to counteract the effect of battery
voltage change

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Shunt ohmmeter
• Switch is used to disconnect
the battery when the meter is
not in use.
• When terminals A-B are short
circuited, entire current flows
through A-B. so meter shows
zero deflection
• When Rx is removed (open
circuit the terminals A-B),
then meter shows FSD. This method is used to measure low
• By selecting proper value of value of resistance.
R1, max current position of This method is not commonly used .
the pointer can be made to Used only for laboratories
read FSD of meter
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Substitution method
• Unknown resistance is
measured by comparing with a
standard known resistance.
• The regulating resistance is
adjusted(when switch is at 1)
so that the ammeter pointer • The accuracy of this method
comes to a specified location depends
on the scale. – on whether the battery emf is
same in two measurements.
• Place the switch to 2, and vary
– Resistances should not
the standard resistance until it change during the course of
gets same deflection in the measurement.
meter, as in position1. – Sensitivity of meter
– Accuracy of standard
resistance
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.

Bridge Circuit

DC Bridge AC Bridge
(Resistance)
Inductance Capacitance Frequency

Wheatstone Bridge Maxwell Bridge Schering Bridge Wien Bridge

Kelvin Bridge Hay Bridge
Megaohm Bridge Owen Bridge
Etc.

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Wheatstone Bridge and Balance Condition
Suitable for moderate resistance values: 1  to 10 M

A Balance condition:
No potential difference across the
R1 R2 galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)
I1 I2
Under this condition: VAD = VAB
V D B
I4 I1R1  I2 R2
I3
And also VDC = VBC
R3 R4 I3 R 3  I 4 R 4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
C
R1 R2 or R2
 Rx  R4  R3
R3 R4 R1
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
Example
   

12 V 12 V

   

(a) Equal resistance (b) Proportional resistance

     

12 V 12 V

     

(c) Proportional resistance (d) 2-Volt unbalance

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Measurement Errors
 R R2 
1. Limiting error of the known resistors Rx   R3  R3  2 
 1R  R 1 

R  R1 R2 R3 

Using 1st order approximation: R  R 2 1  
 
A x 3
R1  R 1 R 2 R 3

R1 R2 2. Insufficient sensitivity of Detector

3. Changes in resistance of the bridge

arms due to the heating effect (I2R) or
V D B temperatures

4. Thermal emf or contact potential in the

bridge circuit
R3
Rx 5. Error due to the lead connection
C 3, 4 and 5 play the important role in
the measurement of low value
resistance
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Example In the Wheatstone bridge circuit, R3 is a decade resistance with a specified in
accuracy ±0.2% and R1 and R2 = 500  ± 0.1%. If the value of R3 at the null position is
520.4  determine the possible minimum and maximum value of RX

R2  R1 R2 R3 

SOLUTION Apply the error equation R R 1  
x 3  
R1  R1 R2 R3 

520.4  500  0.1 0.1 0.2 

Rx   1     520.4( 1 0.004)  520.4  0.4%
500  100 100 100 
Therefore the possible values of R3 are 518.32 to 522.48 

Example A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At first balance, R3 is
adjusted to 1000.3  The value of Rx is then changed by the temperature change, the new
value of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1  Find the change of Rx due
to the temperature change.
R2 1
SOLUTION At first balance: Rxold  R 3  1000.3 100 10.003 
R1 1

R2 1002.1  10.021 
After the temperature change: Rxnew  R 3 100
R1
Therefore, the change of Rx due to the temperature change is 0.018 

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current
sensitivity(currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.

consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer

Thévenin Equivalent Circuit

Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
A
VCD  V AC V AD  I1R1  I 2R 2
I1 I2
where I1  V V
R 1 R2 and I 2 
VS R1  R 3 R2  R 4
C G D
R 3 R4  R1 R2 
Therefore V V V 
TH CD  
R
 1  R3 R2  R4 

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Sensitivity of Galvanometer (continued)

Thévenin Resistance (RTH)

R1 A R2

RTH  R1 // R3  R2 // R4
C R3 R4 D

Completed Circuit
RTH C
VTH
Ig= VTH
RTH+R g Ig 
VTH G
RTH  Rg
D
where Ig = the galvanometer current
Rg = the galvanometer resistance

Voltage sensitivity where e is thevenin’s voltage

Bridge sensitivity
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance negligible. The
galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/A and an internal resistance of 100 .
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5- unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005 
A Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
100  1000 
R1 R2   100  1000 
VTH  V AD  V AC  5 V    
5V D G C  100  200 1000  2005 
200 
R3 R4
 2.77 mV
2005 

B
Thévenin Resistance (R TH)
(a)

100  A 1000 
R  100 // 200 1000 // 2005  734 
C D The galvanometer current
200  2005 

B
VTH 2.77 mV
(b) Ig    3.32  A
RTH= 734  C
RTH  Rg 734   100 
Ig=3.34 A
VTH
2.77 mV G Rg= 100 
Galvanometer deflection
D 10 mm
d  3.32  A  33.2 mm
(c) A
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500  and a current sensitivity of 1mm/A. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable of
detecting the 5- unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equivalent circuit
is again represented by a Thévenin voltage of 2.77 mV and a Thévenin resistance of
734  The new galvanometer is now connected to the output terminals, resulting a
galvanometer current.

VTH 2.77 mV
Ig    2.24  A
RTH  Rg 734   500 

The galvanometer deflection therefore equals 2.24 A x 1 mm/A = 2.24 mm,

indicating that this galvanometer produces a deflection that can be easily observed.

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

Example 3 If all resistances in the Example 1 increase by 10 times, and we use the
galvanometer in the Example 2. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can be observed on the
galvanometer scale, determine if this new setting can be detected (the 50- unbalance in arm
BC)

SOLUTION

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Application of Wheatstone Bridge
Unbalance bridge
Consider a bridge circuit which have identical
A resistors, R in three arms, and the last arm has
the resistance of R +R. if R/R << 1
R R
Thévenin Voltage (VTH)
V C G D
R
VTH  V
CD  V
R R+R 4R

B Thévenin Resistance (RTH)

Small unbalance
occur by the external RTH  R
environment
RTH = R C

This kind of bridge circuit can be found in sensor

VTH=V
R
G applications, where the resistance in one arm is
4R sensitive to a physical quantity such as pressure,
D
temperature, strain etc.

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

Example Circuit in Figure (a) below consists of a resistor Rv which is sensitive to the
temperature change. The plot of R VS Temp. is also shown in Figure (b). Find (a) the
temperature at which the bridge is balance and (b) The output signal at Temperature of
60oC.
6
5 k 5 k 5
4

R v (k 
6V
3
4.5 k
2
1
0
Rv Output 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5 k signal Temp (oC)

(b)
(a)
(a) at bridge balance, R3 R2 5 k 5 k
SOLUTION we have Rv    5 k
R1 5 k
The value of Rv = 5 k corresponding to the temperature of 80oC in the given plot.
(b) at temperature of 60oC, Rv is read as 4.5 k thus R = 5 - 4.5 = 0.5 k We will
use Thévenin equivalent circuit to solve the above problem.
R 0.5 k
VTH V  6 V  0.15 V
4R 45 k
It should be noted that R = 0.5 k in the problem does not satisfy the assumption R/R
<< 1, the exact calculation gives VTH = 0.158 V. However, the above calculation still gives
an acceptable solution.
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Low resistance Bridge: Rx < 1 
Effect of connecting lead
The effects of the connecting lead and the connecting
terminals are prominent when the value of Rx decreases
R2 R3 to a few Ohms
m
p R = the resistance of the connecting lead from R3 to
V G Ry y Rx
n

R1 At point m: Ry is added to the unknown Rx, resulting in too high

Rx
and indication of R x
At point n: Ry is added to R3, therefore the measurement of Rx
will be lower than it should be.

The effect of the connecting lead will be

Rx  Rnp   R3  Rmp  1
R
At point p: canceled out, if the sum of 2nd and 3rd term is
R2 zero. R Rnp R1
R R1 Rmp 1
 R np  0 or 
rearrange Rx  R 3 1  Rmp  Rnp R2 Rmp R2
R2 R2
R1
Where Rmp and Rnp are the lead resistance Rx  R3
from m to p and n to p, respectively. R2
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001 
Four-Terminal Resistor
Current Current
terminals terminals Four-terminal resistors have current
terminals
and potential terminals. The resistance is
defined as that between the potential
Voltage Voltage
terminals, so that contact voltage drops at
terminals terminals the current terminals do not introduce errors.

Four-Terminal Resistor and Kelvin Double Bridge

R3 • r1 causes no effect on the balance condition.

R2
• The effects of r2 and r3 could be minimized, if R1 >>
Rb r2 and Ra >> r3.
G • The main error comes from r4, even though this value
Ra is very small.
r3 r4
R1
r2
Rx
r1
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001 

l 2 ratio arms: R1-R2 and Ra-Rb

R2 R3 the connecting lead between m and n: yoke
I m
Rb The balance conditions: V lk= V lmpor V ok= V onp

p R2
V k G Ry Vlk  (1)
R1  RV2
Ra
here V  IRlo  I[R3  Rx  (Ra  Rb ) // Ry ]
n
R1
Rx  R 
o Vlmp I R
 3  y
b
(2)
 RRa  Rb  Ry

R RR  R 1 Ra  Rx  R3
R1
Eq. (1) = (2) and rearrange: Rx  R 3 1  b y
 
R2 Ra  Rb Ry  R2 Rb  R2
If we set R1/R2 = Ra/Rb, the second term of the right hand side will be zero, the relation
reduce to the well known relation. In summary, The resistance of the yoke has no effect
on the measurement, if the two sets of ratio arms have equal resistance ratios.
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 High Resistance Measurement

Guard ring technique: Volume resistance, R V

Surface leakage resistance, Rs

Guard
rin g
A A
Is Is I
High Iv High v
voltage V V Material
voltage
supply supply under test
I s

(a) Circuit that measures insulation volume (b) Use of guard ring to measure only volume
resistance in parallel with surface leakage resistance
resistance
V V
Rmeas  Rs // Rv  Rmeas  Rv 
I s  Iv Iv
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 High Resistance Measurement:
Loss of Charge method

Switch ON: Capacitor is initailly charged to a

voltage of V,
Switch OFF: Capacitor is discharged through C.
Unknown value of Resistance is caliculated from
the voltage discharge eqn.

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

High Resistance Measurement:
Megaohmmeter (or) Meggar

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

MegaOhm Bridge

Just as low-resistance measurements are affected by series lead impedance, high-

resistance measurements are affected by shunt-leakage resistance.

RA RB RA RB

E G E G
R2

R1
RC Rx RC

the guard terminal is connect to a bridge

corner such that the leakage resistances
are placed across bridge arm with low
resistances
RC
R1 // RC  RC since R1 >> RC Rx  R A
R2 // Rg  Rg RB
since R2 >> Rg
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Vibration galvanometer

Or Electronic Oscillators

or

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Comparison Bridge: Inductance
Maxwell’s inductance bridge
Measure an unknown inductance or
R1 R2 capacitance by comparing with it with a known
inductance or capacitance.

Vs D At balance point: Z1Z x = Z2 Z3

L3 Lx where Z1 =R1; Z2 = R2 ; and Z3  R3  j L3
R3 Rx Unknown
inductance
R1  Rx  j Lx   R2 R3  j L3 
Diagram of Inductance
Comparison Bridge R2
R2 R3 L L
Separation of the real and imaginary terms Rx  and x 3
yields: R1 R1

Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Maxwell’s inductance Capacitance bridge

Q Factor is defined as ratio of inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
ANDERSON’S BRIDGE

This bridge is modification of Maxwell’s

bridge
At balance point I1=I3 and I2 = IC + I4
Now I1R3=IC*(1/jwC)
Therefore IC=I1jwCR3

Other balance equations are

I1(r1+R1+jwL1)=I2R2+ICr and
IC(r+(1/jwC))=(I2-IC)*R4

On solving above equations and equating

real and imaginary parts
we obtain
R1=(R2R3/R4)-r1
and L1=C(R3/R4)[r(R4+R2)+R2R4]

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
Owen’s Bridge

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Measurement of Capacitance

Large Dissipation factor results in large amount of power being wasted in capacitor.

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

 Measurement of Capacitance
• From Impedance triangle, capacitors Dissipation Factor is the tangent of
angle between capacitors impedance phasor and the negative real axis.
• From voltage triange diagram, Loss Tangent (tan δ)is also defined as ratio
of volt drop across ESR to the volt drop across capacitor.

Quality factor for a capacitor is the ratio of energy stored to that dissipated per cycle.
Or the ratio of capacitive reactance to the ESR at the frequency of interest.

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

Desauty’s Bridge

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

Modified Desauty’s Bridge

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH

By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH
 Wien’s Bridge
• Uses to measure frequency, capacitance
• In harmonic distortion analysers, it is used a
Notch filter, and also in audio and HF
Oscillators.
• Wien’s Bridge is frequency sensitive. Thus,
unless the supply voltage is purely sinusoidal,
achieving balance may be troublesome, since
harmonics may disturb the balance. Use of filters
with null detector in such cases, may solve the
problem
By- NAGUBANDI MAHESH