Measurements and Instrumentation

D r. R a f i q M a n s o o r

Week-12
 WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED SO FAR

 We have seen what a galvanometer is

 We have seen how to measure DC current and
voltage
 We also saw how we could measure resistance
with the help of a voltmeter and an ammeter
 Now we will see how we can measure DC
resistance with a new instrument called DC
bridge.

2 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 WHAT ARE WE GOING TO LEARN TODAY
We will first discuss Wheatstone bridge.

We will then discuss some of its limitations of

Wheatstone bridge and lay the foundation for Kelvin
bridge.

We will then discuss Kelvin bridge in detail

3 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

DC bridges
 INTRODUCTION

 DC & AC Bridge are used to measure

resistance, inductance, capacitance and
impedance.

 Operate on a null indication principle. This

means the indication is independent of the
calibration of the indicating device or any
characteristics of it.

 Since the bridge circuit merely compares the

value of an unknown component with that of an
accurately known component (a standard), its
measurement accuracy can be very high.

5 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 TYPES OF BRIDGES

 Two types of bridge are used in measurement:

1. DC bridge:
 Wheatstone Bridge
 Kelvin Bridge

2. AC bridge:
 Hay Bridge
 Maxwell Bridge
 Wein Bridge
 Schering Bridge

6 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 BRIDGE
A bridge circuit is a type of electrical circuit in which two
circuit branches in parallel with each other are "bridged,
or joined" by a third branch connected between the first
two branches at some intermediate point along them.

Two parallel
branches
Bridge between the
parallel branches 𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑀

+
V

_
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑁

7 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 BRIDGE
 Wheatstone’s bridge is the most accurate method
available for measuring resistances .
 The bridge has four resistive arms, together with a
source of emf (a battery), and a null detector, usually a
galvanometer or other sensitive current meter.
 The current through the galvanometer depends on the
potential difference between points A and B.

8 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 BRIDGE
 The bridge is said to be balanced when the potential
difference across the galvanometer is 0 V so that there
is no current through the galvanometer.
 The galvanometer is a sensitive micro ammeter , with a
zero center scale. When there is no current through the
meter, the galvanometer pointer rest at 0, i.e. mid
scale.

9 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 BASIC OPERATION

 The bridge is balanced when the

potential difference across the
galvanometer is 0 V
 Vcd = 0  Vac = Vad
 I1 R1 =I2 R2 (1)
 V = 0  the current through the
galvanometer is 0 A 
 I1 = I 3
(2)
 I2 = I 4
(3)

10 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 BASIC OPERATION

a
 When the bridge is balanced: I1 I2
 I1 = E / (R1+R3) R1 R2
 I2 = E / (R2+R4) E c G d
R3 R4
I3
 Substituting in equation (1) I4
 E R1/ (R1+R3) = E R2/ (R2+R4) b
 R1R2+R1R4 = R2R1+R2R3
 R1R4 = R2R3

11 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED STATE
 This analysis is important to determine the sensitivity
of the galvanometer
 The sensitivity can be found by analyzing the bridge
for a small unbalance
 The solution is approached by converting the bridge
to its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

I1 I2 Null
R1 R2 detector
E c
G d
R3 R4
I3
I4

12 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED STATE

R1 R2
E c
d
R3 R4

b
 Thevenin’s equivalent voltage is Ecd:
 ETH = Eac – Ead
= I1 R1 – I2 R2
= E {R1/ (R1+R3) – R2/ (R2+R4)}

13 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED STATE

R1 R2
R1 R2
c d
c
d
R3 R4
R3 R4

 RTH = R1//R3 + R2//R4

 = R1R3/(R1+R3) + R2R4/(R2+R4)

14 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED STATE

RTH
c
Ig

ETH G Rg

 When the null detector is connected to the output

terminals of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:
 Ig = ETH/(RTH+ Rg)

15 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
is a special bridge containing two known fixed resistors
( and ) in one branch, and a known variable resistance ()
and an unknown resistor () in the second branch. The
bridged portion may contain an ammeter, or voltmeter, or
a galvanometer

𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑀

+
𝑉𝑆 V

_
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑁

16 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone is used to find the value of unknown
resistance .
This is done by varying the value of such that the
voltmeter in the bridge shows a zero potential difference.
The bridge is said to balanced in this case.

Lets analyze the bride under the balanced condition

𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑀

+
𝑉𝑆 V

_
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑁

17 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

At balance the voltmeter reads zero potential difference:

𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑀

+
𝑉𝑆 X V Y
+ +
_
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑁
– –

18 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑀

+
𝑉𝑆 X V Y
+ +
_
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑁
– –

19 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑀

+
𝑉𝑆 X V Y
+ +
_
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑁
– –

20 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Ratio of resistors Ratio of resistors in

in one arm of the ¿ other arm of the
bridge bridge

𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑀

+
𝑉𝑆 X V Y
+ +
_
𝑅𝑋 𝑅𝑁
– –

21 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 USES OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
It is extensively used in light detector and in temperature
detectors to detect low or high temperatures.

Let us see how we can use a Wheatstone bridge to a

drop in temperature.-

22 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 LIMITATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
 The bridge cannot be used for high resistance measurement i.e.
measurement in high mega ohm range. This is because the resistance
presented by the bridge becomes so large that the galvanometer becomes
insensitive to imbalance.

 Heating effect due to large current also plays a major role. The excessive
currents may generate heat which may cause the permanent change in
the resistance.

 The resistance used must be very precise having tolerance upto 1%

hence cost is high.

 Summary: When the resistance to be measured is in milliohms range, the

resistance of the connection wires becomes quite significant and
introduces very large errors in measurement.

23 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCES

 High resistance: under this category resistance is

greater than 0.1 M ohm.
 Medium resistance: under this category resistance is
ranging from 1 ohm to 0.1M ohm.
 Low resistance: under this category resistance value is
lower than 1 ohm.

24 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 EXERCISE #1

 Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by

the 5  unbalance in arm ‘bd’

100  1000 
Galvanometer
5 c sensitivity: 10 mm/μA
G d
V resistance: 100 

200  2005 

25 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 LOW-VALUED RESISTORS
Low-valued resistors or shunts are available as four-
terminal devices. This is in contrast to high-valued resistors
which are available as two terminal devices

The two heavy gauge terminal are called current terminals.

The other two terminals – located close to the actual shunt
– are called sense terminals or voltage terminals.

26 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN BRIDGE
 To measure very low resistance
accurately, we use a variation of
Wheatstone bridge called the Kelvin
bridge.

 The Kelvin's bridge is a modification of the

Wheatstone bridge to secure increased
accuracy in the measurement of low
resistance.
 In low resistance measurement, the
resistance of the leads connecting the
unknown resistance to the terminal of the
bridge circuit may affect the
measurement.

27 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN BRIDGE

28 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN BRIDGE

 Equation (11.8) is the usual whetstone's balance equation and it

indicates that the effect of the resistance of the connecting leads
from point a to point c has been eliminated by connecting the
galvanometer to an intermediate position, b.
29 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.
 KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE
 The above principle forms the basis of
the construction of kelvin’s Double
Bridge, popularly known as Kelvin’s
Bridge.
 It is a Double bridge because it
incorporates a second set of ratio arms.
 The second set of arms, a and b ,
connects the galvanometer to a point c at
the appropriate potential between m and
n connection, i.e. Ry.
 The ration of the resistances of arms a
and b is the same as the ratio of R1 and
R2.
 The galvanometer indication is zero
when the potentials at K and c are equal.

30 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE (DELTA TO STAR CONVERSION)

31 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE (DELTA TO STAR CONVERSION)

32 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN BRIDGE
BALANCE CONDITION EQUATION

 No current across the . Hence no voltage drop across the . Ignore it

33 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE ANALYSIS

 Where

Equation (a) become

34 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE ANALYSIS

35 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE ANALYSIS

Taking common

 If

Then

36 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 EXERCISE # 2
 Kelvin double bridge uses: The Standard
resistance = 100 Mw, Inner ratio arms = 15
W and 30 W, Outer ratio arms = 40 W and
60 W

 If the resistance of the connecting leads

from standard to unknown resistance is
800 mW.

 Calculate the unknown resistance under

this condition.

37 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 SOLUTION # 2

38 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 AC BRIDGE
AC bridges.

AC bridges uses to measure impedance (inductive or

capacitive).

Before we can discuss the various AC bridges, we must

understand inductor’s quality factor (Q) and capacitor’s
dissipation factor (D).

These two properties will help us to choose the best

bridge for accurate measurement of inductance and
capacitance.

39 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.