Solution Malvino

Part 1
Electronic Principles
Eighth Edition
Chapter 1 Introduction us more insight into how changes in load resistance affect the
load voltage.
SELF-TEST 12. It is usually easy to measure open-circuit voltage and shorted-
1. a 7. b 13. c 19. b load current. By using a load resistor and measuring voltage
2. c 8. c 14. d 20. c under load, it is easy to calculate the Thevenin or Norton
3. a 9. b 15. b 21. b resistance.
4. b 10. a 16. b 22. b
5. d 11. a 17. a 23. c PROBLEMS
6. d 12. a 18. b
1-1. Given:
V = 12 V
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS RS = 0.1 Ω
Note: The text and illustrations cover many of the job interview
Solution:
questions in detail. An answer is given to job interview questions
only when the text has insufficient information. RL = 100RS
RL = 100(0.1 Ω)
2. It depends on how accurate your calculations need to be. If RL = 10 Ω
an accuracy of 1 percent is adequate, you should include the
source resistance whenever it is greater than 1 percent of the Answer: The voltage source will appear stiff for values of
load resistance. load resistance of ≥10 Ω.
5. Measure the open-load voltage to get the Thevenin voltage 1-2. Given:
VTH. To get the Thevenin resistance, reduce all sources to
RLmin = 270 Ω
zero and measure the resistance between the AB terminals to
RLmax = 100 kΩ
get RTH. If this is not possible, measure the voltage VL across
a load resistor and calculate the load current IL. Then divide Solution:
VTH – VL by IL to get RTH. RS < 0.01 RL (Eq. 1-1)
6. The advantage of a 50 Ω voltage source over a 600 Ω voltage RS < 0.01(270 Ω)
source is the ability to be a stiff voltage source to a lower RS < 2.7 Ω
value resistance load. The load must be 100 greater than the
internal resistance in order for the voltage source to be con- Answer: The largest internal resistance the source can
sidered stiff. have is 2.7 Ω.
7. The expression cold-cranking amperes refers to the amount 1-3. Given: RS = 50 Ω
of current a car battery can deliver in freezing weather
when it is needed most. What limits actual current is the Solution:
Thevenin resistance caused by chemical and physical RL = 100RS
parameters inside the battery, not to mention the quality of the RL = 100(50 Ω)
connections outside. RL = 5 kΩ
8. It means that the load resistance is not large compared to the Answer: The function generator will appear stiff for
Thevenin resistance, so that a large load current exists. values of load resistance of ≥5 kΩ.
9. Ideal. Because troubles usually produce large changes in
voltage and current, so that the ideal approximation is ade- 1-4. Given: RS = 0.04 Ω
quate for most troubles. Solution:
10. You should infer nothing from a reading that is only
RL = 100RS
5 percent from the ideal value. Actual circuit troubles
RL = 100(0.04 Ω)
will usually cause large changes in circuit voltages. Small
RL = 4 Ω
changes can result from component variations that are still
within the allowable tolerance. Answer: The car battery will appear stiff for values of
11. Either may be able to simplify the analysis, save time when load resistance of ≥ 4 Ω.
calculating load current for several load resistances, and give
1-1
“Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.”
1-5. Given: Solution:
RS = 0.05 Ω RL = 0.01RS (Eq. 1-4)
I=2A RL = 0.01(250 kΩ)
Solution: RL = 2.5 kΩ
V = IR (Ohm’s law) IL = IT [(RS)/(RS + RL)] (Current divider formula)
V = (2 A)(0.05 Ω) IL = 5 mA [(250 kΩ)/(250 kΩ + 10 kΩ)]
V = 0.1 V IL = 4.80 mA
Answer: The voltage drop across the internal resistance Answer: The load current is 4.80 mA, and, no, the current
is 0.1 V. source is not stiff since the load resistance is not less than
1-6. Given: or equal to 2.5 kΩ.
V=9V 1-12. Solution:
RS = 0.4 Ω VTH = VR2
Solution: VR2 = VS[(R2)/(R1 + R2)] (Voltage divider formula)
VR2 = 36 V[(3 kΩ)/(6 kΩ + 3 kΩ)]
I = V/R (Ohm’s law)
VR2 = 12 V
I = (9 V)/(0.4 Ω)
I = 22.5 A RTH = [R1R2/R1 + R2] (Parallel resistance formula)
Answer: The load current is 22.5 A. RTH = [(6 kΩ)(3 kΩ)/(6 kΩ + 3 kΩ)]
RTH = 2 kΩ
1-7. Given:
Answer: The Thevenin voltage is 12 V, and the Thevenin
IS = 10 mA resistance is 2 kΩ.
RS = 10 MΩ
Solution:
RL = 0.01 RS
RL = 0.01(10 MΩ) 6 kV R1
RL = 100 kΩ
Answer: The current source will appear stiff for load 36 V
resistance of ≤100 kΩ.
1-8. Given: 3 kV R2 VTH
RLmin = 270 Ω
RLmax = 100 kΩ
Solution:
RS > 100 RL (Eq. 1-3)
RS > 100(100 kΩ)
RS > 10 MΩ 36 V 6 kV R1
Answer: The internal resistance of the source is greater

than 10 MΩ.
1-9. Given: RS = 100 kΩ
Solution: 3 kV R2 RTH
RL = 0.01RS (Eq. 1-4)

RL = 0.01(100 kΩ)
RL = 1 kΩ (a) Circuit for finding VTH in Prob. 1-12. (b) Circuit for
Answer: The maximum load resistance for the current finding RTH in Prob. 1-12.
source to appear stiff is 1 kΩ.
1-13. Given:
1-10. Given:
VTH = 12 V
IS = 20 mA RTH = 2 kΩ
RS = 200 kΩ
RL = 0 Ω Solution:
Solution: I = V/R (Ohm’s law)
I = VTH/(RTH + RL)
RL= 0.01RS I0Ω = 12 V/(2 kΩ + 0 Ω) = 6 mA
RL= 0.01(200 kΩ) I1kΩ = 12 V/(2 kΩ + 1 kΩ) = 4 mA
RL= 2 kΩ I2kΩ = 12 V/(2 kΩ + 2 kΩ) = 3 mA
Answer: Since 0 Ω is less than the maximum load resis- I3kΩ = 12 V/(2 kΩ + 3 kΩ) = 2.4 mA
tance of 2 kΩ, the current source appea rs stiff; thus the I4kΩ = 12 V/(2 kΩ + 4 kΩ) = 2 mA
current is 20 mA. I5kΩ = 12 V/(2 kΩ + 5 kΩ) = 1.7 mA
I6kΩ = 12 V/(2 kΩ + 6 kΩ) = 1.5 mA
1-11. Given:
I = 5 mA Answers: 0 Ω 6 mA; 1 kΩ, 4 mA; 2 kΩ, 3mA; 3 kΩ,
RS = 250 kΩ 2.4 mA; 4 kΩ, 2 mA; 5 kΩ, 1.7 mA; 6 kΩ, 1.5 mA.
RL = 10 kΩ
1-2
RTH Solution:
RN = RTH (Eq. 1-10)
RTH = 10 kΩ
VTH RL IN = VTH/RTH (Eq. 1-12)
VTH = INRN
VTH = (10 mA)(10 kΩ)
VTH = 100 V
Thevenin equivalent circuit for Prob. 1-13.
Answer: RTH = 10 kΩ, and VTH = 100 V
1-14. Given:
RTH
VS = 18 V
R1 = 6 kΩ 10 kV
R2 = 3 kΩ VTH
Solution:
100 V
VTH = VR2
VR2 = VS[(R2)/(R1 + R2)] (Voltage divider formula)
VR2 = 18 V[(3 kΩ)/(6 kΩ + 3 kΩ)] Thevenin circuit for Prob. 1-17.
VR2 = 6 V
RTH = [(R1 × R2)/(R1 + R2)] (Parallel resistance formula) 1-18. Given (from Prob. 1-12):
RTH = [(6 kΩ × 3 kΩ)/(6 kΩ + 3 kΩ)] VTH = 12 V
RTH = 2 kΩ RTH = 2 kΩ
Answer: The Thevenin voltage decreases to 6 V, and the Solution:
Thevenin resistance is unchanged. RN = RTH (Eq. 1-10)
1-15. Given: RN = 2 kΩ
VS = 36 V IN = VTH/RTH (Eq. 1-12)
R1 = 12 kΩ IN = 12 V/2 kΩ
R2 = 6 kΩ IN = 6 mA
Solution: Answer: RN = 2 kΩ, and IN = 6 mA
VTH = VR2
VR2 = VS[(R2)/(R1 + R2)] (Voltage divider formula) IN RN
VR2 = 36 V[(6 kΩ)/(12 kΩ + 6 kΩ)]
VR2 = 12 V
RTH = [(R1R2)/(R1 + R2)] (Parallel resistance formula) 6 mA 2 kV
RTH = [(12 kΩ)(6 kΩ)/(12 kΩ + 6 kΩ)]
RTH = 4 kΩ Norton circuit for Prob. 1-18.
Answer: The Thevenin voltage is unchanged, and the
Thevenin resistance doubles. 1-19. Shorted, which would cause load resistor to be connected
across the voltage source seeing all of the voltage.
1-16. Given:
VTH = 12 V 1-20. a. R1 is open, preventing any of the voltage from reaching
RTH = 3 kΩ the load resistor. b. R2 is shorted, making its voltage drop
zero. Since the load resistor is in parallel with R2, its volt-
Solution: age drop would also be zero.
RN = RTH 1-21. The battery or interconnecting wiring.
RN = 3 kΩ
1-22. RTH = 2 kΩ
IN = VTH/RTH
IN = 12 V/3 kΩ Solution:
IN = 4 mA RMeter = 100RTH
RMeter = 100(2 kΩ)
Answer: IN = 4 mA, and RN = 3 kΩ RMeter = 200 kΩ
Answer: The meter will not load down the circuit if the
IN
meter impedance is ≥ 200 kΩ.
RN
4 mA 3 kV
CRITICAL THINKING
1-23. Given:
VS = 12 V
Norton circuit for Prob. 1-16.
IS = 150 A
1-17. Given:
Solution:
IN = 10 mA
RS = (VS)/(IS)
RN = 10 kΩ
RS = (12 V)/(150 A)
RS = 80 mΩ
1-3
Answer: If an ideal 12 V voltage source is shorted and Answer: The value for R1 and R2 is 1 kΩ. Another pos-
provides 150 A, the internal resistance is 80 mΩ. sible solution is R1 = R2 = 4 kΩ. Note: The criteria will
1-24. Given: be satisfied for any resistance value up to 4 kΩ and when
both resistors are the same value.
VS = 10 V
VL = 9 V 1-31. Given:
RL = 75 Ω VS = 30 V
VL = 10 V
Solution:
RL > 1 MΩ
VS = VRS + VL (Kirchhoff’s law) RS < 0.01RL (since the voltage source must be stiff)
VRS = VS – VL (Eq. 1-1)
VRS = 10 V – 9 V Solution:
VRS = 1 V
RS < 0.01RL
IRS = IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law) RS < 0.01(1 MΩ)
IRS = 9 V/75 Ω RS < 10 kΩ
IRS = 120 mA
Since the Thevenin equivalent resistance would be the
RS = VRS/IRS (Ohm’s law) series resistance, RTH < 10 kΩ.
RS = 8.33 Ω
Assume a value for one of the resistors. Since the
RS < 0.01 RL (Eq. 1-1) Thevenin resistance is limited to 1 kΩ, pick a value less
8.33 Ω < 0.01(75 Ω) than 10 kΩ. Assume R2 = 5 kΩ.
8.33 Ω ≮ 0.75 Ω
VL = VS[R2/(R1 + R2)] (Voltage divider formula)
Answer: a. The internal resistance (RS) is 8.33 Ω. b. The R1 = [(VS)(R2)/VL] – R2
source is not stiff since RS ≮ 0.01 RL. R1 = [(30 V)(5 kΩ)/(10 V)] – 5 kΩ
1-25. Answer: Disconnect the resistor and measure the voltage. R1 = 10 kΩ
1-26. Answer: Disconnect the load resistor, turn the internal RTH = R1R2/(R1 + R2)
voltage and current sources to zero, and measure the RTH = [(10 kΩ)(5 kΩ)]/(10 kΩ + 5 kΩ)
resistance. RTH = 3.33 kΩ
1-27. Answer: Thevenin’s theorem makes it much easier to Since RTH is one-third of 10 kΩ, we can use R1 and R2
solve problems where there could be many values of a values that are three times larger.
resistor. Answer:
1-28. Answer: To find the Thevenin voltage, disconnect the load R1 = 30 kΩ
resistor and measure the voltage. To find the Thevenin R2 = 15 kΩ
resistance, disconnect the battery and the load resistor, Note: The criteria will be satisfied as long as R1 is twice
short the battery terminals, and measure the resistance at R2 and R2 is not greater than 15 kΩ.
the load terminals.
1-32. Answer: First, measure the voltage across the terminals.
1-29. Given: This is the Thevenin voltage. Next, connect the amme-
RL = 1 kΩ ter to the battery terminals—measure the current. Next,
I = 1 mA use the values above to find the total resistance. Finally,
subtract the internal resistance of the ammeter from this
Solution:
result. This is the Thevenin resistance.
RS > 100RL
RS > 100(1 kΩ) 1-33. Answer: First, measure the voltage across the terminals.
RL > 100 kΩ This is the Thevenin voltage. Next, connect a resistor
V = IR across the terminals. Next, measure the voltage across
V = (1 mA)(100 kΩ) the resistor. Then, calculate the current through the load
V = 100 V resistor. Then, subtract the load voltage from the Theve-
nin voltage. Then, divide the difference voltage by the
Answer: A 100 V battery in series with a 100 kΩ resistor. current. The result is the Thevenin resistance.
1-30. Given: 1-34. Solution: Thevenize the circuit. There should be a
VS = 30 V Thevenin voltage of 0.148 V and a resistance of 6 kΩ.
VL = 15 V
RTH < 2 kΩ IL = VTH/(RTH + RL)
Solution: Assume a value for one of the resistors. Since IL = 0.148 V/(6 kΩ + 0)
the Thevenin resistance is limited to 2 kΩ, pick a value IL = 24.7 μA
less than 2 kΩ. Assume R2 = 1 kΩ. IL = 0.148 V/(6 kΩ + 1 kΩ)
VL = VS[R2/(R1 + R2)] (Voltage divider formula) IL = 21.1 μA
R1 = [(VS)(R2)/VL] – R2 IL = 0.148 V/(6 kΩ + 2 kΩ)
R1 = [(30 V)(1 kΩ)/(15 V)] – 1 kΩ IL = 18.5 μA
R1 = 1 kΩ
IL = 0.148 V/(6 kΩ + 3 kΩ)
RTH = (R1R2/R1 + R2)
IL = 16.4 μA
RTH = [(1 kΩ)(1 kΩ)]/(1 kΩ + 1 kΩ)
RTH = 500 Ω
1-4
IL = 0.148 V/(6 kΩ + 4 kΩ) 2-4. 500,000 free electrons
IL = 14.8 μA
2-5. a. 5 mA
IL = 0.148 V/(6 kΩ + 5 kΩ) b. 5 mA
IL = 13.5 μA c. 5 mA
IL = 0.148 V/(6 kΩ + 6 kΩ) 2-6. a. p-type
IL = 12.3 μA b. n-type
c. p-type
Answer: 0, IL = 24.7 μA; 1 kΩ, IL = 21.1 μA; 2 kΩ, IL =
d. n-type
18.5 μA; 3 kΩ, IL = 16.4 μA; 4 kΩ, IL = 14.8 μA; 5 kΩ,
e. p-type
IL = 13.5 μA; 6 kΩ, IL = 12.3 μA.
2-7. Given:
1-35. Trouble:
Barrier potential at 25°C is 0.7 V
1: R1 shorted
Tmin = 25°C
2: R1 open or R2 shorted
Tmin = 75°C
3: R3 open
4: R3 shorted Solution:
5: R2 open or open at point C ΔV = (–2 mV/°C) ΔT (Eq. 2-4)
6: R4 open or open at point D ΔV = (–2 mV/°C)(0°C – 25°C)
7: Open at point E ΔV = 50 mV
8: R4 shorted Vnew = Vold + ΔV
1-36. R1 shorted Vnew = 0.7 V + 0.05 V
Vnew = 0.75 V
1-37. R2 open
ΔV = (–2 mV/°C) ΔT (Eq. 2-4)
1-38. No supply voltage ΔV = (–2 mV/°C)(75°C – 25°C)
1-39. R4 open ΔV = –100 mV
1-40. R2 shorted Vnew = Vold + ΔV
Vnew = 0.7 V – 0.1 V
Vnew = 0.6 V
Chapter 2 Semiconductors Answer: The barrier potential is 0.75 V at 0°C and
0.6 V at 75°C.
SELF-TEST
2-8. Given:
1. d 15. a 29. d 42. b
2. a 16. b 30. c 43. b IS = 10 nA at 25°C
3. b 17. d 31. a 44. c Tmin = 0°C – 75°C
4. b 18. d 32. a 45. a Tmax = 75°C
5. d 19. a 33. b 46. c Solution:
6. c 20. a 34. a 47. d
IS(new) = 2(ΔT/10)IS(old) (Eq. 2-5)
7. b 21. d 35. b 48. a
8. b 22. a 36. c 49. a IS(new) = 2[(0°C – 25°C)/10]10 nA
9. c 23. a 37. c 50. d IS(new) = 1.77 nA
10. a 24. a 38. a 51. c IS(new) = 2(ΔT/10) IS(old) (Eq. 2-5)
11. c 25. d 39. b 52. b IS(new) = 2[(75°C – 25°C)/10)] 10 nA
12. c 26. b 40. a 53. d IS(new) = 320 nA
13. b 27. b 41. b 54. b
14. b 28. a Answer: The saturation current is 1.77 nA at 0°C and
320 nA at 75°C.
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 2-9. Given:
9. Holes do not flow in a conductor. Conductors allow current ISL = 10 nA with a reverse voltage of 10 V
flow by virtue of their single outer-shell electron, which is New reverse voltage = 100 V
loosely held. When holes reach the end of a semiconductor, Solution:
they are filled by the conductor’s outer-shell electrons enter-
ing at that point. RSL = VR/ISL
11. Because the recombination at the junction allows holes and RSL = 10 V/10 nA
free electrons to flow continuously through the diode. RSL = 1000 MΩ
ISL = VR/RSL
PROBLEMS ISL = 100 V/1000 MΩ
ISL = 100 nA
2-1. –2
Answer: 100 nA.
2-2. –3
2-10. Answer: Saturation current is 0.53 μA, and surface-
2-3. a. Semiconductor leakage current is 4.47 μA at 25°C.
b. Conductor
c. Semiconductor 2-11. Reduce the saturation current, and minimize the RC time
d. Conductor constants.
2-12. R1 = 25 Ω
1-5
2-13. R1 open 3-3. Given:
2-14. D1 shorted VD1 = 0.75 V
VD2 = 0.8 V
2-15. D1 open ID1 = 400 mA
2-16. V1 = 0 V Solution: Since the diodes are in series, the current
through each is the same.
Answer: 400 mA
Chapter 3 Diode Theory
3-4. Given:
SELF-TEST
VS = 20 V
1. b 7. c 13. a 18. b VD = 0 V
2. b 8. c 14. d 19. a RL = 1 kΩ
3. c 9. a 15. a 20. b
4. d 10. a 16. c 21. a Solution:
5. a 11. b 17. b 22. c VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law)
6. b 12. b 20 V = 0 V + VL
VL = 20 V
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law)
4. If you have a data sheet, look up the maximum current rat- IL = 20 V/1 kΩ
ing and the breakdown voltage. Then, check the schematic IL = 20 mA
diagram to see whether the ratings are adequate. If they are, PL = (IL)(VL)
check the circuit wiring. PL = (20 mA)(20 V)
7. Measure the voltage across a resistor in series with the diode. PL = 400 mW
Then, divide the voltage by the resistance.
8. With the power off, check the back-to-front ratio of the diode PD = (ID)(VD)
with an ohmmeter or use the diode test function on a DMM. PD = (20 mA)(0 V)
If it is high, the diode is OK. If it is not high, disconnect one PD = 0 mW
end of the diode and recheck the back-to-front ratio. If the PT = PD + PL
ratio is now high, the diode is probably OK. If you are still PT = 0 mW + 400 mW
suspicious of the diode for any reason, the ultimate test is to PT = 400 mW
replace it with a known good one.
10. Connect a diode in series between the alternator and the Answer:
battery for the recreational vehicle. The diode arrow points IL = 20 mA
from the alternator to the RV battery. This way, the alter- VL = 20 V
nator can charge the vehicle battery. When the engine is PL = 400 mW
off, the diode is open, preventing the RV battery from PD = 0 mW
discharging. PT = 400 mW
11. Use a voltmeter or oscilloscope for a diode in the circuit. Use
3-5. Given:
an ohmmeter, DMM or curve tracer when the diode is out of
the circuit. VS = 20 V
VD = 0 V
RL = 2 kΩ
PROBLEMS
Solution:
3-1. Given:
IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law)
R = 220 Ω
IL = 20 V/2 kΩ
V=6V
IL = 10 mA
Solution:
Answer: 10 mA
I = V/R
I = 6 V/220 Ω 3-6. Given:
I = 27.27 mA VS = 12 V
Since it is a series circuit, the current flowing through the VD = 0 V
diode is the same as the current through the resistor. RL = 470 Ω
Answer: 27.27 mA Solution:
3-2. Given: VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law)
12 V = 0 V + VL
VD = 0.7 V VL = 12 V
ID = 100 mA
Solution: IL = 12 V/470 Ω
P = VI IL = 25.5 mA
P = (0.7 V)(100 mA)
PL = (VL)(IL)
P = 70 mW
PL = (12 V) (25.5 mA)
Answer: 70 mW PL = 306 mW
1-6
PD = (VD)(ID) 3-10. Given:
PD = (0 V) (25.5 mA) VS = 20 V
PD = 0 mW VD = 0.7 V
PT = PD + PL RL = 2 kΩ
PT = 0 mW + 306 mW Solution:
PT = 306 mW
Answer: IL = 19.3 V/2 kΩ
VL = 12 V IL = 9.65 mA
IL = 25.5 mA Answer: 9.65 mA
PL = 306 mW
PD = 0 mW 3-11. Given:
PT = 306 mW VS = 12 V
3-7. Given: VD = 0.7 V
RL = 470 Ω
VS = 12 V
VD = 0 V Solution:
RL = 940 Ω VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law)
Solution: 12 V = 0.7 V + VL
VL = 11.3 V
IL = 12 V/940 Ω IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law)
IL = 12.77 mA IL = 11.3 V/470 Ω
IL = 24 mA
Answer: 12.77 mA
PL = (VL)(IL)
3-8. Given: PL = (11.3 V)(24 mA)
VS = 12 V PL = 271.2 mW
RL = 470 Ω PD = (VD)(ID)
Solution: The diode would be reversed-biased and acting PD = (0.7 V)(24 mA)
as an open. Thus the current would be zero and the volt- PD = 29.2 mW
age would be source voltage. PT = PD + PL
Answer: PT = 29.2 mW + 271.2 mW
PT = 300.4 mW
VD = 12 V
ID = 0 mA Answer:
3-9. Given: VL = 11.3 V
IL = 24 mA
VS = 20 V PL = 271.2 mW
VD = 0.7 V PD = 29.2 mW
RL = 1 kΩ PT = 300.4 mW
Solution: 3-12. Given:
VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law) VS = 12 V
20 V = 0.7 V + VL VD = 0.7 V
VL = 19.3 V RL = 940 Ω
IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law) Solution:
IL = 19.3 V/1 kΩ
IL = 19.3 mA VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law)
12 V = 0.7 V + VL
PL = (IL)(VL) VL = 11.3 V
PL = (19.3 mA)(19.3 V)
PL = 372 mW IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law)
IL = 11.3 V/940 Ω
PD = (ID)(VD) IL = 12 mA
PD = (19.3 mA)(0.7 V)
PD = 13.5 mW Answer: 12 mA
PT = PD + PL 3-13. Given:
PT = 13.5 mW + 372 mW VS = 12 V
PT = 386 mW RL = 470 Ω
Answer: Solution: The diode would be reversed-biased and acting
IL = 19.3 mA as an open. Thus the current would be zero and the volt-
VL = 19.3 V age would be source voltage.
PL = 372 mW Answer:
PD = 13.5 mW
VD = 12 V
PT = 386 mW
ID = 0 mA
1-7
Note for Probs. 3-14 to 3-18: Since the bulk resistance Answer:
of a 1N4001 is 0.23 Ω and meets the criteria of Eq. (3-6) VL = 11.3 V
(rB < 0.01 RTH), it can be ignored for these calculations. IL = 24 mA
3-14. Given: PL = 271.2 mW
PD = 29.2 mW
VS = 20 V
PT = 300.4 mW
VD = 0.7 V
RL = 1 kΩ 3-17. Given:
Solution: VS = 12 V
VD = 0.7 V
VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law)
RL = 940 Ω
20 V = 0.7 V + VL
VL = 19.3 V Solution:
IL = VL /RL (Ohm’s law) VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law)
IL = 19.3 V/1 kΩ 12 V = 0.7 V + VL
IL = 19.3 mA VL = 11.3 V
PL = (IL)(VL) IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law)
PL = (19.3 mA)(19.3 V) IL = 11.3 V/940 Ω
PL = 372 mW IL = 12 mA
PD = (ID)(VD) Answer: 12 mA
PD = (19.3 mA)(0.7 V) 3-18. Given:
PD = 13.5 mW
VS = 12 V
PT = PD + PL RL = 470 Ω
PT = 13.5 mW + 372 mW
PT = 386 mW Solution: The diode would be reversed-based and acting
as an open. Thus the current would be zero, and the volt-
Answer: age would be source voltage.
IL = 19.3 mA Answer:
VL = 19.3 V
PL = 372 mW VD = 12 V
PD = 13.4 mW ID = 0 mA
PT = 386 mW 3-19. Open
3-15. Given: 3-20. The diode voltage will be 5 V, and it should burn open the
VS = 20 V diode.
VD = 0.7 V
RL = 2 kΩ 3-21. The diode is shorted, or the resistor is open.
Solution: 3-22. The voltage of 3 V at the junction of R1 and R2 is nor-
IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law) mal if it is a voltage divider with nothing in parallel
IL = 19.3 V/2 kΩ with R2. So, the problem is in the parallel branch. A
IL = 9.65 mA reading of 0 V at the diode resistor junction indicates
either a shorted resistor (not likely) or an open diode.
Answer: 9.65 mA A solder bridge could cause the resistor to appear to be
3-16. Given: shorted.
VS = 12 V 3-23. A reverse diode test reading of 1.8 V indicates a leaky
VD = 0.7 V diode.
RL = 470 Ω
Solution: 3-24. 1N4004
VS = VD + VL (Kirchhoff’s law) 3-25. Cathode band. The arrow points toward the band.
12 V = 0.7 V + VL
VL = 11.3 V 3-26. The temperature limit is 175°C, and the temperature of
boiling water is 100°C. Therefore, the temperature of the
boiling water is less than the maximum temperature and
IL = 11.3 V/470 Ω
the diode will not be destroyed.
IL = 24 mA
PL = (VL)(IL)
PL = (11.3 V)(24 mA) CRITICAL THINKING
PL = 271.2 mW 3-27. Given:
PD = (VD)(ID) 1N914: forward 10 mA at 1 V; reverse 25 nA at 20 V
PD = (0.7 V)(24 mA) 1N4001: forward 1 A at 1.1 V; reverse 10 μA at 50 V
PD = 29.2 mW 1N1185: forward 10 A at 0.95 V; reverse 4.6 mA at
100 V
PT = PD + PL
PT = 29.2 mW + 271.2 mW
PT = 300.4 mW
1-8
Solution: V = VR + VD (Kirchhoff’s law)
1N914 forward: V = 1.25 V + 0.7 V
R = V/I (Ohm’s law) V = 1.95 V
R = 1 V/10 mA This is the voltage at the junction of R1 and R2. Next find
R = 100 Ω the voltage drop across R1.
1N914 reverse: VR1 = VS – V (Kirchhoff’s law)
R = V/I (Ohm’s law) VR1 = 12 V – 1.95 V
R = 20 V/25 nA VR1 = 10.05 V
R = 800 MΩ
1N4001 forward: I = 10.05 V/30 kΩ
R = V/I (Ohm’s law) I = 335 μA
R = 1.1 V/1 A
R = 1.1 Ω Now that the current through R1 is known, this is the total
current for the parallel branches. The next step is to find
1N4001 reverse: the current through R2.
R = V/I (Ohm’s law)
R = 50 V/10 μA I2 = I1 – ID (Kirchhoff’s law)
R = 5 MΩ I2 = 335 μA – 0.25 mA
I2 = 85 μA
1N1185 forward:
R = V/I (Ohm’s law) The next step is to use the voltage and current to calculate
R = 0.95 V/10 A the resistance.
R = 0.095 Ω R2 = V/I2 (Ohm’s law)
1N1185 reverse: R2 = 1.95 V/85 μA
R = V/I (Ohm’s law) R2 = 23 kΩ
R = 100 V/4.6 mA Answer: R2 = 23 kΩ
R = 21.7 kΩ
3-30. Given:
Answer:
500 mA at 1 V
1N914: 0 mA at 0.7 V
forward R = 100 Ω
reverse R = 800 MΩ Solution:
1N4001: rB = (V2 – V1)(I2 – I1) (Eq. 3-7)
forward R = 1.1 Ω rB = (1 V – 0.7 V)/(500 mA – 0 mA)
reverse R = 5 MΩ rB = 600 mΩ
1N1185: Answer: rB = 600 mΩ

forward R = 0.095 Ω 3-31.
reverse R = 21.7 kΩ 1. IR = ISL + IS
3-28. Given: 2. 5 μA = ISL + IS(old)
VS = 5 V 3. ISL = 5 μA – IS(old)
VD = 0.7 V 4. 100 μA = ISL + IS(new)
ID = 20 mA 5. IS(new) = 2(ΔT/10) IS(old) (Eq. 2-6)
Substitute formulas 2 and 5 into formula 4.
Solution: 6. 100 μA = 5 μA –IS(old) + 2(ΔT/10)IS(old)
VR = VS – VD (Kirchhoff’s law) Put in the temperature values.
VR = 5 V – 0.7 V 7. 100 μA = 5 μA –IS(old) + 2[(100ºC – 25ºC)/10]IS(old)
VR = 4.3 V Move the 5 μA to the left side, and simplify the
exponent of 2.
R = V/I (Ohm’s law) 8. 95 μA = – IS(old) + 27.5 IS(old)
R = 4.3 V/20 mA Combine like terms.
R = 215 Ω 9. 95 μA = (27.5– 1)IS(old)
Answer: R = 215 Ω 10. 95 μA = (180.02) IS(old)
Solve for the variable.
3-29. Given: 11. IS(old) = 95 μA/(180.02)
VD = 0.7 V 12. IS(old) = 0.53 μA
ID = 10 mA
R1 = 30 kΩ Using formula 3:
R3 = 5 kΩ 13. ISL = 5 μA – IS(old)
14. ISL = 5 μA – 0.53 μA
Solution: Find the voltage required on the parallel branch 15. ISL = 4.47 μA
to achieve a diode current of 0.25 mA.
Answer: The surface-leakage current is 4.47 μA at 25°C.
VR = IR3 (Ohm’s law)
VR = (0.25 mA)(5 kΩ) 3-32. Given:
VR = 1.25 V R1 = 30 kΩ
R2 = 10 kΩ
R3 = 5 kΩ
1-9
This condition will not occur if the diode is normal. It can 9. When you need a high dc output voltage from the power
be either opened or shorted. If it is shorted, the resistance supply, but a step-up transformer is neither available nor
would be 0 Ω. If it is open, it would be the resistance of practical in the design.
the resistors. 11. Because a transformer with a high turns ratio produces a few
thousand volts, which means more insulation and expense.
Solution: The circuit would have R1 and R2 in parallel,
13. There is probably a short in the circuit that caused excessive
and the parallel resistance in series with R3.
current through the resistor. You have to look at the schematic
R = [(R1)(R2)]/(R1 + R2) (Parallel resistance formula) diagram and test the different components and wiring to try
R = [(30 kΩ)(10 kΩ)]/(30 kΩ + 10 kΩ) to locate the real trouble.
R = 7.5 kΩ
RT = 5 kΩ + 7.5 kΩ PROBLEMS
RT = 12.5 kΩ
4-1. Given: Vin = 50 V ac
Answer: The resistance would be 12.5 kΩ if the diode is
open and 0 Ω if the diode is shorted. Solution:
VP = 1.414 Vrms
3-33. During normal operation, the 15-V power supply is sup- VP = 1.414 (50 V ac)
plying power to the load. The left diode is forward-biased VP = 70.7 V
and allows the 15-V power supply to supply current Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1)
to the load. The right diode is reversed-based because Vp(out) = 70.7 V
15 V is applied to the cathode and only 12 V is applied to
the anode. This blocks the 12-V battery. Once the 15-V Since the average and the dc values are the same:
power supply is lost, the right diode is no longer reversed- Vdc = 0.318 VP (Eq. 4-2)
biased, and the 12-V battery can supply current to the Vdc = 0.318 (70.7 V)
load. The left diode will become reverse-biased, prevent- Vdc = 22.5 V
ing any current from going into the 15-V power supply.
Answer: The peak voltage is 70.7 V, the average voltage
3-34. D1 is shorted is 22.5 V, and the dc voltage is 22.5 V.
3-35. D1 is open 4-2. Given: Vin = 15 V ac

Solution:
3-36. Power supply has failed and is 0 V VP = 1.414 Vrms
3-37. R3 is shorted VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
VP = –21.2 V
3-38. D1 is reverse biased Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1)
Vp(out) = –21.2 V
3-39. 1N4001 silicon rectifier diode
Since the average and the dc values are the same:
3-40. Yes, the 1N4002 has the same forward current rating and Vdc = 0.318 Vp (Eq. 4-2)
a higher reverse breakdown rating. Vdc = 0.318 (–21.2 V)
Vdc = –6.74 V
3-41. Cathodes
Answer: The peak voltage is –21.2 V, the average voltage
3-42. Normally reverse biased is –6.74 V, and the dc voltage is –6.74 V.
3-43. Normally reverse biased 4-3. Given: Vin = 50 V ac
Solution:
VP = 1.414 Vrms
Chapter 4 Diode Circuits VP = 1.414 (50 V ac)
VP = 70.7 V
SELF-TEST
VP(out) = VP(in) – 0.7 V (Eq. 4-4)
1. b 8. c 14. a 20. c VP(out) = 70.0 V
2. a 9. c 15. b 21. a
3. b 10. d 16. a 22. b Since the average and the dc values are the same:
4. c 11. b 17. d 23. a Vdc = 0.318 V (Eq. 4-2)
5. c 12. b 18. c 24. c Vdc = 0.318 (70.0 V)
6. b 13. c 19. c 25. c Vdc = 22.3 V
7. b
Answer: The peak voltage is 70.0 V, the average voltage
is 22.3 V, and the dc voltage is 22.3 V.
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
4-4. Given: Vin = 15 V ac
7. The LC type is preferable when tighter regulation is required
and (or) power cannot be wasted. Examples include transmit- Solution:
ters, lab test equipment, and military gear when cost is not of VP = 1.414 Vrms
primary concern. The LC filter ideally dissipates no power. VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
The less costly RC filter consumes power in the resistor. VP = –21.2 V
8. A full-wave rectifier is made up of two back-to-back half-
VP(out) = Vp(in) – 0.7 V (Eq. 4-4)
wave rectifiers.
Vp(out) = –20.5 V
1-10
Since the average and the DC values are the same: VP = 1.414 Vrms
Vdc = 0.318 V (Eq. 4-2) VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
Vdc = 0.318 (–20.5 V) VP = 21.21 V
Vdc = –6.52 V Vp(out) = Vp(in) – 0.7 V (Eq. 4-4)
Answer: The peak voltage is –20.5 V, the average voltage Vp(out) = 20.51 V
is –6.52 V, and the dc voltage is –6.52 V. Vdc = 0.318 VP (Eq. 4-2)
Vdc = 0.318 (20.51 V)
Vdc = 6.52 V
Output waveform for Probs. 4-1 and 4-3. Waveform is Answer: The peak voltage is 20.51 V, and the dc voltage
negative for Probs. 4-2 and 4-4. is 6.52 V.
4-5. Given: 4-9. Given:

Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 6:1 = 6 Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 4:1 = 4
V1 = 120 Vrms V1 = 120 Vrms
Solution: Solution:
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5) V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
V2 = 120 Vrms/6 V2 = 120 Vrms/4
V2 = 20 Vrms V2 = 30 Vrms
VP = (1.414) (Vrms) Since it is a center-tapped transformer, each half of the
VP = (1.414) (20 Vrms) secondary is half of the total secondary voltage.
VP = 28.28 VP Vupper = ½ V2
Vupper = ½ (30 Vrms)
Answer: The secondary voltage is 20 Vrms or 28.28 VP.
Vupper = 15 Vrms
4-6. Given: Vlower = ½ VP
Turns ratio = N1/N2 =1:12 = 0.083333 Vlower = ½(30 Vrms)
V1 = 120 V ac Vlower = 15 Vrms
Solution: VP = (1.414) (Vrms)
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5) VP = (1.414) (15 Vrms)
V2 = 120 V ac/0.083333 VP = 21.21 VP
V2 = 1440 V ac Answer: Each half of the secondary has an rms voltage
of 15 V and a peak voltage of 21.21 V.
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (1440 V ac) 4-10. Given:
VP = 2036.16 V Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 7:1 = 7
Answer: The secondary rms voltage is 1440 V ac, and the V1 = 120 V ac
peak voltage is 2036.16 V. Solution:
4-7. Given: V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8 V2 = 120 V ac/7
V1 = 120 V ac (rms) V2 = 17.14 V ac
Solution: VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (17.14 V ac)
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5) VP = 24.24 V
V2 = 120 V ac/8
V2 = 15 V ac VP(in) = 0.5 VP
VP(in) = 0.5(24.24 V)
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP(in) = 12.12 V
VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
VP = 21.21 V Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1)
Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1) Vp(out) = 12.12 V
Vp(out) = 21.21 V Since the average and the dc values are the same:
Vdc = 0.318 VP (Eq. 4-2) Vdc = 0.636 Vp (Eq. 4-6)
Vdc = 0.318 (21.21 V) Vdc = 0.636 (12.12 V)
Vdc = 6.74 V Vdc = 7.71 V
Answer: The peak voltage is 21.21 V, and the dc voltage Answer: The peak output voltage is 12.12 V, and the dc
is 6.74 V. and average values are 7.71 V.
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8 Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 7:1 = 7
V1 = 120 V ac (rms) V1 = 120 V ac
Solution: Solution:
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5) V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
V2 = 120 V ac/8 V2 = 120 V ac/7
V2 = 15 V ac V2 = 17.14 V ac
1-11
VP = 1.414 Vrms Solution:
VP = 1.414 (17.14 V ac) V2(max) = V1(max)/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
VP = 24.24 V V2(max) = 125 V ac/8
VP(in) = 0.5 VP V2(max) = 15.63 V ac
VP(in) = 0.5(24.24 V) V2(min) = V1(min)/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
VP(in) = 12.12 V V2(min) = 105 V ac/8
Vp(out) = Vp(in) – 0.7 V (Eq. 4-4) V2(min) = 13.13 V ac
Vp(out) = 11.42 V VP(in)max = 1.414 V2(max)
Since the average and the dc values are the same: VP(in)max = 1.414 (15.63 V ac)
VP(in)max = 22.10 V
Vdc = 0.636 VP (Eq. 4-6)
Vdc = 0.636 (11.42 V) VP(in)min = 1.414 V2(min)
Vdc = 7.26 V VP(in)min = 1.414 (13.13 V ac)
VP(in)min = 18.57 V
Answer: The peak output voltage is 11.42 V, and the dc
and average values are 7.26 V. Vp(out)max = Vp(in)max (Eq. 4-1)
Vp(out)max = 22.10 V
4-12. Given:
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8 Vp(out)min = Vp(in)min (Eq. 4-1)
V1 = 120 V ac Vp(out)min = 18.57 V
Solution: Vdc(max) = 0.636 Vp(out)max (Eq. 4-6)
Vdc = 0.636 (22.10 V)
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5) Vdc = 14.06 V
V2 = 120 V ac/8
V2 = 15 V ac Vdc(min) = 0.636 Vp(out)min (Eq. 4-6)
Vdc = 0.636 (18.57 V)
VP(in) = 1.414 Vrms Vdc = 11.81 V
VP(in) = 1.414 (15 V ac)
VP(in) = 21.21 V Answer: The maximum dc output voltage is 14.06 V, and
the minimum is 11.81 V.
Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1)
Vp(out) = 21.21 V 4-15. Given:
Since the average and the dc values are the same: Vin = 20 V
XL = 1 kΩ
Vdc = 0.636 Vp (Eq. 4-6)
XC = 25 Ω
Vdc = 0.636 (21.21 V)
Vdc = 13.49 V Solution:
Answer: The peak output voltage is 21.21 V, and the dc Vout = (XC/XL)Vin (Eq. 4-9)
and average values are 13.49 V. Vout = (25 Ω/1 Ω)(20 V)
Vout = 500 mV
4-13. Given:
Answer: The ripple voltage would be 500 mV.
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8
V1 = 120 V ac 4-16. Given:
Solution: Vin = 14 V
XL = 2 kΩ
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
XC = 50 Ω
V2 = 120 V ac/8
V2 = 15 V ac Solution:
VP(in) = 1.414 Vrms Vout = (XC/XL)Vin (Eq. 4-9)
VP(in) = 1.414 (15 V ac) Vout = (50 Ω/2 kΩ)(14 V)
VP(in) = 21.21 V Vout = 350 mV
Vp(out) = Vp(in) – 1.4 V (Eq. 4-8) Answer: The ripple voltage would be 350 mV.
Vp(out) = 19.81 V
4-17. Given:
Since the average and the dc values are the same: Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8
Vdc = 0.636 Vp (Eq. 4-6) V1 = 120 V ac
Vdc = 0.636 (19.81 V) RL = 10 kΩ
Vdc = 12.60 V C = 47 μF
fin = 60 Hz
Answer: The peak output voltage is 19.81 V, and the dc
and average values are 12.60 V. Solution:
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
V2 = 120 V ac/8
Output waveform for Probs. 4-10 to 4-13. V2 = 15 V ac
4-14. Given: VP = 1.414 V2
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8 VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
V1(max) = 125 V ac VP = 21.2 V (This is the dc output voltage due to the
V1(min) = 102 V ac capacitor input filter.)
1-12
I = V/R (Ohm’s law) C = 470 μF
I = 21.2 V/10 kΩ fin = 60 Hz
I = 2.12 mA Solution:
fout = fin (Eq. 4-3) V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
fout = 60 Hz V2 = 120 V ac/9
VR = I/(fC) (Eq. 4-10) V2 = 13.33 V ac
VR = (2.12 mA)/[(60 Hz)(47 μF)] VP = 1.414 Vrms
VR = 752 mV VP = 1.414 (13.33 V ac)
Answer: The dc output voltage is 21.2 V with a 752 mVp-p VP = 18.85 V
ripple. Vp(out) = Vp (Eq. 4-1)
Vp(out) = 18.85 V (This is the dc output voltage due to the
capacitor input filter.)
Output waveform for Prob. 4-17.
I = 18.85 V/1 kΩ
I = 18.85 mA
4-18. Given:
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 7:1 = 7 fout = 2fin (Eq. 4-7)
V1 = 120 V ac fout = 2(60 Hz)
RL = 2.2 kΩ fout = 120 Hz
C = 68 μF VR = I/(fC) (Eq. 4-10)
fin = 60 Hz VR = (18.85 mA)/[(120 Hz)(470 μF)]
Solution: VR = 334 mV
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5) Answer: The dc output voltage is 18.85 V, with a
V2 = 120 V ac/7 334 mVp-p ripple.
V2 = 17.14 V ac
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (17.14 V ac)
VP = 24.24 V Output waveform for Probs. 4-18 and 4-21.
VP(in) = 0.5 VP 4-22. Given:
VP(in) = 0.5(24.24 V)
VP(in) = 12.12 V Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 9:1 = 9
V1 = 105 V ac
Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1) RL = 1 kΩ
Vp(out) = 12.12 V (This is the dc output voltage due to the C = 470 μF
capacitor input filter.) fin = 60 Hz
I = V/R (Ohm’s law) Solution:
I = 12.12 V/2.2 kΩ V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
I = 5.51 mA V2 = 105 V ac/9
fout = 2fin (Eq. 4-7) V2 = 11.67 V ac
fout = 2(60 Hz) VP = 1.414 Vrms
fout = 120 Hz VP = 1.414 (11.67 V ac)
VR = I/(fC) (Eq. 4-10) VP = 16.50 V
VR = (5.51 mA)/[(120 Hz)(68 μF)] Vp(out) = VP (Eq. 4-1)
VR = 675 mV Vp(out) = 16.50 V (This is the dc output voltage due to the
Answer: The dc output voltage is 12.12 V, with a capacitor input filter.)
675 mVp-p ripple. 4-23. Given: Vp = 18.85 Vp from Prob. 4-21
4-19. Answer: Solution:
VR = I/(fC) (Eq. 4-10) PIV = VP (Eq. 4-13)
If the capacitance is cut in half, the denominator is cut in PIV = 18.85 V
half and the ripple voltage will double.
Answer: The peak inverse voltage is 18.85 V.
4-20. Answer:
4-24. Given:
VR = I/(fC) (Eq. 4-10)
If the resistance is reduced to 500 Ω, the current increases Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 3:1 = 3
by a factor of 20; thus the numerator is increased by a V1 = 120 Vrms
factor of 20 and the ripple voltage goes up by a factor Solution:
of 20.
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
4-21. Given: V2 = 120 Vrms/3
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 9:1 = 9 V2 = 40 Vrms
V1 = 120 V ac
RL = 1 kΩ
1-13
VP = (1.414) (Vrms) 4-29. Given: Vp(out) = 18.85 V from Prob. 4-21
VP = (1.414) (40 Vrms) Solution: Without the filter capacitor to maintain the volt-
VP = 56.56 VP age at peak, the dc voltage is calculated the same way it
PIV = VP (Eq. 4-13) would be done if the filter was not there.
PIV = 56.56 V Vdc = 0.636 VP
Answer: The peak inverse voltage is 56.56 V. Vdc = 0.636(18.85 V)
Vdc = 11.99 V
4-25. Solution:
Answer: The dc voltage is 11.99 V.
From the information in Section 4-8.
4-30. Answer: With one diode open, one path for current flow
a. Secondary output is 12.6 V ac.
is unavailable. The output will look similar to a half-
VP = 1.414 Vrms
wave rectifier with a capacitor input filter. The dc voltage
VP = 1.414 (12.6 V ac)
should not change much from the original 18.85 V, but
VP = 17.8 V
the ripple will increase to approximately double because
b. Vdc = 17.8 V
the frequency drops from 120 to 60 Hz.
c. I = V/R (Ohm’s law)
Idc = 17.8 V ac/1 kΩ 4-31. Answer: Since an electrolytic capacitor is polarity-
Idc = 17.8 mA sensitive, if it is put in backward, it will be destroyed and
Rated current is 1.5 A. the power supply will act as if it did not have a filter.
Answer: The peak output voltage is 17.8 V, and the
dc output voltage is 17.8 V. It is not operating at 4-32. Answer: VP will remain the same, DC output equals VP,
rated current, and thus the secondary voltage will be Vripple = 0 V.
higher. 4-33. Answer: Since this is a positive clipper, the maximum
4-26. Given: positive will be the diode’s forward voltage, and all the
Assume Pin = Pout negative will be passed through. Maximum positive is
Vdc = 17.8 V from Prob. 4-25 0.7 V, and maximum negative is –50 V.
Idc = 17.8 mA from Prob. 4-25
Solution:
Pout = Idc Vdc
Pout = (17.8 mA)(17.8 V) Output waveform for Prob. 4-33.
Pout = 317 mW
Pin = 317 mW 4-34. Answer: Since this is a negative clipper, the maximum
Pin = V1Ipri negative will be the diode’s forward voltage, and all the
Ipri = Pin/V1 positive will be passed through. The maximum positive is
Ipri = 317 mW/120 V 24 V, and the maximum negative is –0.7 V.
Ipri = 2.64 mA
Answer: The primary current would be 2.64 mA.
4-27. Given:
VDC = 21.2 V from Prob. 4-17 Output waveform for Prob. 4-34.
VDC = 12.12 V from Prob. 4-18
Solution: 4-35. Answer: The limit in either direction is two diode voltage
Fig. 4-40(a) drops. Maximum positive is 1.4 V, and maximum nega-
Idiode = V/R tive is –1.4 V.
Idiode = (2.12 V)/(10 kΩ)
4-36. Given:
Idiode = 212 μA
DC voltage 15 V
Fig. 4-40(b) R1 = 1 kΩ
I = V/R R2 = 6.8 kΩ
I = (12.12 V)/(2.2 kΩ)
I = 5.5 mA Solution:
Idiode = 0.5 I Voltage at the cathode is found by using the voltage
Idiode = (0.5)/(5.5 mA) divider formula.
Idiode = 2.75 mA Vbias = [R1/(R1 + R2)]Vdc (Eq. 4-18)
Vbias = [1 kΩ/(1 kΩ + 6.8 kΩ)]15 V
Answer: The average diode current in Fig. 4-40(a) is Vbias = 1.92 V
212 μA and the current in Fig. 4-40(b) is 2.75 mA.
The clipping voltage is the voltage at the cathode and the
4-28. Given: Idc = 18.85 mA from Prob. 4-21 diode voltage drop.
Solution: Vclip = 1.92 V + 0.7 V
Idiode = (0.5)Idc Vclip = 2.62 V
Idiode = (0.5)(18.85 mA)
Idiode = 9.43 mA Answer: Since it is a positive clipper, the positive voltage
is limited to 2.62 V and the negative to –20 V.
1-14
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (600 V ac)
VP = 848.4 V
Output waveform for Prob. 4-36.
Since it is a tripler, the output is 3VP.
4-37. Answer: The output will always be limited to 2.62 V. Vout = 3VP
Vout = 3 (848.4 V)
4-38. Answer: Since this is a positive clamper, the maximum Vout = 2545.2 V
negative voltage will be –0.7 V and the maximum posi-
tive will be 29.3 V. Answer: The output voltage will be 2545.2 V.
4-43. Given:
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 1:7 = 0.143
V1 = 120 V ac
Solution:
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
Output waveform for Prob. 4-38. V2 = 120 V ac/0.143
V2 = 839.2 V ac
4-39. Answer: Since this is a negative clamper, the maximum VP = 1.414 Vrms
positive voltage will be 0.7 V and the maximum negative VP = 1.414 (839.2 V ac)
will be –59.3 V. VP = 1186.6 V
Since it is a quadrupler, the output is 4VP.
Vout = 4VP
Vout = 4(1186.6 V)
Vout = 4746.4 V
Output waveform for Prob. 4-39. Answer: The output voltage will be 4746.4 V.
4-40. Answer: The output will be 2VP or Vp-p, which is 40 V. If

CRITICAL THINKING
the second approximation is used, the maximum for the
clamp will be 39.3 V instead of 40 V, and since there is 4-44. Answer: If one of the diodes shorts, it will provide a low
also a diode voltage drop, the output would be 38.6 V. resistance path to either blow a fuse or damage the other
diodes.
4-45. Given:
Output waveform for Prob. 4-40. V1 = 120 V ac
Solution:
4-41. Given: V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 1:10 = 0.1 V2 = 120 V ac/8
V1 = 120 V ac V2 = 15 V ac
Solution: VP = 1.414 Vrms
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5) VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
V2 = 120 V ac/0.1 VP = 21.21 V
V2 = 1200 V ac Since each resistor is in the same current path and both
VP = 1.414 Vrms have the same value, they equally divide the voltage.
VP = 1.414 (1200 V ac) Since they both have a capacitor input filter, they divide
VP = 1696.8 V the peak voltage.
Since it is a doubler, the output is 2VP. Answer: Each power supply has 10.6 V, but the load
connected to the right side of the bridge is a positive
Vout = 2VP 10.6 V and the load connected to the left side is a
Vout = 2 (1696.8 V) negative 10.6 V.
Vout = 3393.6 V
4-46. Given:
Answer: The output voltage will be 3393.6 V. VP = 21.21 VP from Prob. 4-1
4-42. Given: R = 4.7 Ω
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 1:5 = 0.2 Solution: The maximum surge current would be all of the
V1 = 120 V ac peak voltage dropped across the resistor.
Solution: I = V/R (Ohm’s law)
I = 21.21 V/4.7 Ω
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
I = 4.51 A
V2 = 120 V ac/0.2
V2 = 600 V ac Answer: The maximum surge current will be 4.51 A.
1-15
4-47. Answer: The signal is a sine wave, and thus the shape of 4-54. V1 failed
the curve is a function of sine. The formula for the instan-
taneous voltage at any point on the curve is V = Vp sin θ. 4-55. XMFR secondary winding is open
Using this formula, calculate the values for each point on
the curve, add all 180 of the 1° points together and divide 4-56. Full-wave bridge rectifier
by 180. 4-57. 15 Vac
4-48. Given:
4-58. Full-wave rectifier
V1 = 120 V ac 4-59. Approximately 8.1 V
Solution:
4-60. 14 V
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
V2 = 120 V ac/8
V2 = 15 V ac
Chapter 5 Special-Purpose Diodes
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (15 V ac) SELF-TEST
VP = 21.21 V 1. d 9. c 17. c 25. b
With the switch in the shown position, it is a bridge recti- 2. b 10. b 18. c 26. d
fier with a capacitor input filter. Thus the output voltage 3. b 11. c 19. b 27. a
would be 21.21 V. 4. a 12. a 20. b 28. c
5. a 13. b 21. a 29. b
With the switch in the other position, it is a full-wave 6. c 14. d 22. c 30. b
rectifier with a capacitor input filter. Since it is a center- 7. c 15. d 23. c 31. d
tapped transformer, the peak voltage is half. 8. a 16. a 24. c 32. a
VP = 10.6 VP
The output would be 10.6 V.
3. The zener regulation is dropping out of regulation during
Answer: With the switch in the shown position, 21.21 V; worst-case conditions of low line voltage and high load
with the switch in the other position, 10.6 V. current.
4-49. Answer: Both capacitors will charge to approximately 4. The LED is connected backward, or the LED current is
56 mV with opposite polarities. Vout will equal 56 mV – excessive either because the series resistor is too small or the
56 mV. Vout will equal zero volts. driving voltage is too high.
5. The basic idea is that a varactor is a voltage-controlled
4-50. Fault 1—Since the load voltage is 0.636 of the peak volt- capacitance. By using a varactor as part of an LC tank
age, the capacitor input filter is not doing its job; thus circuit, we can control the resonant frequency with a dc
the capacitor is bad. voltage.
Fault 2—Since the load voltage dropped a little and the 6. To provide a high degree of electrical isolation between input
ripple doubled, one of the diodes is open; this causes and output circuits.
the frequence of the ripple to drop to half, which in 7. The cathode lead is shorter than the anode lead. Also, the flat
turn causes the ripple to double. side of the dome package is the cathode.
Fault 3—Since V1 is zero, the fuse must be blown. Since
the load resistance is zero, the load resistor is shorted.
PROBLEMS
This caused the excessive current in the secondary,
which fed back to the primary and blew the fuse. 5-1. Given:
Fault 4—Since V2 is good and all other voltages are bad, VS = 24 V
the transformer and fuse are good. R and C are good: VZ = 15 V
thus either all four diodes opened (not likely) or there RS = 470 Ω
is an open in the ground circuit.
Fault 5—Since V1 is zero, the fuse must be blown. Solution:
Fault 6—The load resistor is open. No current is drawn, IS = IZ = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
and thus there is no ripple. IS = IZ = (24 V – 15 V)/(470 Ω)
Fault 7—Since V1 is good and V2 is bad, the transformer IS = IZ = 19.1 mA
is the problem.
Answer: The zener current is 19.1 mA.
Fault 8—Since V1 is zero, the fuse must be blown. Since
the capacitor reads zero, the capacitor is shorted. This 5-2. Given:
caused the excessive current in the secondary, which VS = 40 V
fed back to the primary and blew the fuse. VZ = 15 V
Fault 9—Since the load voltage is 0.636 of the peak volt- RS = 470 Ω
age, the capacitor input filter is not doing its job and
thus the capacitor is bad. Solution:
4-51. C1 is open IS = IZ = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
IZ = (40 V – 15 V)/470 Ω
4-52. Full-wave bridge is open IZ = 53.2 mA
Answer: The maximum zener current is 53.2 mA.
4-53. C1 is shorted
1-16
5-3. Given: IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
VS = 24 V IZ = 20.16 mA – 9.52 mA
VZ = 15 V IZ = 10.64 mA
RS = 470 Ω ± 5% Answer: The maximum zener current is 10.64 mA.
RS(max) = 493.5 Ω
RS(min) = 446.5 Ω 5-7. Given:
Solution: VS = 24 V to 40 V
VZ = 15 V
IS = IZ(max) = (VS – VZ)/RS(min) (Eq. 5-3) RS = 470 Ω
IS = IZ = (24 V – 15 V)/(446.5 Ω)
IS = IZ = 20.16 mA Solution: Maximum current will occur at maximum
voltage.
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
5-4. Given: IS = (40 V – 15 V)/470 Ω
VS = 24 V IS = 53.2 mA
VZ = 15 V IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
RS = 470 Ω IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ
RL = 1.5 kΩ IL = 10 mA
Solution: IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5.6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
VL = [RL/(RS+RL)]VS (Voltage divider formula) IZ = 53.2 mA – 10 mA
VL = [1.5 kΩ/(470 Ω + 1.5 kΩ)]24 V IZ = 43.2 mA
VL = 18.27 V
Answer: The load voltage is 18.27 V.
5-8. Given:
5-5. Given: VS = 24 V
VS = 24 V VZ = 12 V
VZ = 15 V RS = 470 Ω
RS = 470 Ω RL = 1.5 kΩ
RL = 1.5 kΩ
Solution:
Solution: VL = VZ = 12 V
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (24 V – 15 V)/470 Ω
IS = (24 V – 12 V)/470 Ω
IS = 19.15 mA
IS = 25.5 mA
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ
IL = 12 V/1.5 kΩ
IL = 10 mA
IL = 8 mA
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ = 19.15 mA – 10 mA
IZ = 25.5 mA – 8 mA
IZ = 9.15 mA
IZ = 17.5 mA
Answer: The series current is 19.15 mA, the zener current
Answer: The load voltage is 12 V and the zener current
is 9.15 mA, and the load current is 10 mA.
is 17.5 mA.
5-6. Given:
5-9. Given:
VS = 24 V
VS = 20 V
VZ = 15 V
VZ = 12 V
RS = 470 Ω ± 5%
RS = 330 Ω
RS(max) = 493.5 Ω
RL = 1 kΩ
RS(min) = 446.5 Ω
RL = 1.5 kΩ Solution:
RL(max) = 1.575 kΩ VL = VZ = 12 V
RL(min) = 1.425 kΩ
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
Solution: Looking at Eq. (5-6), the maximum zener cur- IS = (20 V – 12 V)/330 Ω
rent would occur at a maximum series current and a mini- IS = 24.24 mA
mum load current. To achieve these conditions, the series
resistance would have to be minimum and the load resis- IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
tance would have to be maximum. IL = 12 V/1 kΩ
IL = 12 mA
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS(min) (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (24 V – 15 V)/446.5 Ω IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IS = 20.16 mA IZ = 24.24 mA – 12 mA
IZ = 12.24 mA
IL = VL/RL(max) (Eq. 5-5. Ohm’s law)
IL = 15 V/1.575 kΩ Answer: The load voltage is 12 V, and the zener current
IL = 9.52 mA is 12.24 mA.
1-17
RS VL = [(RL)/(RS + RL)]VS (Voltage divider formula)
VS = VL/[RL/(RS + RL)]
330 V VS = 15 V[(1.5 kΩ)/(470 Ω + 1.5 kΩ)]
12 V
RL VS = 19.7 V
20 V
1 kV
Answer: The regulation will be lost when the source volt-
age drops below 19.7 V.
Zener regulator for Prob. 5-9. 5-13. Given:
VS = 20 to 26 V
5-10. Given: RS = 470 Ω
RS = 470 Ω RL = 500 to 1.5 kΩ
RZ = 1 4Ω VZ = 15 V
VR(in) = 1 Vp-p Solution: The regulation is lost once the load voltage
Solution: drops below 15 V.
RZ IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
VR(out) = __
RS VR(in) (Eq. 5-8)
VR(out) = (14 Ω /470 Ω )/1 Vp-p IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ
VR(out) = 29.8 mVp-p RS(max) = [(VS(min) /VZ ) – 1]RL(min) (Eq. 5-9)
Answer: The ripple voltage across the load resistor is RS(max) = [(20 V/15 V) – 1]500 Ω
29.8 mVp-p. RS(max) = 167 Ω
5-11. Given: Answer: The regulator will fail since the series resistor
is greater than the maximum series resistance. For this
VS = 21.5 to 25 V regulator to work properly, the series resistor should be
RS = 470 Ω 167 Ω or less.
RZ = 14 Ω
VZ = 15 V 5-14. Given:
Solution: VS = 18 to 25 V
RS = 470 Ω
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3) IL = 1 to 25 mA
IS = (25 V – 15 V)/470 Ω VZ = 15 V
IS = 21.28 mA
Solution:
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law) VS(min) – VZ
IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ RS(max) = ______
IL(max) (Eq. 5-10)
IL = 10 mA RS(max) = (18 V – 15V)/25 mA
RS(max) = 120 Ω
IZ = 21.28 mA – 10 mA Answer: Yes, the regulator will fail since the series resis-
IZ = 11.28 mA tance is greater than the maximum series resistance. For
this regulator to work properly, the series resistor should
ΔVL = IZRZ (Eq. 5-7)
be 120 Ω or less.
ΔVL = (11.28 mA)(14 Ω )
ΔVL = 157.9 mV 5-15. Given:
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3) VS = 24 V
IS = (21.5 V – 15 V)/470 Ω RS = 470 Ω
IS = 13.83 mA VZ = 15 V
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law) Solution:
IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ RS(max) = [(VS(min) /VZ) – 1]RL(min) (Eq. 5-9)
IL = 10 mA RL(min) = RS(max) /[(VS(min) /VZ) – 1]
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law) RL(min) = 470 Ω /[(24 V/15 V) – 1]
IZ = 13.83 mA – 10 mA RL(min) = 783 Ω
IZ = 3.83 mA Answer: The minimum load resistance is 783 Ω .
ΔVL= IZRZ (Eq. 5-7) 5-16. Given:
ΔVL = (3.83 mA)(14 Ω) VZ = 10 V
ΔVL = 53.6 mV IZ = 20 mA
Answer: The load voltage changes from 15.054 V when Solution:
the supply is 21.5 V, to 15.158 V when the supply is
25 V. PZ = VZIZ (Eq. 5-11)
PZ = (10 V)(20 mA)
5-12. Given: PZ = 0.2 W
VS = 24 V Answer: The power dissipation is 0.2 W.
RS = 470 Ω
RL = 1.5 kΩ 5-17. Given:
VZ = 15 V VZ = 20 V
Solution: The regulation is lost once the load voltage IZ = 5 mA
drops below 15 V.
1-18
Solution: c. With the series resistor open, no voltage reaches the
PZ = VZIZ (Eq. 5-11) load; thus the output voltage would be 0 V.
PZ = (20 V)(5 mA) d. The voltage drop across a short is 0 V.
PZ = 0.1 W Answers:
Answer: The power dissipation is 0.1 W. a. 0 V
b. 18.27 V
5-18. Given:
c. 0 V
VS = 24 V d. 0 V
RS = 470 Ω
RL = 1.5 kΩ 5-22. Answer: From the previous problem, the only trouble that
VZ = 15 V caused this symptom is an open zener diode.
IS = 19.15 mA (from Prob. 5-5) 5-23. Answer: Check the series resistor. If it is shorted, it could
IL = 10 mA (from Prob. 5-5) damage the diode. If it had been operating correctly, the
VZ = 9.15 mA (from Prob. 5-5) output voltage should have been 18.3 V.
Solution: 5-24. Answers:
P = I2R a. If the V130LA2 is open, it will remove the over volt-
PS = (19.15 mA)2(470Ω) age protection and the LED will remain lit.
PS = 172.4 mW b. If the ground is opened, there is no path for current
P = I2R and thus the LED will not be lit.
PL = (10 mA)2(1.5 kΩ) c. If the filter capacitor is open, the voltage will have
PL = 150 mW more ripple but the LED should remain lit.
d. If the filter capacitor is shorted, the voltage across all
PZ = VI devices in parallel with it will be zero; thus the LED
PZ = (15 V)(9.15 mA) will not be lit.
PZ = 137.3 mW e. If the 1N5314 is open, it will have no effect on the
Answer: The power dissipation of the series resistor is LED.
172.4 mW. The power dissipation of the load resistor f. If the 1N5314 is shorted, the voltage across all devices
is 150 mW. The power dissipation of the zener diode is in parallel with it will be zero; thus the LED will not
137.3 mW. be lit.
5-19. Given: VZ = 15 V ± 5%. The tolerance is determined from 5-25. Given:

the data sheet. VS = 15 V
Solution: VD = 2 V
RS = 2.2 kΩ
(15 V)(0.05) = 0.75 V
15 V + 0.75 V = 15.75 V Solution:
15 V – 0.75 V = 14.25 V IS = (VS – VD)/RS (Eq. 5-13)
Answer: The minimum voltage of 14.25 V and the maxi- IS = (15 V – 2 V)/2.2 kΩ
mum voltage is 15.75 V. IS = 5.91 mA
5-20. Given: Answer: The diode current is 5.91 mA.

T = 100°C 5-26. Given:
Solution: VS = 40 V
VD = 2 V
100°C – 50°C = 50°C RS = 2.2 kΩ
Derating factor 6.67 mW/°C
Solution:
Answer: P = 667 mW
IS = (VS – VD)/RS (Eq. 5-13)
5-21. Given: IS = (40 V – 2 V)/2.2 kΩ
VS = 24 V IS = 17.27 mA
RS = 470 Ω Answer: The diode current is 17.27 mA.
RL = 1.5 kΩ
RZ = 15 V 5-27. Given:
Solutions: VS = 15 V
VD = 2 V
a. With the diode in parallel with the load, the load resis- RS = 1 kΩ
tor is also effectively shorted and the output voltage
would be 0 V. Solution:
b. With the diode open, the load resistor and the series IS = (VS – VD)/RS (Eq. 5-13)
resistor form a voltage divider: IS = (15 V – 2 V)/1 kΩ
VL = [RL/(RS + RL)]VS (Voltage divider formula) IS = 13 mA
VL = [1.5 kΩ/(470 Ω + 1.5 kΩ)]24 V Answer: The diode current is 13 mA.
VL = 18.27 V
5-28. Answer: From Prob. 5-27, the resistor value will be 1 kΩ.
1-19
CRITICAL THINKING Solution:
5-29. Given: RS(max) = [(VS(min) – VZ)/IL(max)] (Eq. 5-10)
RS(max) = [(20 V – 6.8 V)/30 mA]
VS = 24 V RS(max) = 440 Ω
RS = 470 Ω
RZ = 14 Ω RS(min) = [(VS – VZ)/IZM]
VZ = 15 V RS(min) = [(20 V – 6.8 V)/147 mA]
RS(min) = 90 Ω
Solution:
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3) Answer: Any similar design as long as the zener voltage
IS = (24 – 15)/470 Ω is 6.8 V and the series resistance is less than 440 Ω, to
IS = 19.15 mA provide the desired maximum output current, and greater
than 90 Ω, if a 1N4736A is used to prevent overcurrent if
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law) it becomes unloaded. The load resistance does not need
IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ to be specified because, as a power supply, the load resis-
IL = 10 mA tance can vary. The only load parameter that is necessary
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law) is maximum current, and it is given.
IZ = 19.15 mA – 10 mA
IZ = 9.15 mA
440 V
ΔVL = IZRZ (Eq. 5-7)
ΔVL = (9.15 mA)(14 Ω ) 20 V 6.8 V Load
ΔVL = 128.1 mV
VL = 15.128 V or approximately 15.13 V
Zener regulator for Prob. 5-31.
Answer: The load voltage would be 15.13 V.
5-30. Given: 5-32. Given: VLED = 1.5 to 2 V
VS = 24 V ILED = 20 mA
RS = 470 Ω VS = 5 V
RZ = 14 Ω Imax = 140 mA
VZ = 15 V Solution:
RL = 1 kΩ to 10 kΩ
IS = 19.15 mA (from Prob. 5-29) RS = [(VS – VLED(min))/ILED]
RS = [(5 V – 1.5 V)/20 mA]
Solution: RS = 175 Ω
IL(max) = VL/RL(min) (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law) Answer: Same as Fig. 5-20 with resistor values of 175 Ω,
IL(max) = 15 V/1 kΩ which limits each branch to a maximum of 20 mA and a
IL(max) = 15 mA total of 140 mA.
IL(min) = VL/RL(max) (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law) 5-33. Given:
IL(min) = 15 V/10 kΩ
IL(min) = 1.5 mA VLine = 115 V ac ± 10%
VSec = 12.6 V ac
IZ(min) = IS – IL(max) (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law) R2 = 560 Ω ± 5%
IZ(min) = 19.15 mA – 15 mA RZ = 7 Ω
IZ(min) = 4.15 mA VZ = 5.1 V ± 5%
IZ(max) = IS – IL(min) (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law) Solution: To find the maximum zener current, the maxi-
IZ(max) = 19.15 mA – 1.5 mA mum secondary voltage, the minimum zener voltage,
IZ(max) = 17.65 mA and the minimum resistance of R2 must be found. If the
ΔVL(min) = IZ(min)RZ line voltage varies by 10 percent, the secondary voltage
ΔVL(min) = (4.15 mA)(14 Ω ) should also vary by 10 percent.
ΔVL(min) = 58.1 mV VSec(max) = VSec + VSec (10%)
ΔVL(max) = IZ(max)RZ VSec(max) = 12.6 V ac + 12.6 V ac (10%)
ΔVL(max) = (17.65 mA)(14 Ω ) VSec(max) = 13.86 V ac
ΔVL(max) = 247.1 mV VP = 1.414 V ac
VL(min) = 15.058 V VP = 1.414 (13.86 V ac)
VL(max) = 15.247 V VP = 19.6 V
Answer: The minimum load voltage would be 15.06 V VZ = 5.1 V ± 5%

and the maximum voltage would be 15.25 V. VZ = 5.1 V – [(5.1 V) (5%)]
VZ = 4.85 V
5-31. Given:
R2 = 560 Ω ± 5%
VS = 20 V R2 = 560 Ω – [(560 Ω ) (5%)]
VZ = 6.8 V R2 = 532 Ω
VL = 6.8 V
IL = 30 mA
1-20
The circuit can be visualized as a series circuit with a likely cause of that is overcurrent. The only device
19.6 V power supply, a 532 Ω R2, a 7 Ω RZ, and a 4.85 V that could short and cause the zener to burn open is RS.
zener diode.
5-37. Troubles:
IS = (VS – VZ)/(RS + RZ) (Eq. 5-13)
5. Open at A. Since all the voltages are zero, the power
IS = (19.6 V – 4.85 V)/(532 Ω + 7 Ω )
must not be getting to the circuit.
IS = 27.37 mA
6. Open RL, an open between B and C, or an open
Answer: The maximum diode current is 27.37 mA. between RL and ground. To solve this problem, the
second approximation must be used. With the load
5-34. Given:
resistor operating normally, only part of the total cur-
VSec = 12.6 V ac rent flows through the zener, which causes the 0.3-V
VD = 0.7 V increase from its nominal voltage. But when the load
I1N5314 = 4.7 mA resistor opens, all the total current flows through the
ILED = 15.6 mA diode, causing the voltage drop across the internal
IZ = 21.7 mA resistance to increase to 0.5 V.
C = 1000 μF ± 20% 7. Open at E. Since the voltages at B, C, and D are
fin = 60 Hz 14.2 V, which is the voltage that would be present if
Solution: The dc load current is the sum of all of the the circuit were just a voltage divider with no zener
loads. diode, suspect something in the diode circuit. Since
I = I1N5314 + ILED + IZ the diode reads OK, that only leaves an open in the
I = 4.7 mA + 15.6 mA + 21.7 mA return path.
I = 42 mA 8. The zener is shorted or a short from B, C, or D to
ground. Since the voltages at B, C, and D are 0, and A
fout = 2fin (Eq. 4-7) is 18 V, this could be caused by an open RS or a short
fout = 2(60 Hz) from B, C, or D to ground. Since the diode reads 0 Ω ,
fout = 120 Hz it confirms that the fault is a short.
The minimum capacitance will give the maximum ripple. 5-38. RS is open
C = 1000 μF ± 20% 5-39. Power supply failed (0 V)
C = 1000 μF – 1000 μF (20%)
C = 800 μF 5-40. Zener diode open
VR = I/(fC) (Eq. 4-10) 5-41. RL is shorted
VR = 42 mA/(120 Hz)(800 μF) 5-42. Zener diode is forward biased
VR = 0.438 V
5-43. Common anode
Answer: The maximum ripple voltage will be 0.438 V.
5-44. Biased off
5-35. Given:
VS = 6 V ac 5-45. 25 mA
VD = 0.25 V 5-46. 200 Ω
Solution: 5-47. 470 Ω, 1/2 watt
VP(in) = 1.414 Vrms
VP(in) = 1.414 (6 V ac)
VP(in) = 8.48 V Chapter 6 BJT Fundamentals
VP(out) = VP(in) – 0.5 V (Eq. 4-8; the 1.4 was changed
to reflect using Schottky diodes) SELF-TEST
VP(out) = 7.98 V 1. b 10. b 19. c 28. c
Answer: The voltage at the filter capacitor is 7.98 V. 2. a 11. b 20. a 29. b
3. c 12. d 21. a 30. d
5-36. Troubles: 4. a 13. b 22. a 31. c
1. Open RS, since there is voltage at A and no voltage at 5. b 14. a 23. b 32. b
B; also could be a short from B or C to ground. 6. b 15. a 24. d 33. d
2. Open between B and D or an open at E. Since the 7. b 16. b 25. d 34. c
voltages at B and C are 14.2 V, which is the voltage 8. b 17. b 26. c 35. b
that would be present if the circuit were just a 9. d 18. d 27. c
voltage divider with no zener diode, suspect something
in the diode circuit. Since the diode is good, it is either JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
an open between B and D or an open at E.
3. The zener is open. Since the voltages at B and C are 6. A transistor or semiconductor curve tracer.
14.2 V, which is the voltage that would be present if 7. Since there is almost zero power dissipation at saturation and
the circuit were just a voltage divider with no zener cutoff, I would expect that the maximum power dissipation is
diode, suspect something in the diode circuit. Since in the middle of the load line.
the diode reads an open, it is bad. 10. Common emitter.
4. RS shorted, which caused the zener to open. With all 14. An increase in temperature almost always increases the
the voltages at 18 V, the problem could be an open in current gain.
the return path. But the zener is open, and the most
1-21
PROBLEMS Solution:
6-1. Given: The minimum resistance will yield the maximum
current.
IE = 10 mA
IC = 9.95 mA RB = 470 kΩ ± 5%
RB = 470 kΩ – 470 kΩ(5%)
Solution: RB = 446.5 kΩ
IE = IC + IB (Eq. 6-1)
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6)
IB = IE – IC
IB = [(10 V – 0.7 V)/446.5 kΩ]
IB = 10 mA – 9.95 mA
IB = 20.83 μA
IB = 0.05 mA
Answer: The base current is 20.83 μA.
Answer: The base current is 0.05 mA.
6-8. Given:
6-2. Given:
IC = 6 mA
IC = 10 mA
RC = 1.5 kΩ
IB = 0.1 mA
VCC = 20 V
Solution:
Solution:
βdc = IC/IB
VCE = VCC – ICRC
βdc = 10 mA/0.1 mA
VCE = 20 V – (6 mA)(1.5 kΩ)
βdc = 100
VCE = 11 V
Answer: The current gain is 100.
Answer: The collector to emitter voltage is 11 V.
6-3. Given:
6-9. Given:
IB = 30 μA
IC = 100 mA
βdc = 150
VCE = 3.5 V
Solution:
Solution:
IC = βdcIB
PD = VCEIC (Eq. 6-8)
IC = 150(30 μA)
PD = (3.5 V)(100 mA)
IC = 4.5 mA
PD = 350 mW
Answer: The collector current is 4.5 mA.
Answer: The power dissipation is 350 mW.
6-4. Given:
6-10. Given:
IC = 100 mA
VBB = 10 V
βdc = 65
RB = 470 kΩ
Solution: VBE = 0.7 V (second approximation)
IB = IC/βdc (Eq. 6-5) VBE = 0 V (ideal)
IB = 100 mA/65 RC = 820 Ω
IB = 1.54 mA VCC = 10 V
IE = IB + IC βdc = 200
IE = 1.54 mA + 100 mA Solution:
Answer: The emitter current is 101.54 mA. Ideal
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6)
6-5. Given:
IB = [(10 V – 0 V)/470 kΩ]
VBB = 10 V IB = 21.28 μA
RB = 470 kΩ
VBE = 0.7 V IC = βdcIB
IC = 200(21.28 μA)
Solution: IC = 4.26 mA
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6) VCE = VCC – ICRC
IB = [(10 V – 0.7 V)/470 kΩ] VCE = 10 V – (4.26 mA)(820 Ω)
IB = 19.8 μA VCE = 6.5 V
Answer: The base current is 19.8 μA. PD = VCEIC
6-6. Answer: The base current is unaffected by the current PD = (6.5 V)(4.26 mA)
gain since 9.3 V/470 kΩ always equals 19.8 μA. The PD = 27.69 mW
current gain will affect the collector current in this 2nd Approximation
circuit.
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6)
6-7. Given: IB = [(10V – 0.7 V)/470 kΩ]
VBB = 10 V IB = 19.8 μA
RB = 470 kΩ ± 5% IC = βdcIB
VBE = 0.7 V IC = 200(19.8 μA)
IC = 3.96 mA
1-22
VCE = VCC – ICRC Solution:
VCE = 10 V – (3.96 mA)(820 Ω ) IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6)
VCE = 6.75 V IB = [(12 V – 0)/680 kΩ]
PD = VCEIC IB = 17.6 μA (ideal)
PD = (6.75 V)(3.96 mA) IB = [(12 V – 0.7 V)/680 kΩ]
PD = 26.73 mW IB = 16.6 μA (second approximation)
Answer: The ideal collector-emitter voltage is 6.5 V and IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-4)
power dissipation is 27.69 mW. The second approxima- IC = 175(17.6 μA)
tion collector-emitter voltage is 6.75 V and the power IC = 3.08 mA (ideal)
dissipation is 26.73 mW.
IC = 175(16.6 μA)
6-11. Given: IC = 2.91 mA (second approximation)
VBB = 5 V
VCE = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 6-7)
RB = 330 kΩ
VCE = 12 V – (3.08 mA)(1.5 kΩ)
VBE = 0.7 V (second approximation)
VCE = 7.38 V (ideal)
VBE = 0 V (ideal)
RC = 1.2 kΩ VCE = 12 V – (2.91 mA)(1.5 kΩ)
VCC = 15 V VCE = 7.64 V (second approximation)
βdc = 150
PD = VCEIC (Eq. 6-8)
Solution: PD = (7.38 V)(3.08 mA)
Ideal PD = 22.73 mW (ideal)
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6) PD = (7.64 V)(2.91 mA)
IB = [(5 V – 0 V)/330 kΩ] PD = 22.23 mW (second approximation)
IB = 15.15 μA Answer: The ideal collector-emitter voltage is 7.38 V,
IC = βdcIB and power dissipation is 22.73 mW. The second approxi-
IC = 150(15.15 μA) mation collector-emitter voltage is 7.64 V, and power
IC = 2.27 mA dissipation is 22.23 mW.
VCE = VCC – ICRC 6-13. Answer: From the maximum ratings section, –55
VCE = 15 V – (2.27 mA)(1.2 kΩ) to +150°C.
VCE = 12.28 V
6-14. Answer: From the on characteristics section, 70.
PD = VCEIC
PD = (12.28 V)(2.27 mA) 6-15. Given:
PD = 27.88 mW PD(max) = 1 W
2nd Approximation IC = 120 mA
VCE = 10 V
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6)
IB = [(5 V – 0.7 V)/330 kΩ] Solution:
IB = 13.3 μA PD = VCEIC (Eq. 6-8)
IC = βdcIB PD = (10 V)(120 mA)
IC = 150(13.03 μA) PD = 1.2 W
IC = 1.96 mA Answer: The power dissipation has exceeded the maxi-
VCE = VCC – ICRC mum rating, and the transistor’s power rating is damaged
VCE = 15 V – (1.96 mA)(1.2 kΩ) and possibly destroyed.
VCE = 12.65 V 6-16. Given:
PD = VCEIC PD = 625 mW
PD = (12.65 V)(1.96 mA) Temperature = 65°C
PD = 24.79 mW
Solution:
Answer: The ideal collector-emitter voltage is 12.28 V ΔT = 65°C – 25°C
and power dissipation is 27.88 mW. The second approxi- ΔT = 40°C
mation collector-emitter voltage is 12.65 V, and power
dissipation is 24.79 mW. ΔP = ΔT (derating factor)
ΔP = 40°C(2.8 mW/°C)
6-12. Given: ΔP = 112 mW
VBB = 12 V
RB = 680 kΩ PD(max) = 350 mW – 112 mW
VBE = 0.7 V (second approximation) PD(max) = 238 mW
VBE = 0 (ideal) Answer: The transistor is operating outside of its limits;
RC = 1.5 kΩ the power rating is affected.
VCC = 12 V
βdc = 175 6-17. Answer: β = 30
6-18. Answer: β = 85
1-23
VCC = 20 V IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11)
VBB = 10 V IC(sat) = 5 V/470 Ω
RB = 1 MΩ IC(sat) = 10.64 mA
RC = 3.3 kΩ
VCE(cutoff) = VCC (Eq. 6-12)
Solution: VCE(cutoff) = 5 V
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11) Answer: The collector current at saturation is 10.64 mA,
IC(sat) = 20 V/3.3 kΩ and the collector-emitter voltage at cutoff is 5 V. The
IC(sat) = 6.06 mA load line would connect these points.
VCE(cutoff) = VCC (Eq. 6-12) 6-24. Given:
VCE(cutoff) = 20 V
VCC = 10 V
Answer: The collector current at saturation is 6.06 mA, VBB = 5 V
and the collector-emitter voltage at cutoff is 20 V. The RB = 680 kΩ
load line would connect these points. RC = 470 Ω
VCC = 25 V IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11)
VBB = 10 V IC(sat) = 10 V/470 Ω
RB = 1 MΩ IC(sat) = 21.28 mA
RC = 3.3 kΩ VCE(cutoff) = VCC (Eq. 6-12)
Solution: VCE(cutoff) = 10 V
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11) Answer: Load line moved farther from the origin on the
IC(sat) = 25 V/3.3 kΩ graph.
IC(sat) = 7.58 mA
6-25. Given:
Answer: The load line moves futher away from the origin. VCC = 5 V
6-21. Given: VBB = 5 V
RB = 680 kΩ
VCC = 20 V
RC = 1 kΩ
VBB = 10 V
RB = 1 MΩ Solution:
RC = 4.7 kΩ IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11)
Solution: IC(sat) = 5 V/1 kΩ
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11) IC(sat) = 5 mA
IC(sat) = 20 V/4.7 kΩ VCE(cutoff) = VCC (Eq. 6-12)
IC(sat) = 4.25 mA VCE(cutoff) = 5 V
VCE(cutoff) = VCC Answer: The left side of the load line will decrease by
VCE(cutoff) = 20 V half, and the right will not move.
Answer: The left side of the load line would move down
while the right side remains at the same point. Ic
6-22. Given:
VCC = 20 V (b)
VBB = 10 V (a)
RB = 500 k (c)
RC = 3.3 kΩ
VCE
Solution:
Load lines for (a) Prob. 6-23, (b) Prob. 6-24, and (c)
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11) Prob. 6-25
IC(sat) = 20 V/3.3 kΩ
IC(sat) = 6.06 mA 6-26. Given:
VCE(cutoff) =VCC VCC = 20 V
VCE(cutoff) = 20 V VBB = 10 V
RB = 1 MΩ
Answer: The load line does not change. RC = 3.3 kΩ
6-23. Given: β = 200
VCC = 5 V Solution:
VBB = 5 V IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13)
RB = 680 kΩ IB = (10 V − 0.7 V)/1 MΩ
RC = 470 Ω IB = 9.3 μA
IC = β IB (Eq. 6-3)
IC = 200(9.3 μA)
IC = 1.86 mA
1-24
VCE = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 6-15) RB = 680 kΩ
VCE = 20 V – (1.86 mA)(3.3 kΩ) RC = 470 Ω
VCE = 13.86 V β =150
Answer: The voltage between the collector and ground Solution:
is 13.86 V. IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13)
6-27. Given: IB = (5 V − 0.7 V)/680 kΩ
VCC = 20 V IB = 6.32 μA
VBB =10 V IC = βIB (Eq. 6-3)
RB =1 MΩ IC = 150(6.32 μA)
RC = 3.3 kΩ IC = 948 μA
βdc(min) = 25
βdc(max) = 300 VCE = VCC − ICRC (Eq. 6-15)
IB = 9.3 μA (from the previous problem) VCE = 5 V − (948 μA)(470 Ω)
VCE = 4.55 V
Solution:
Answer: The voltage between the collector and ground
IC(min) = βdc(min)IB (Eq. 6-3) is 4.55 V.
IC(min) = 25(9.3 μA)
IC(min) = 232.5 μA 6-30. Given:
IC(max) = βdc(max)IB (Eq. 6-3) VCC = 5 V
IC(max) = 300(9.3 μA) VBB =10 V
IC(max) = 2.79 mA RB = 680 Ω
RC = 470 Ω
VCE(min) = VCC − IC(max)RC (Eq. 6-15) β(min) = 100
VCE(min) = 20 V − (2.79 mA)(3.3 kΩ) β(max) = 300
VCE(min) = 10.79 V IB = 6.32 μA (from the previous problem)
VCE(max) = VCC − IC(min)RC (Eq. 6-15) Solution:
VCE(max) = 20 V − (232.5 μA)(3.3 kΩ )
IC(min) = β(min) IB (Eq. 6-3)
VCE(max) = 19.23 V
IC(min) =100(6.32 μA)
Answer: The maximum collector to ground voltage is IC(min) = 632 μA
19.23 V, and the minimum is 10.79 V.
IC(max) = β(max) IB (Eq. 6-3)
6-28. Given: IC (max) = 300(6.32 μA)
VCC = 20 V ± 10% IC (max) = 1.90 mA
VBB = 10 V ± 10% VCE(min) = VCC − IC(max) RC (Eq. 6-15)
RB = 1 MΩ ± 5% VCE(min) = 5 V − (1.9 mA)(470 Ω)
RC = 3.3 kΩ ± 5% VCE(min) = 4.1 V
βdc(min) = 50
βdc(max) = 150 VCE (max) = VCC − IC (min) RC (Eq. 6-15)
VCE(max) = 5 V − (6.32 μA)(470 Ω)
Solution: VCE(max) = 4.99 V
IB(min) = (VBB(min) – VBE)/RB(max) (Eq. 6-13)
IB(min) = (9 V – 0.7 V)/1.05 MΩ Answer: The maximum collector to ground voltage is
IB(min) = 7.90 μA 4.99 V, and the minimum is 4.1 V.
IB(max) = (VBB(max) – VBE)/RB(min) (Eq. 6-13) 6-31. Given:

IB(max) = (11 V – 0.7 V)/0.95 MΩ VCC = 5 V ± 10%
IB(max) = 10.84 μA VBB = 5 V ±10%
RB = 680 kΩ ± 5%
IC(min) = βdc(min)IB(min) (Eq. 6-3) RC = 470 Ω ± 5%
IC(min) = 50(7.90 μA) βdc(min) = 50
IC(min) = 395 μA βdc(max) = 150
IC(max) = βdc(max)IB(max) (Eq. 6-3) Solution:
IC(max) = 150(10.84 μA)
IC(max) =1.63 mA IB(min) = (VBB(min) − VBE)/RB(max) (Eq. 6-13)
IB(min) = (4.5 V − 0.7 V)/714 kΩ
VCE(min) =VCC(max) – IC(max)RC(max) (Eq. 6-15) IB(min) = 5.32 μA
VCE(min) =18 V – (1.63 mA)(3.47 kΩ)
VCE(min) =12.34 V IB(max) = (VBB(max) −VBE)/RB(min) (Eq. 6-13)
IB(max) = (5.5 V − 0.7 V)/646 kΩ
VCE(max) =VCC(max) – IC(min)RC(min) (Eq. 6-15) IB(max) = 7.43 μA
VCE(max) =22 V – (395 μA)(3.14 kΩ)
VCE(max) = 20.76 V IC(min) = βdc(min)IB(min) (Eq. 6-3)
IC(min) = 50(5.32 μA)
Answer: The maximum collector to ground voltage is IC(min) = 266 μA
20.76 V, and the minimum is 12.34 V.
IC(max) = βdc(max)IB(max) (Eq. 6-3)
6-29. Given: IC(max) = 150(7.43 μA)
VCC = 5V IC(max) = 1.11 mA
VBB = 10 V
1-25
VCE(min) = VCC (max) − IC(max)RC(max) (Eq. 6-15) IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3)
VCE(min) = 4.5 V − (1.11 mA)(493.5 Ω) IC = 50(9.3 μA)
VCE(min) = 3.95 V IC = 465 μA
VCE(max) = VCC(max) − IC(min)RC(min) (Eq. 6-15) Answer: The transistor is not in saturation because the
VCE(max) = 5.5 V − (266 μA)(446.5 Ω) calculated collector current is less than the saturation
VCE(max) = 5.38 V current.
Answer: The maximum collector to ground voltage is 6-32d. Given:
5.38 V, and the minimum is 3.95 V. VCC = 10 V
6-32a. Given: VBB = 10 V
VCC = 20 V RB = 1 MΩ
VBB = 10 V RC = 3.3 kΩ
RB = 33 kΩ hFE = βdc = 100
RC = 3.3 kΩ Solution:
hFE = βdc = 100 IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11)
Solution: IC(sat) = 10 V/3.3 kΩ
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11) IC(sat) = 3.03 mA
IC(sat) = 20 V/3.3 kΩ IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13)
IC(sat) = 6.06 mA IB = (10 − 0.7)/1 MΩ
IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13) IB = 9.3 μA
IB = (10 − 0.7)/33 kΩ IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3)
IB = 281.8 μA IC = 100(9.3 μA)
IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3) IC = 930 μA
IC = 100(281.8 μA) Answer: The transistor is not in saturation because the cal-
IC = 28.18 mA culated collector current is less than the saturation current.
Answer: The transistor is in saturation because the cal- 6-33a. Given:
culated collector current is greater than the saturation VCC = 5
current. VBB = 5 V
6-32b. Given: RB = 51 kΩ
VCC = 20 V RC = 470 Ω
VBB = 5 V hFE = βdc = 100
RB = 1 MΩ Solution:
RC = 3.3 kΩ
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11)
hFE = βdc = 100
IC(sat) = 5 V/470 Ω
Solution: IC(sat) = 10.64 mA
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11) IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13)
IC(sat) = 20 V/3.3 kΩ IB = (5 − 0.7)/51 kΩ
IC(sat) = 6.06 mA IB = 84.3 μA
IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13) IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3)
IB = (5 − 0.7)/1 MΩ IC = 100(84.3 μA)
IB = 4.3 μA IC = 8.43 mA
IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3) Answer: The transistor is not in saturation because the
IC = 200(4.3 μA) calculated current is less than the saturation current.
IC = 860 μA
6-33b. Given:
Answer: The transistor is not in saturation because the
calculated collector current is less than the saturation VCC = 5 V
current. VBB = 10 V
RB = 680 kΩ
6-32c. Given: RC = 470 Ω
VCC = 20 V hFE = βdc = 500
VBB = 10 V
Solution:
RB = 1 MΩ
RC = 10 kΩ IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11)
hFE = βdc = 50 IC(sat) = 5 V/470 Ω
IC(sat) = 10.64 mA
Solution:
IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13)
IB = (10 − 0.7)/680 kΩ
IC(sat) = 20 V/10 kΩ
IB = 13.68 μA
IC(sat) = 2 mA
IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3)
IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13)
IC = 500(13.68 μA)
IB = (10 − 0.7)/1 MΩ
IC = 6.84 mA
IB = 9.3 μA
1-26
Answer: The transistor is not in saturation because the CRITICAL THINKING
calculated collector current is less than the saturation
current. 6-36. Given: βdc = 200
Solution:
6-33c. Given:
αdc = IC /IE (Eq. 6-2)
VCC = 5 V IC = αdcIE
VBB = 5 V
RB = 680 kΩ βdc = IC /IB (Eq. 6-3)
RC = 10 kΩ IE = IC + IB (Eq. 6-1)
hFE = βdc = 100
Substitute Eq. (6-2) for IC: βdc = αdcIE /IB
Solution:
IC(sat) = VCC/RC (Eq. 6-11) Substitute Eq. (6-1) for IE: βdc = αdc(IC + IB)/IB
IC(sat) = 5 V/10 kΩ Distribute αdc:
IC(sat) = 0.5 mA βdc = (αdcIC + αdcIB)/IB
IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13) βdc = αdcIC /IB + αdcIB /IB
IB = (5 − 0.7)/680 kΩ Simplify: βdc = αdcIC /IB + αdc
IB = 6.32 μA
Substitute Eq. (6-3) for IC /IB: βdc = αdcβdc + αdc
IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3)
IC = 100(6.32 μA) Factor out the αdc: βdc = αdc( βdc + 1)
IC = 632 μA Solve for αdc:
Answer: The transistor is in saturation because the calcu- αdc = βdc/(βdc + 1)
lated collector is greater than the saturation current. αdc = 200/(200 + 1)
αdc = 0.995
6-33d. Given:
Answer: The αdc is 0.995.
VCC = 10 V
VBB = 5 V 6-37. Given: αdc = 0.994
RB = 680 kΩ Solution: From the previous solution:
RC = 470Ω βdc = αdcβdc + αdc
hFE = βdc = 100 βdc – αdcβdc = αdc
Solution: Factor out the βdc: βdc(1 – αdc) = αdc
IC(sat) = 10 V/470 Ω Solve for βdc:
IC(sat) = 21.28 mA βdc = αdc/(1 – αdc)
βdc = 0.994/(1 – 0.994)
IB = (VBB − VBE)/RB (Eq. 6-13) βdc = 165.67
IB = (5 − 0.7)/680 kΩ
IB = 6.32 μA Answer: The βdc is 165.67.
IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3) 6-38. Given:

IC = 100(6.32 μA) VBB = 5 V
IC = 632 μA VCC = 15 V
hFE = βdc = 120
Answer: The transistor is not in saturation because the IC = 10 mA
calculated current is less than the saturation current. VCE = 7.5 V
6-34. Answer: With the switch open, the collector voltage is VBE = 0.7 V
5 V, and with the switch closed, the collector voltage Solution:
is 0 V.
βdc = IC /IB (Eq. 6-3)
6-35. a. Increase: With the base resistor shorted, the base- IB = IC/βdc
emitter junction will have excessive current and will IB = 10 mA/120
open, stopping all conduction. Thus source voltage is IB = 83.33 μA
read from collector to emitter. IB = (VBB – VBE)RB (Eq. 6-6)
b. Increase: With the base resistor open, the transistor RB = (VBB – VBE)/IB
goes into cutoff and source voltage is read from col- RB = (5 V – 0.7 V)/83.33 μA
lector to emitter. RB = 51.6 kΩ
c. Increase: With the collector resistor shorted, it is the
only thing in the circuit with the source and will read VCE = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 6-7)
source voltage at all times. RC = (VCC – VCE)/IC
d. Decrease: There will be no voltage present at the col- RC = (15 V – 7.5 V)/10 mA
lector or emitter. RC = 750 Ω
e. Increase: With the base supply gone, the transistor Answer: The base resistor needs to be 51.6 Ω, and the
goes into cutoff and source voltage is read from col- collector resistor needs to be 750 Ω. Note: These may not
lector to emitter. be standard values, so it may take more than one resistor,
f. Decrease: There will be no voltage present at the col- or a potentiometer may be used.
lector or emitter.
1-27
6-39. Given: VBE = 0.7 V (second approximation)
VBB = 10 V RC = 820 Ω
VCE = 6.7 V VCC = 10 V
VBE = 0.7 V (second approximation) βdc = 200
VBE = 0 V (ideal) Solution:
RC = 820 Ω
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] (Eq. 6-6)
VCC = 10 V
IB = [(10 V – 0.7 V)/470 kΩ]
βdc = 200
IB = 19.8 μA
Solution:
IC = βdcIB
Ideal IC = 200(19.8 μA)
VCC = VRC + VCE IC = 3.96 mA
VRC = VCC – VCE Answer: The LED current is 3.96 mA.
VRC = 10 V – 6.7 V
VRC = 3.3 V 6-42. Answer: VCE(sat) = 0.3 V
IC = VRC/RC
IC = 3.3 V/820 Ω 6-43. No collector supply
IC = 4 mA
6-44. RC is shorted
IB = IC/βdc
IB = 4 mA/200 6-45. RB is shorted
IB = 20.1 μA
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] 6-46. No base supply
RB = [(VBB – VBE)/IB]
RB = [(10 V – 0 V)/20.1 μA] 6-47. RB is open
RB = 497.5 kΩ
6-48. Base bias; common emitter
2nd Approximation
VCC = VRC + VCE 6-49. Synch input; clock output
VRC = VCC – VCE
6-50. 5 mA
VRC = 10 V – 6.7 V
VRC = 3.3 V 6-51. Saturated
IC = VRC/RC
IC = 3.3 V/820 Ω 6-52. +5 V
IC = 4 mA
IB = IC/βdc
IB = 4 mA/200 Chapter 7 BJT Biasing
IB = 20.1 μA
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB] SELF-TEST
RB = [(VBB – VBE)/IB]
1. b 11. a 21. a 31. a
RB = [(10 V – 0.7 V)/20.1 μA]
2. b 12. a 22. c 32. d
RB = 462.69 kΩ
3. d 13. d 23. c 33. b
Answer: (Ideal) RB = 497.5 kΩ, (2nd Approximation) 4. b 14. b 24. c 34. b
RB = 462.69 kΩ. 5. a 15. b 25. a 35. c
6. a 16. b 26. b 36. b
6-40. Given:
7. c 17. a 27. a 37. c
PD = 350 mW @25°C 8. a 18. c 28. d 38. a
T = 50°C 9. c 19. a 29. a 39. d
VCE = 10 V 10. d 20. b 30. c
Solution:
ΔT = 50°C – 25°C JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
ΔT = 25°C 2. The collector current changes only slightly, if at all.
ΔP = ΔT (derating factor) 4. Emitter-feedback bias and collector-feedback bias. They
ΔP = 25°C (2.8 mW/°C) were developed in an attempt to stabilize the Q point against
ΔP = 70 mW transistor replacement and temperature changes.
6. No. Saturation and cutoff.
PD(max) = 350 mW – 70 mW 7. Changes in current gain will change the collector current.
PD(max) = 280 mW The base resistors should be made smaller to satisfy the con-
PD = VCEIC dition described in the text.
IC = PD/VCE 10. The circuit will be highly sensitive to changes in current gain.
IC = 280 mW/10 V
IC = 28 mA PROBLEMS
Answer: The maximum collector current is 28 mA. 7-1. Given:
6-41. Given: VBB = 2.5 V
VBB = 10 V VCC = 20 V
RB = 470 kΩ
1-28
RC = 10 kΩ RC = 910 Ω
RE = 1.8 kΩ RE = 180
VBE = 0.7 V VBE = 0.7 V
Solution: Solution:
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1) VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = 2.5 V − 0.7 V VE = 2 V − 0.7 V
VE = 1.8 V VE = 1.3 V
IE = VE/RE (Ohm’s law) IE = VE/RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = 1.8 V/1.8 kΩ IE = 1.3 V/180 Ω
IE = 1 mA IE = 7.22 mA
IE ≈ IC IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law) VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = 20 V − (1 mA)(10 kΩ) VC = 10 V − (7.22 mA)(910 Ω)
VC = 10 V VC = 3.43 V
Answer: The collector voltage is 10 V, and the emitter Answer: The collector voltage is 3.43 V.
voltage is 1.8 V.
7-5. Given:
7-2. Given: VBB = 2.3 V
VBB = 2.5 V VCC = 10 V
VCC = 20 V RC = 910 Ω
RC = 10 kΩ RE = 360 Ω
RE = 3.6 kΩ VBE = 0.7 V
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
Solution: VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1) VE = 2.3 V − 0.7 V
VE = 2.5 V − 0.7 V VE = 1.6 V
VE = 1.8 V
IE = VE /RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = VE /RE (Ohm’s law) IE = 1.6 V/360 Ω
IE = 1.8 V/3.6 kΩ IE = 4.44 mA
IE = 0.5 mA IE ≈ IC
IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law) VC = 10 V − (4.44 mA)(910 Ω)
VC = 20 V − (0.5 mA)(10 kΩ) VC = 5.96 V
VC = 15 V
VCE = VC −VE (Eq. 7-2)
VCE = VC − VE (Eq. 7-2) VCE = 5.96 V − 1.6 V
VCE = 15 V − 1.8 V VCE = 4.36 V
VCE = 13.2 V
Answer: The collector-emitter voltage is 4.36 V.
Answer: The collector-emitter voltage is 13.2 V.
7-6. Given:
7-3. Given: VBB = 1.8 V
VBB = 2.5 V VCC = 15 V
VCC = 15 V RC = 910 Ω
RC = 10 kΩ RE = 180 Ω
RE = 1.8 kΩ VBE = 0.7 V
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
Solution: VE = VBB −VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1) VE = 1.8 V −0.7 V
VE = 2.5 V −0.7 V VE = 1.1 V
VE = 1.8 V
IE = VE/RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = VE/RE (Ohm’s law) IE = 1.1 V/180 Ω
IE = 1.8 V/1.8 kΩ IE = 6.11 mA
IE = 1 mA IE ≈ IC
IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law) VC = 15 V − (6.11 mA)(910 Ω)
VC = 15 V − (1 mA)(10 kΩ) VC = 9.44 V
VC = 5 V
VCE = VC − VE (Eq. 7-2)
Answer: The collector voltage is 5 V. VCE = 9.44 V − 1.1 V
VCE = 8.34 V
7-4. Given:
VBB = 2 V Answer: The collector-emitter voltage is 8.34 V.
VCC = 10 V
1-29
VCC = 5 V VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = 2 V VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]25 V
RE = 100 Ω VBB = 4.51 V
Solution: VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VE = VBB −VBE (Eq. 7-1) VE = 4.51 V – 0.7 V
VE = 2 V − 0.7 V VE = 3.81 V
VE = 1.3 V IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
IE = VE /RE (Ohm’s law) IE = 3.81 V/1 kΩ
IE = 1.3 V/100 Ω IE = 3.81 mA
IE = 13 mA IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
IE ≈ IC = ID
VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8)
Answer: The diode current is 13 mA. VC = 25 V – (3.81 mA)(3.6 kΩ)
7-8. Given: VC = 11.28 V
VCC = 5 V Answer: The emitter voltage is 3.81 V, and the collector
VBB = 1.8 V voltage is 11.28V.
RE = 100 Ω 7-16. Given:
VD ≈ 2 V
R1 = 10 kΩ
Solution: R2 = 2.2 kΩ
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1) RC = 2.7 kΩ
VE = 1.8 V− 0.7 V RE = 1 kΩ
VE = 1.1 V VCC = 15 V
VBE = 0.7 V
IE = VE /RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = 1.1 V/100 Ω Solution:
IE = 11 mA VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
IE ≈ IC = ID VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]15 V
VC = VCC −VD VBB = 2.7 V
VC = 5 V −2 V VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VC = 3 V VE = 2.7 V – 0.7 V
Answer: The diode current is 11 mA, and the collector VE = 2.0 V
voltage is 3 V. IE = VE/R3 (Eq. 7-6)
7-9. Answer: RC could be shorted; the transistor could be open IE = 2.0 V/1 kΩ
collector-emitter; RB could be open, keeping the transis- IE = 2 mA
tor in cutoff; open in the base circuit; open in the emitter IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
circuit. VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8)
VC = 15 V – (2 mA)(2.7 kΩ)
7-10. Answer: With the ground open, the base would read VBB VC = 9.59 V
and the collector would read VCC because source voltage
is read above an open. Answer: The emitter voltage is 2.0 V, and the collector
voltage is 9.59 V.
7-11. Answer: Shorted transistor; RB value very low; VBB too
high. 7-17. Given:
R1 = 330 kΩ
7-12. Answer: RC could be shorted; the transistor could be open R2 = 100 kΩ
collector-emitter; RB could be open, keeping the transis- RC = 150 kΩ
tor in cutoff; RE could be open; open in the base circuit; RE = 51 kΩ
open in the emitter circuit. VCC = 10 V
VBE = 0.7 V
7-13. Answer: With the emitter resistor open, the base would
read VBB and the collector would read VCC because source Solution:
voltage is read above an open. VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = [100 kΩ/(330 kΩ + 100 kΩ)]10 V
7-14. Answer: Shorted transistor collector-emitter because the VBB = 2.33 V
emitter voltage should be 1.1 V; open collector resistor;
loss of VCC. VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VE = 2.33 V – 0.7 V
7-15. Given: VE = 1.63 V
R1 = 10 kΩ IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
R2 = 2.2 kΩ IE = 1.63 V/51 kΩ
RC = 3.6 kΩ IE = 31.96 μA
RE = 1 kΩ
VCC = 25 V IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
VBE = 0.7 V
1-30
VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8) VC(min) = VCC – IC(max)RC(max) (Eq. 7-8)
VC = 10 V – (31.96 μA)(150 kΩ) VC(min) = 10 V – (37.36 μA)(157.5 kΩ)
VC = 5.21 V VC(min) = 4.12 V
Answer: The emitter voltage is 1.63 V, and the collector Answer: The lowest collector voltage is 4.12 V, and the
voltage is 5.21 V. highest collector voltage is 6.14 V.
R1 = 150 Ω R1 = 150 Ω
R2 = 33 Ω R2 = 33 Ω
RC = 39 Ω RC = 39 Ω
RE = 10 Ω RE = 10 Ω
VCC = 12 V VCC = 12 V ± 10%
VBE = 0.7 V VBE = 0.7 V
Solution: Solution:
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) VBB(max) = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC(max) (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = [33 Ω/(150 Ω + 33 Ω)]12 V VBB(max) = [33 Ω/(150 Ω + 33 Ω)]13.2 V
VBB = 2.16 V VBB(max) = 2.38 V
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) VE(max) = VBB(max) – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VE = 2.16 V – 0.7 V VE(max) = 2.38 V – 0.7 V
VE = 1.46 V VE(max) = 1.68 V
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) IE(max) = VE(max)/RE (Eq. 7-6)
IE = 1.46 V/10 Ω = 146 mA IE(max) = 1.68 V/10 Ω
IE(max) = 168 mA
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
VBB(min) = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC(min) (Eq. 7-4)
VBB(min) = [33 Ω/(150 Ω + 33 Ω)]10.8 V
VC = 12 V – (146 mA)(39 Ω)
VBB(min) = 1.95 V
VC = 6.3 V
VE(min) = VBB(min) – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
Answer: The emitter voltage is 1.46 V. The collector
VE(min) = 1.95 V – 0.7 V
voltage is 6.3 V.
VE(min) = 1.25 V
7-19. Given:
IE(min) = VE(min)/RE (Eq. 7-6)
R1 = 330 kΩ ± 5% IE(min) = 1.25 V/10 Ω
R2 = 100 kΩ ± 5% IE(min) = 125 mA
RC = 150 kΩ ± 5%
RE = 51 kΩ ± 5% IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
VCC = 10 V VC(max) = VCC(max) – IC(min)RC (Eq. 7-8)
VBE = 0.7 V VC(max) = 13.2 V – (125 mA)(39 Ω)
Solution: VC(max) = 8.33 V
VBB(max) = [R2(max)/(R1(min) + R2(max))]VCC (Eq. 7-4) VC(min) = VCC(min) – IC(max)RC (Eq. 7-8)
VBB(max) = [105 kΩ/(313.5 kΩ + 105 kΩ)]10 V VC(min) = 10.8 V – (168 mA)(39 Ω)
VBB(max) = 2.51 V VC(min) = 4.25 V
VBB(min) = [R2(min)/(R1(max) + R2(min))]VCC (Eq. 7-4) Answer: The lowest collector voltage is 4.25 V and the
VBB(min) = [95 kΩ/(346.5 kΩ + 95 kΩ)]10 V highest collector voltage is 8.33 V.
VBB(min) = 2.15 V 7-21. Given:
VE(max) = VBB(max) – VBB (Eq. 7-5)
VE(max) = 2.51 V – 0.7 V R1 = 10 kΩ
VE(max) = 1.81 V R2 = 2.2 kΩ
RC = 3.6 kΩ
VE(min) = VBB(min) – VBE (Eq. 7-5) RE = 1 kΩ
VE(min) = 2.15 V – 0.7 V VCC = 25 V
VE(min) = 1.45 V VBE = 0.7 V
IE(max) = VE(max)/RE(min) (Eq. 7-6) VBB = 4.51 V (from Prob. 7-15)
IE(max) = 1.81 V/48.45 kΩ VE = 3.81 V (from Prob. 7-15)
IE(max) = 37.36 μA IE = IC = 3.81 mA (from Prob. 7-15)
VC = 11.28 V (from Prob. 7-15)
IE(min) = VE(min)/RE(max) (Eq. 7-6)
IE(min) = 1.45 V/53.55 kΩ Solution:
IE(min) = 27.08 μA VCE = VC – VE (Eq. 7-9)
VCE = 11.28 V – 3.81 V
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
VCE = 7.47 V
VC(max) = VCC – IC(min)RC(min) (Eq. 7-8)
Answer: The Q point is IC = 3.81 mA, and VCE = 7.47 V.
VC(max) = 10 V – (27.08 μA)(142.5 kΩ)
VC(max) = 6.14 V
1-31
7-22. Given: IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
R1 = 10 kΩ VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8)
R2 = 2.2 kΩ VC = 12 V – (146 mA)(39 Ω)
RC = 2.7 kΩ VC = 6.3 V
RE = 1 kΩ
VCC = 15 V VCE = VC – VE (Eq. 7-9)
VBE = 0.7 V VCE = 6.3 V – 1.46 V
VCE = 4.85 V
Solution:
Answer: The Q point is IC = 146 mA, and VCE = 4.85 V.
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]15 V 7-25. Given:
VBB = 2.7 V R1 = 330 kΩ ± 5%
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) R2 = 100 kΩ ± 5%
VE = 2.7 V – 0.7 V RC = 150 kΩ ± 5%
VE = 2.0 V RE = 51 kΩ ± 5%
VCC = 10 V
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) VBE = 0.7 V
IE = 2.0 V/1 kΩ
IE = 2 mA Solution:
VBB(max) = [R2(max)/(R1(min) + R2(max))]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
VBB(max) = [105 kΩ/(313.5 kΩ + 105 kΩ)]10 V
VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8) VBB(max) = 2.51 V
VC = 15 V – (2 mA)(2.7 kΩ)
VBB(min) = [R2(min)/(R1(max) + R2(min))]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VC = 9.59 V
VBB(min) = [95 kΩ/(346.5 kΩ + 95 kΩ)]10 V
VCE = VC – VE (Eq. 7-9) VBB(min) = 2.15 V
VCE = 9.59 V – 2.0 V
VE(max) = VBB(max) – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VCE = 7.59 V
VE(max) = 2.51 V – 0.7 V
Answer: The Q point is IC = 2 mA, and VCE = 7.59 V. VE(max) = 1.81 V
7-23. Given: VE(min) = VBB(min) – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
R1 = 330 kΩ VE(min) = 2.15 V – 0.7 V
R2 = 100 kΩ VE(min) = 1.45 V
RC = 150 kΩ IE(max) = VE(max)/RE(min) (Eq. 7-6)
RE = 51 kΩ IE(max) = 1.81 V/48.45 kΩ
VCC = 10 V IE(max) = 37.36 μA
VBE = 0.7 V
VBB = 2.33 V (from Prob. 7-17) IE(min) = VE(min)/RE(max) (Eq. 7-6)
VE = 1.63 V (from Prob. 7-17) IE(min) = 1.45 V/53.55 kΩ
IE = IC = 31.96 μA (from Prob. 7-17) IE(min) = 27.08 μA
VC = 5.21 V (from Prob. 7-17) IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
Solution: Answer: The lowest collector current is 27.08 μA, and the
VCE = VC – VE (Eq. 7-9) highest collector current is 37.36 μA.
VCE = 5.21 V – 1.63 V 7-26. Given:
VCE = 3.58 V
R1 = 150 Ω
Answer: The Q point is IC = 31.96 μA, and VCE = 3.58 V. R2 = 33 Ω
7-24. Given: RC = 39 Ω
RE = 10 Ω
R1 = 150 Ω VCC = 12 V ± 10%
R2 = 33 Ω VBE = 0.7 V
RC = 39 Ω
RE = 10 Ω Solution:
VCC = 12 V VBB(max) = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC(max) (Eq. 7-4)
VBE = 0.7 V VBB(max) = [33 Ω/(150 Ω + 33 Ω)]13.2 V
Solution: VBB(max) = 2.38 V
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) VE(max) = VBB(max) – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VBB = [33 Ω/(150 Ω + 33 Ω)]12 V VE(max) = 2.38 V – 0.7 V
VBB = 2.16 V VE(max) = 1.68 V
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) IE(max) = VE(max)/RE (Eq. 7-6)
VE = 2.16 V – 0.7 V IE(max) = 1.68 V/10 Ω
VE = 1.46 V IE(max) = 168 mA
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) VBB(min) = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC(min) (Eq. 7-4)
IE = 1.46 V/10 Ω VBB(min) = [33 Ω/(150 Ω + 33 Ω)]10.8 V
IE = 146 mA VBB(min) = 1.95 V
1-32
VE(min) = VBB(min) – VBE (Eq. 7-5) 7-30. a. Increase: If R1 increases, VB decreases, VE decreases,
VE(min) = 1.95 V – 0.7 V IE decreases, IC decreases, the voltage drop across RC
VE(min) = 1.25 V decreases, and VC increases.
IE(min) = VE(min)/RE (Eq. 7-6) b. Increase: If R2 decreases, VB decreases, VE decreases,
IE(min) = 1.25 V/10 Ω IE decreases, IC decreases, the voltage drop across RC
IE(min) = 125 mA decreases, and VC increases.
c. Increase: RE increases, IE decreases, IC decreases, the
Answer: The lowest collector current 125 mA, and the voltage drop across RC decreases, and VC increases.
highest collector current is 168 mA. d. Increases: RC decreases, the voltage drop across RC
7-27. Given: decreases, and VC increases.
RB = 10 kΩ e. Increases: If VCC increases and the voltage drop across
RC = 4.7 kΩ RC does not change, VC increases.
RE = 10 kΩ f. Remain the same: βdc does not affect IC. Therefore the
VCC = 12 V voltage drop across RC does not change, nor does VC.
VEE = –12 V 7-31. a. Decreases: If R1 increases, VB increases, VE increases,
Solution: IE decreases, IC decreases, the voltage drop across the
collector resistor decreases, and VC decreases.
IE = (–0.7 V – VEE)/RE
IE = [–0.7 V – (–12 V)]/10 kΩ b. Increases: If R2 increases, VB decreases, VE decreases,
IE = 1.13 mA IE increases, IC increases, the voltage drop across the
collector resistor increases, and VC increases.
VC = VCC – ICRC c. Decreases: RE increases, IE decreases, IC decreases, the
VC = 12 V – (1.13 mA)(4.7 kΩ) voltage drop across the collector resistor decreases,
VC = 6.69 V and VC decreases.
Answer: The emitter current is 1.13 mA, and the collector d. Increase: IC remains the same, RC increases, the volt-
voltage is 6.69 V. age drop across the collector resistor increases, and VC
increases.
7-28. Given: e. Increase: Since VBE does not increase in proportion
RB = 20 kΩ to the increase in voltage supply, as do VB and VEE,
RC = 9.4 kΩ the voltage drop across the emitter resistor increases,
RE = 20 kΩ causing IE to increase. This causes the voltage drop
VCC = 12 V across the collector resistor to increase and VC to
VEE = –12 V increase.
f. Remain the same: βdc does not affect IC. Therefore the
Solution: voltage drop across RC does not change, nor does VC.
IE = (–0.7 V – VEE)RE
IE = [–0.7 V –(–12 V)]/20 kΩ 7-32. a. The approximate collector voltage is 12 V when R1 is
IE = 565 μA open due to no collector current.
b. The approximate collector voltage is 2.93 V when
VC = VCC – ICRC
R2 is open, the transistor is in saturation. CEB can be
VC = 12 V – (565 μA)(9.4 kΩ)
approximated as a short.
VC = 6.69 V
c. The approximate collector voltage is 12 V when RE is
Answer: The emitter current is 565 μA, and the collector open due to no collector current.
voltage is 6.69 V. d. The approximate collector voltage is 0.39 V when RC
7-29. Given: is open. The collector current is zero, therefore the
base current is equal to the emitter current. The circuit
RB = 10 kΩ ± 5% becomes a voltage divider of 150 Ω and 33 Ω driving
RC = 4.7 kΩ ± 5% 10 Ω through the base-emitter diode. Thevenize the
RE = 10 kΩ ± 5% base voltage divider to get a VTH = 2.16 V and a RTH =
VCC = 12 V 27 V Ω. This Thevenin circuit has a load of 10 Ω and
VEE = –12 V a diode. Now solve for a current of 39.57 mA, which
Solution: leads to an emitter voltage of 395 mV.
e. The approximate collector voltage is 12 V when the
IE(max) = (–0.7 V – VEE)/RE(min) (Eq. 7-11)
collector-emitter is open due to no collector current.
IE(max) = [–0.7 V – (–12 V)]/9.5 kΩ
IE(max) = 1.19 mA 7-33. a. If R1 is open, the base voltage increases to 10 V and
VC(max) = VCC – IC(min)RC(min) (Eq. 7-12) the transistor cuts off. Therefore, the collector voltage
VC(max) = 12 V – (1.08 mA)(4465 Ω) is zero.
VC(max) = 7.18 V b. If R2 is open, the transistor goes into saturation, simi-
lar to the preceding problem. Again, you can approxi-
IE(min) = (–0.7 V – VEE)/RE(max) (Eq. 7-11)
mate the saturated transistor as a CEB short; that is,
IE(min) = [–0.7 V – (–12 V)]/10.5 kΩ
all three terminals shorted. Then, 10 kΩ is in paral-
IE(min) = 1.08 mA
lel with 3.6 kΩ, which is 2.65 kΩ. This is in series
VC(min) = VCC – IC(max)RC(max) (Eq. 7-12) with 1 kΩ and 10 V. The series current is 10 V divided
VC(min) = 12 V – (1.19 mA)(4935 Ω) by 3.65 kΩ, or 2.74 mA. Multiply by 2.65 kΩ to get
VC(min) = 6.13 V 7.26 V, the approximate value of collector voltage.
Answer: The maximum collector voltage is 7.18 V. The c. With RE open, there is no collector current and the col-
minimum collector voltage is 6.13 V. lector voltage is zero.
1-33
d. With RC open, the transistor has no collector current. RC = 3.6 kΩ
Similar to the preceding problem, the circuit becomes VEE = 10 V
a voltage divider driving the emitter resistor through VBE = 0.7 V
the base-emitter diode. The Thevenin voltage and V2 = 1.8 V (from Prob. 7-34)
resistance facing the base-emitter diode are 1.8 V and VRE = 1.1 V (from Prob. 7-34)
1.8 kΩ. The current through the emitter resistor is IE = 1.1 mA (from Prob. 7-34)
(1.8 V – 0.7 V) divided by (1.8 kΩ + 1 kΩ), or VC = 3.96 V (from Prob. 7-34)
0.393 mA. Multiply by 1 kΩ to get 0.393 V for the
Solution: Because of the voltage divider, there will always
voltage across the emitter resistor. Subtract this from
be a 1.1 V drop across RE, and at saturation VCE = 0 V.
10 V to gel 9.6 V at the emitter node. Subtract 0.7 V to
This leaves 8.9 V across RC at saturation.
get 8.9 V at the base node. Add 0.7 V to get the volt-
age at the collector node. The final answer is therefore IC = 8.9 V/RC
9.4 V at the collector when RC is open. If you don’t IC = 8.9 V/3.6 kΩ
believe it, build the circuit and measure the collector IC = 2.47 mA
voltage with the collector resistor open. At cutoff, the maximum possible voltage across VCE is
e. When the collector-emitter terminals are open, there 8.9 V.
is no collector current and the collector voltage is
zero. Answer: The saturation current is 2.47 mA, and the
collector-emitter cutoff voltage is 8.9 V.
7-34. Given:
R1 = 10 kΩ 7-37. Given:
R2 = 2.2 kΩ R1 = 10 kΩ
RE = 1 kΩ R2 = 2.2 kΩ
RC = 3.6 kΩ RE = 1 kΩ
VEE = 10 V RC = 3.6 kΩ
VBE = 0.7 V VCC = –10 V
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
V2 = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VEE Solution:
V2 = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]10 V VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
V2 = 1.8 V VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)] 10 V
VBB = –1.8 V
VRE = V2 – 0.7 V
VRE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V VE = V2 + 0.7 V
VRE = 1.1 V VE = –1.8 V + 0.7 V
VE = –1.1 V
IE = VRE/RE
IE = 1.1 V/1 kΩ IE = VE/RE
IE = 1.1 mA IE = 1.1 V/1 kΩ
IE = 1.1 mA
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
VC = ICRC
VC = (1.1 mA)(3.6 kΩ) VC = VCC + ICRC
VC = 3.96 V VC = –10 V + (1.1 mA)(3.6 kΩ)
VC = –6.04 V
Answer: The collector voltage is 3.96 V.
Answer: The collector voltage is –6.04 V, and the emitter
7-35. Given: voltage is –1.1 V.
R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 2.2 kΩ CRITICAL THINKING
RE = 1 kΩ
RC = 3.6 kΩ 7-38. The circuit is no longer considered stiff or independent
VEE = 10 V of Beta. The base current is not small as compared to the
VBE = 0.7 V voltage divider current.
V2 = 1.8 V (from Prob. 7-34)
7-39. The maximum power dissipation of the 2N3904 is
VRE = 1.1 V (from Prob. 7-34)
625 mW. The transistor is dissipating 705 mW. The tran-
IE = 1.1 mA (from Prob. 7-34)
sistor will probably overheat and fail.
VC = 3.96 V (from Prob. 7-34)
Solution: 7-40. As long as the voltmeter has a high enough input resis-
tance, it should read approximately 4.83 V.
VCE = VCC – VC – VRE
VCE = 10 V – 3.96 V – 1.1 V 7-41. Increase the power supply value, short R1.
VCE = 4.94 V
Answer: The collector-emitter voltage is –4.94 V since 7-42. Connect an ammeter between the power supply and the
the collector is less positive than the emitter. circuit. Measure VR1 and VC, then calculate and add their
respective currents.
7-36. Given:
R1 = 10 kΩ 7-43. Given: (for Q1):
R2 = 2.2 kΩ R1 = 1.8 kΩ
RE = 1 kΩ R2 = 300 Ω
1-34
RE = 240 Ω VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8)
RC = 1 kΩ VC = 15 V – (10.6 mA)(620 Ω)
VCC = 15 V VC = 8.43 V
VBE = 0.7 V
Answer: The collector voltage for Q1 is 9.0 V, for Q2 is
Solution: 8.97 V, and for Q3 is 8.43 V.
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) 7-44. Given:
VBB = [300 Ω/(1.8 kΩ + 300 Ω)]15 V R1 = 10 kΩ
VBB = 2.14 V RE = 1 kΩ
VE = VBB – 0.7 V (Eq. 7-5) RC = 8.2 kΩ
VE = 2.14 V – 0.7 V VCC = 20 V
VE = 1.44 V VD = 0.7 V
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) Solution:
IE = 1.44 V/240 Ω VBB = 3(VD)
IE = 6 mA VBB = 3(0.7 V)
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7) VBB = 2.1 V
VE = VBB – 0.7 V (Eq. 7-5)
VE = 2.1 V – 0.7 V
VC = 15 V – (6 mA)(1 kΩ)
VE = 1.4 V
VC = 9.0 V
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
Given (for Q2):
IE = 1.4 V/1 kΩ
R1 = 910 Ω IE = 1.4 mA
R2 = 150 Ω
RE = 120 Ω IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
RC = 510 Ω VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8)
VCC = 15 V VC = 20 V – (1.4 mA)(8.2 kΩ)
VBE = 0.7 V VC = 8.52 V
Solution: Answer: The emitter current is 1.4 mA, and the collector
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) voltage is 8.52 V.
VBB = [150 Ω/(910 Ω + 150 Ω)]15 V 7-45. Given:
VBB = 2.12 V
VBB(1) = 2 V
VE = VBB – 0.7 V (Eq. 7-5) RE(1) = 200 Ω
VE = 2.12 V – 0.7 V RC(1) = 1 kΩ
VE = 1.42 V RE(2) = 1 kΩ
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) VCC = 16 V
IE = 11.83 mA VE(1) = VBB(1) – 0.7 V (Eq. 7-5)
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7) VE(1) = 2.0 V – 0.7 V
VE(1) = 1.3 V
VC = 15 V – (11.83 mA)(510 Ω) IE(1) = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
VC = 8.97 V IE(1) = 1.3 V/200 Ω
IE(1) = 6.5 mA
Given (for Q3):
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7)
R1 = 1 kΩ
R2 = 180 Ω VC(1) = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-8)
RE = 150 Ω VC(1) = 16 V – (6.5 mA)(1 kΩ)
RC = 620 Ω VC(1) = 9.5 V
VCC = 15 V VC(1) = VBB(2)
VBE = 0.7 V VE(2) = VBB(2) – 0.7 V (Eq. 7-5)
VE(2) = 9.5 V – 0.7 V
Solution: VE(2) = 8.8 V
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) Answer: The output voltage is 8.8 V.
VBB = [180 Ω/(1 kΩ + 180 Ω)]15 V
VBB = 2.29 V 7-46. Given:
VE = VBB – 0.7 V (Eq. 7-5) R1 = 620 Ω
VE = 2.29 V – 0.7 V R2 = 680 Ω
VE = 1.59 V RE = 200 Ω
VEE = 12 V
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) VBE = 0.7 V
IE = 1.59 V/150 Ω
Solution:
IE = 10.6 mA
V2 = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VEE
IC ≈ IE (Eq. 7-7) V2 = [680 Ω/(620 Ω + 680 Ω)]12 V
V2 = 6.28 V
1-35
VRE = V2 – 0.7 V there must be an open below it. If the transistor is open, VB
VRE = 6.28 V – 0.7 V would be 0 V; therefore the trouble is an open RE.
VRE = 5.58 V
Trouble 8: R2 is shorted.
IE = VRE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
7-54. Answer:
IE = 5.58 V/200 Ω
IE = 27.9 mA Trouble 9: Since the base voltage is 1.1 V, it appears that
the voltage divider is working but not properly. The emit-
ILED ≈ IE ter voltage is 0.7 V less than the base, so the emitter-
Answer: The LED current is 27.9 mA. base junction is working. If RC is open, the meter would
complete the circuit and give a low voltage reading. The
7-47. Given: trouble is an open RC.
R1 = 620 Ω
RE = 200 Ω Trouble 10: This is very similar to trouble 9 except that
VEE = 12 V the collector voltage is 10 V. Since source voltage is
VBE = 0.7 V read above an open, the trouble is an open collector-base
VZ = 6.2 V junction.
Solution: 7-55. Answer:

VRE = VZ – 0.7 V Trouble 11: Since all the voltages are 0 V, the power
VRE = 6.2 V – 0.7 V supply is not working.
VRE = 5.5 V Trouble 12: With the emitter voltage at 0 V and the base
IE = VRE/RE (Eq. 7-6) voltage at 1.83 V, the emitter-base diode of the transistor
IE = 5.5 V/200 Ω is open.
IE = 27.5 mA 7-56. R2 is shorted
ILED ≈ IE 7-57. RC is shorted
Answer: The LED current is 27.5 mA. 7-58. RE is shorted
7-48. Given: 7-59. No VCC
RE = 51 kΩ 7-60. Transistor B-E open
R1 = 3.3R2; this ratio is necessary to prevent moving the
Q point. Assume βdc = 100
Solution: Chapter 8 Basic BJT Amplifiers
R1 || R2 < 0.01 βdcRE (Eq. 7-12)
R1 || R2 = 0.01(100)(51 kΩ) SELF-TEST
R1 || R2 = 51 kΩ 1. a 11. b 21. a 31. b
2. b 12. d 22. c 32. a
Since R2 is the smaller of the two resistors, make it 51 kΩ.
3. c 13. b 23. b 33. a
Then the parallel resistance will not be higher than 51 kΩ,
4. c 14. b 24. c 34. b
which satisfies the requirement.
5. a 15. d 25. d 35. c
R1 = 3.3R2 6. d 16. b 26. c 36. b
R1 = 3.3(51 kΩ) 7. b 17. c 27. c 37. a
R1 = 168.3 kΩ 8. b 18. b 28. b
9. c 19. b 29. c
Answer: R1 maximum of 168.3 kΩ, R2 maximum of
10. c 20. c 30. c
51 kΩ, and the ratio between them 3.3:1.
7-49. Answer: With VB at 10 V and R2 is good, the trouble is R1
shorted. JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
4. To permit the output voltage to swing over the largest possi-
7-50. Answer: Since VB is 0.7 V and VE is 0 V, the trouble is RE
ble voltage when the input signal is large enough to produce
is shorted.
a maximum output.
7-51. Answer: 10. Very high input impedance to limit the current drawn from
Trouble 3: Since VC is 10 V and VE is 1.1 V, the transis- the preceding stage and to prevent distortion. Also, high
tor is good. Therefore the trouble is RC, which is shorted. current gain and low output impedance to provide a match
to a speaker.
Trouble 4: Since all the voltages are the same, the trouble
is that all the transistor terminals are shorted together.
PROBLEMS
7-52. Answer:
8-1. Given:
Trouble 5: Since VB is 0 V, it is either R1 open or R2
shorted. R2 is OK, so the trouble is R1 open. C = 47 μF
R = 10 kΩ
Trouble 6: R2 is open.
Solution:
7-53. Answer:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
Trouble 7: Since VC is 10 V, there is an open below it or a XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1)
short above it. A shorted RC would not affect VB; therefore 1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
1/(2πC) = (0.1R)f
1-36
f = 1/{[2π(47 μF)][0.1(10 kΩ)]} Solution:
f = 3.39 Hz REQ = (R1 × R2)/(R1 + R2) (Parallel resistance formula)
Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling REQ = (10 kΩ × 10 kΩ)/(10 kΩ + 10 kΩ)
exists is 3.39 Hz. REQ = 5 kΩ
8-2. Given: XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1REQ (Eq. 8-1)
C = 47 μF
1/(2πfC) = 0.1REQ
R = 1 kΩ
f =1/{[2π(220 μF)][0.1(5 kΩ)]}
Solution: f = 1.45 Hz
XC = 1/(2πfC) Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1) exists is 1.45 Hz.
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
1/(2πC) = (0.1R)f 8-7. Given:
f = 1/{[2π(47 μF)][0.1(1 kΩ)]} C = 47 μF
f = 33.9 Hz R1 = 2.2 kΩ
Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling R2 = 10 k
exists is 33.9 Hz. Solution:
8-3. Given: REQ = (R1 × R2)/(R1 + R2) (Parallel resistance formula)
C = 100 μF REQ = (2.2 kΩ × 10 kΩ)/(2.2 kΩ + 10 kΩ)
R = 10 kΩ REQ = 1.8 kΩ
Solution: XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1REQ (Eq. 8-1)
XC = 1/(2πfC) 1/(2 πfC) = 0.1REQ
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1) f = 1/{[2π(47 μF)][0.1(1.8 kΩ)]}
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R f = 18.8 Hz
1/(2πC) = (0.1R)f
f = 1/{[2π(100 μF)][0.1(10 kΩ)]} Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling
f = 1.59 Hz exists is 18.8 Hz.
Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling 8-8. Given:
exists is 1.59 Hz. f = 1 kHz
8-4. Given: R1 = 2.2 kΩ
R2 = 10 kΩ
f = 100 Hz
R = 10 kΩ Solution:
Solution: REQ = (R1 × R2)/(R1 + R2) (Parallel resistance formula)
REQ = (2.2 kΩ × 10 kΩ)/(2.2 kΩ + 10 kΩ)
XC = 1/(2πfC) REQ = 1.8 kΩ
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1)
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R XC = 1/(2πfC)
C = 1/[2π(100 Hz)(0.1)(10 kΩ)] XC < 0.1REQ (Eq. 8-1)
C = 1.59 μF 1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
C = 1/[2π(1 kHz)(0.1)(1.8 kΩ)]
Answer: A capacitor value of 1.59 μF is required for good C = 0.88 μF
coupling.
Answer: A capacitor value of 0.88 μF is required for good
8-5. Given: coupling.
C = 220 μF
8-9. Given:
R1 = 2.2 kΩ
R2 = 10 kΩ R1 = 1.5 kΩ
R2 = 330 Ω
Solution: RC = 1.2 kΩ
REQ = (R1 × R2)/(R1 + R2) (Parallel resistance formula) RE = 470 Ω
REQ = (2.2 kΩ × 10 kΩ)/(2.2 kΩ + 10 kΩ) VCC = 15 V
REQ = 1.8 kΩ VBE = 0.7 V
XC = 1/(2 πfC) Solution:
XC < 0.1REQ (Eq. 8-1) VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
1/(2πfC) = 0.1REQ VBB = [330 Ω/(1.5 kΩ + 330 Ω)]15 V
f = 1/{[2π(220 μF)][0.1(1.8 kΩ)]} VBB = 2.7 V
f = 4 Hz
VE = VBB − VBE
Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling VE = 2.7 V − 0.7 V
exists is 4 Hz. VE = 2.0 V
8-6. Given: IE = VE/RE
C = 220 μF IE = 2.0 V/470 Ω
R1 = 10 kΩ IE = 4.26 mA
R2 = 10 kΩ
1-37
ie(pp) < 0.1 IEQ (Eq. 8-6) RE = 470 Ω
ie(pp)max = 0.1 (4.26 mA) VCC = 15 V
ie(pp)max = 426 μA VBE = 0.7 V
Answer: The maximum ac emitter current for small Solution:
signal operation is 426 μA. VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Voltage divider formula)
8-10. Given: VBB = [330 Ω/(1.5 kΩ + 330 Ω)]15 V
R1 = 1.5 kΩ VBB = 2.7 V
R2 = 330 Ω VE = VBB – VBE
RC = 1.2 kΩ VE = 2.7 V – 0.7 V
RE = 940 Ω VE = 2.0 V
VCC = 15 V
VBE = 0.7 V IE = VE/RE
IE = 2.0 V/470 Ω
Solution: IE = 4.26 mA
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Voltage divider formula)
r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
VBB = [330 Ω/(1.5 kΩ + 330 Ω)] 15 V
r'e =25 mV/4.26 mA
VBB = 2.7 V
r'e = 5.88 Ω
VE = VBB – VBE
Answer: The ac resistance of the emitter diode is 5.88 Ω.
VE = 2.7 V – 0.7 V
VE = 2.0 V 8-15. Given:
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) IE = 2.13 mA (from Prob. 8-10)
IE = 2.128 mA
r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
ie(pp) < 0.1 IEQ (Eq. 8-6) r'e = 25 mV/2.13 mA
ie(pp)max = 0.1 (2.13 mA) r'e = 11.7 Ω
ie(pp)max = 213 μA
Answer: The ac resistance of the emitter diode is 11.7 Ω.
Answer: The maximum ac emitter current for small
signal operation is 213 μA. 8-16. Given:
8-11. Given: r'e = 5.88 Ω (from Prob. 8-14)
β = 200
ic = 15 mA
ib = 100 μA Solution:
Solutions: zin(base) = βr'e (Eq. 8-11)
zin(base) = 200 (5.88 Ω)
β = ic/ib (Eq. 8-8) zin(base) = 1.18 kΩ
β = 15 mA/100 μA
β = 150 Answer: The input impedance to the base is 1.18 kΩ.
Answer: The ac beta is 150. 8-17. Given:
β = 200
β = 200
ib = 12.5 μA Solution:
Solutions: zin(base) = βr'e (Eq. 8-11)
zin(base) = 200 (11.7 Ω)
β = ic/ib (Eq. 8-8) zin(base) = 2.34 kΩ
ic = βib
ic = 200 (12.5 μA) Answer: The input impedance to the base is 2.34 kΩ.
ic = 2.5 mA 8-18. Given: Since the collector resistor does not affect the dc
Answer: The ac collector current is 2.5 mA. emitter current, the ac emitter resistance does not change.
Since the beta did not change either, the input resistance
8-13. Given: remains the same as in problem 8-16.
β = 100
ic = 4 mA Answer: The input impedance to the base is 1.18 kΩ.
Solutions: 8-19. Answer:
β = ic/ib (Eq. 8-8)
ib = ib ⁄β z in(base) 5 207 V z out 5 1.02 kV
ib = 4 mA/100
ib = 40 μA
Answer: The ac base current is 40 μA. 1 1.5 kV 330 V lC 1.2 kV 6.8 kV
b re9
2
8-14. Given:
R1 = 1.5 kΩ
R2 = 330 Ω
b 5 150 re9 5 5.86 V
RC = 1.2 kΩ
1-38
8-20. Answer: 8-24. Given:
R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 2.2 kΩ
RC = 3.6 kΩ
1 3 kV 660 V lC 2.4 kV 13.6 kV
b re9 RE = 1 kΩ
2 RL = 5 kΩ
VCC = 10 V
VBB = 1.8 V (from Prob. 8-23)
VE = 1.1 V (from Prob. 8-23)
8-21. Answer: IE = 1.1 V (from Prob. 8-23)
min hfe = 50 r'e = 22.7 Ω (from Prob. 8-23)
max hfe = 200 Solution:
Current is 1 mA rc = RC || RL
Temperature 25°C rc = 3.6 kΩ || 5 kΩ
8-22. Given: rc = 2093 kΩ
IE = IC = 5 mA Av = rc/r'e
From Fig. 13 on the data sheet hie is 875 Ω at 5 mA; from Av = 2093 kΩ/22.7 Ω
Fig. 11 on the data sheet hfe is 150 Ω at 5 mA. Av = 92.2
Solution: Answer: The voltage gain is 92.2.
r'e = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10) 8-25. Given:
r'e = (25 mV)/5 mA
r'e = 5 Ω R1 = 10 kΩ
r'e = hic/hfe R2 = 2.2 kΩ
r'e = 875 Ω/150 RC = 3.6 kΩ
r'e = 5.83 RE = 1 kΩ
RL = 10 V
Answer: The value of r'e is 5.83 Ω. The calculated value is VCC = 15 V
larger than the ideal.
Solution:
8-23. Given: VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
R1 = 10 kΩ VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]15 V
R2 = 2.2 kΩ VBB = 2.7 V
RC = 3.6 kΩ
RE = 1 kΩ VE = VBB – VBE
RL = 10 kΩ VE = 2.7 V – 0.7 V
VCC = 10 V VE = 2.0 V
VBE = 0.7 V IE = VE/RE
Solution: IE = 2.0 V/1 kΩ
IE = 2 mA
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]10 V r'e = (25 mV)/IE
VBB = 1.8 V r'e = (25 mV)/2 mA
r'e = 12.5 Ω
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V rc = RC || RL
VE = 1.1 V rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ
rc = 2.65 kΩ
IE = 1.1 V/1 kΩ Av = rc/r'e
IE = 1.1 mA Av = 2.65 kΩ/12.5 Ω
Av = 212
r'e = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10)
r'e = (25 mV)/1.1 mA vout = Av(vin)
r'e = 22.7 Ω vout = 212(1 mV)
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15) vout = 212 mV
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ Answer: The voltage gain is 212, the output voltage is
rc = 2.65 kΩ 212 mV.
Av = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16) 8-26. Given:
Av = 2.65 kΩ/22.7 Ω
Av = 117 R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 2.2 kΩ
vout = Avin RC = 3.6 kΩ
vout = 117(2 mV) RE = 1 kΩ
vout = 234 mV RL = 10 kΩ
Answer: The output voltage is 234 mV. RG = 600 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V
VCC = 15 V
Assume β = 100
1-39
Solution: zin = R1 || R2 || βr'e
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 100(45.5 Ω)
VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]15 V zin = 1.29 kΩ
VBB = 2.7 V vin = [zin(RG + zin)]vg (Eq. 8-17)
VE = VBB – VBE vin = [1.29 kΩ/(600 Ω + 1.29 kΩ)]1 mV
VE = 2.7 V – 0.7 V vin = 0.683 mV
VE = 2.0 V vout = Av(vin)
IE = VE/RE vout = 58(0.683 mV)
IE = 2.0 V/1 kΩ vout = 39.6 mV
IE = 2 mA Answer: The output voltage is 39.6 mV.
r'e = (25 mV)/IE 8-28. Given:
r'e = (25 mV)/2 mA
r'e = 12.5 Ω R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 2.2 kΩ
rc = RC || RL RC = 3.6 kΩ
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ RE = 1 kΩ
rc = 2.65 kΩ RL = 10 kΩ
Av = rc/re' RG = 300 Ω
Av = 2.65 kΩ/12.5 Ω VBE = 0.7 V
Av = 212 VCC = 10 V
Assume β = 100
zin = R1 || R2 || βr'e
zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 1.25 kΩ Solution:
zin = 738 Ω VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]10 V
vin = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg VBB = 1.8 V
vin = [738 Ω/(600 Ω + 738 Ω)]1 mV
vin = 551.57 μV VE = VBB – VBE
VE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V
vout = Av(vin) VE = 1.1 V
vout = 212(551.57 μV)
vout = 117 mV IE = VE/RE
IE = 1.1 V/1 kΩ
Answer: The voltage gain is 212, the output voltage is IE = 1.1 mA
117 mV.
r'e = (25 mV)/IE
8-27. Given: r'e = (25 mV)/1.1 mA
R1 = 10 kΩ r'e = 22.7 Ω
R2 = 2.2 kΩ
RC = 3.6 kΩ rc = RC || RL
RE = 2 kΩ rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ
RL = 10 kΩ rc = 2.65 kΩ
RG = 600 Ω Av = rc/r'e
VCC = 10 V Av = 2.65 kΩ/22.7 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V Av = 117
Assume β = 100
zin = R1 || R2 || βr'e
Solution: zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 2.27 kΩ
VBB = [R1/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) zin = 1 kΩ
VBB = [10 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]10 V vin = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg
VBB = 1.8 V vin = [1 kΩ/(300 Ω + 1 kΩ)]1 mV
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) vin = 769 μV
VE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V vout = Av(vin)
VE = 1.1 V vout = 117(769 μV)
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) vout = 90 mV
IE = 1.1 V/2 kΩ Answer: The voltage gain is 117, the output voltage is
IE = 0.55 mA 90 mV.
r'e = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10) 8-29. Given:
r'e = (25 mV)/0.55 mA
r'e = 45.5 Ω R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 2.2 kΩ
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15) RC = 3.6 kΩ
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ RE = 820 Ω
rc = 2.65 kΩ re = 180 Ω
Av = rc / r'e (Eq. 8-16) RL = 10 kΩ
Av = 2.65 kΩ/45.5 Ω RG = 600 Ω
Av = 58 VBE = 0.7 V
1-40
VCC = 10 V Solution:
Assume β = 100 rc = RC || RL
Solution: rc = 3.6 kΩ || 3.6 kΩ
rc = 1.8 kΩ
rc = RC || RL
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ Av = rc/re
rc = 2.65 kΩ Av = 1.8 kΩ/180 Ω
Av = 10
Av = rc/re
Av = 2.65 kΩ/180 Ω Answer: The voltage gain is 10.
Av = 14.7
8-32. Given:
zin = R1 || R2 || βre R1 = 10 kΩ
zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 18 kΩ R2 = 2.2 kΩ
zin = 1.64 kΩ RC = 3.6 kΩ
vin = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg RE = 820 Ω
vin = [1.64 kΩ/(600 Ω + 1.64 kΩ)]25 mV re = 180 Ω
vin = 18.3 mV RL = 10 kΩ
RG = 600 Ω
vout = Av(vin) VCC = 30 V
vout = 14.7(18.3 mV) VBE = 0.7 V
vout = 269 mV
Solution:
Answer: The voltage gain is 14.7, the output voltage
is 269 mV. rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15)
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ
8-30. Given: rc = 2.65 kΩ
R1 = 10 kΩ Av = rc/re (Eq. 8-19)
R2 = 2.2 kΩ Av = 2.65 kΩ/180 Ω
RC = 3.6 kΩ Av = 14.7
RE = 820 Ω
re = 180 Ω Answer: The voltage gain is 14.7.
RL = 10 kΩ 8-33. Answer: Since the capacitor is an open to direct current,
RG = 50 Ω the dc voltages do not change and the ac voltage gain will
VBE = 0.7 V be drastically reduced.
VCC = 10 V
Assume β = 100 8-34. Answer: Some of the possible causes are: open tran-
Solution: sistor, open emitter resistor, or open output coupling
capacitor.
rc = RC || RL
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ
rc = 2.65 kΩ CRITICAL THINKING
Av = rc/re 8-35. Answer: The capacitor has a certain amount of leakage
Av = 2.65 kΩ/180 Ω current, and this current will flow through the resistor and
Av = 14.7 create a voltage drop across the resistor.
zin = R1 || R2 || βre 8-36. Answer: A wire has a very small inductance value. As
zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 18 kΩ the frequency increases, the inductive reactance starts
zin = 1.64 kΩ to become significant. The wires connected to the
vin = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg capacitor and the leads will start to have an inductive
vin = [1.64 kΩ /(50 Ω + 1.64 kΩ)]50 mV reactance, causing the voltage to rise at the node.
vin = 48.52 mV
8-37. Given:
vout = Av(vin) R = 30 Ω
vout = 14.7(48.52 mV) f = 20 Hz to 20 kHz
vout = 713 mV
Solution:
Answer: The voltage gain is 14.7, the output voltage
is 713 mV. XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-5)
8-31. Given: 1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
R1 = 10 kΩ 1/(2πf) = (0.1R)(C)
R2 = 2.2 kΩ 1/(2πf)(0.1R) = C
RC = 3.6 kΩ C = 1/{[2π(20 Hz)][0.1(30 Ω)]}
RE = 820 Ω C = 2653 μF
re = 180 Ω Answer: The capacitor would have to be at least 2653 μF,
RL = 3.6 kΩ or 2700 μF (standard value).
RG = 600 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V
VCC = 10 V
Assume β = 100
1-41
8-38. Given: Trouble 2: Since the input voltage increased to 0.75 mV,
R1 = 20 kΩ the problem is an open RE.
R2 = 4.4 kΩ Trouble 3: Since there are no ac voltages and the base
RC = 7.2 kΩ voltage has changed, the problem is in the input circuit.
RE = 2 kΩ Since there is a 0.7 V drop across the BE diode, the tran-
RL = 20 kΩ sistor should be conducting and thus the collector voltage
VCC = 10 V should be less than 10 V. It appears that the BC diode is
VBE = 0.7 V open, except the base voltages are not consistent with that
Solution: problem. To make this problem correct for the BC diode
open, return VB, VE, and vb to the OK values.
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = [4.4 kΩ/(20 kΩ + 4.4 kΩ)]10 V Trouble 4: Since the dc base voltage is 0 and there is an
VBB = 1.8 V ac base voltage, the problem is an R1 open.
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) Trouble 5: Since there is no output ac voltage, the
VE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V problem is C2 open.
VE = 1.1 V Trouble 6: Since there are no ac voltages and the base
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) voltage has changed, the problem is in the input circuit.
IE = 1.1 V/2 kΩ The voltage points to an open R2.
IE = 0.55 mA 8-41. Answers:
re' = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10) Trouble 7: All the dc voltages are OK; thus the transistor
re' = (25 mV)/0.55 mA and resistors are OK. Since the base and emitter ac
re' = 45.5 Ω voltages are the same, the problem appears to be an open
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15) bypass capacitor C3.
rc = 7.2 kΩ || 20 kΩ Trouble 8: Since there are no ac voltages and the base
rc = 5.3 kΩ voltage has changed, the problem is in the input circuit.
Av = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16) Since the collector voltage is so low, the collector resistor
Av = 5.3 kΩ/45.5 Ω is open.
Av = 116 Trouble 9: Since there are no dc voltages, the problem
is no VCC.
Answer: The voltage gain is 116.
Trouble 10: Since the emitter voltage is 0 and the base
8-39. Given: voltage is near normal, the problem is an open BE diode.
R1 = 20 kΩ
R2 = 4.4 kΩ Trouble 11: With all the dc voltages the same, the
RC = 7.2 kΩ problem is a shorted transistor in all three terminals.
RE = 2 kΩ Trouble 12: Since all the ac voltages are 0, the problem
RL = 20 kΩ could be the generator, RG open, or C1 open.
RG = 1.2 kΩ
VCC = 10 V 8-42. C3 is open
VBE = 0.7 V 8-43. C1 is open
Assume β = 100
VBB = 1.8 V (from Prob. 8-38) 8-44. RE is shorted
VE = 1.1 V (from Prob. 8-38) 8-45. Transistor is upside down.
IE = 0.55 mA (from Prob. 8-38)
re' = 45.5 Ω (from Prob. 8-38) 8-46. No VCC
re' = 5.3 kΩ
Av = 116
Chapter 9 Multistage, CC,
Solution:
and CB Amplifiers
zin = R1 || R2 || βre'
zin = 20 kΩ || 4.4 kΩ || 100(45.5 Ω) SELF-TEST
zin = 2.01 kΩ 1. a 10. a 19. c 28. a
vin = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg (Eq. 10-4) 2. b 11. a 20. a 29. c
vin = [2.01 kΩ/(1.2 kΩ + 2.01 kΩ)]1 mV 3. c 12. d 21. c 30. d
vin = 0.626 mV 4. b 13. c 22. c 31. c
5. c 14. a 23. a 32. b
vout = Av(vin) 6. b 15. c 24. a 33. d
vout = 116(0.626 mV) 7. c 16. d 25. d 34. b
vout = 72.6 mV 8. d 17. a 26. a 35. d
Answer: The output voltage is 72.6 mV. 9. c 18. c 27. d 36. b
8-40. Answers:
Trouble 1: Since all the ac voltages are 0, the problem
could be the generator, RG open, or C1 open. 5. Voltage gain is always less than but usually near 1. The cir-
cuit is used as a current or power amplifier. Applications
1-42
include stereo output stages, linear power-supply regulation, vout(2) = Av(vin)
and drivers for relays, LEDs. vout(2) = 117(21.6 mV)
7. They allow excellent impedance matching and maximum vout(2) = 2.53 V
power transfer to low-impedance loads.
Answer: The base voltage of the first stage is 0.625 mV,
11. None.
the base voltage of the second stage is 21.6 mV, and the
12. Power gain is the product of voltage gain and current gain.
voltage across the collector resistor is 2.53 V.
Although the voltage gain is slightly less than 1, the current
gain is very large. Therefore, the power gain is very large. 9-2. Given:
R1 = 10 kΩ
PROBLEMS R2 = 2.2 kΩ
RC = 3.6 kΩ
9-1. Given: RE = 1 kΩ
R1 = 10 kΩ RL = 10 kΩ
R2 = 2.2 kΩ RG = 600 Ω
RC = 3.6 kΩ VCC =12 V
RE = 1 kΩ VBE = 0.7 V
RL = 10 kΩ β = 100
RG = 600 Ω
Solution:
VCC = 10 V
VBE = 0.7 V VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
β = 100 VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]12 V
VBB = 2.16 V
Solution:
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VE = 2.16 V – 0.7 V
VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]10 V
VE = 1.46 V
VBB = 1.8 V
IE = 1.46 V/1 kΩ
VE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V
IE = 1.46 mA
VE = 1.1 V
r'e = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10)
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) r'e = (25 mV)/1.46 mA
IE = 1.1 V/1 kΩ r'e = 17.1 Ω
IE = 1.1 mA
zin = R1 || R2 || βr'e
r'e = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10) zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 100(17.1 Ω)
r'e = (25 mV) /1.46 mA zin = 878 Ω
r'e = 22.7 Ω
The input impedance for each stage is 878 Ω.
zin = R1 || R2 || βre'
zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 100(22.7 Ω) vin(1) = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg (Eq. 8-17)
zin = 1.0 kΩ vin(1) = [878 Ω/ (600 Ω + 878 Ω)]1 mV
vin(1) = 0.594 mV
The input impedance for each stage is 1.0 kΩ.
The input impedance for the second stage is the load
vin(1) = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg (Eq. 8-17) resistance for the first stage.
vin(1) = [1.0 kΩ/(600 Ω + 1.0 kΩ)]1 mV
vin(1) = 0.625 mV rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15)
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 878 kΩ
The input impedance for the second stage is the load rc = 706 Ω
resistance for the first stage.
Av = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-19)
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15) Av = 706 Ω/17.1 Ω
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 1.0kΩ Av = 41.3
rc = 783 Ω
The output voltage of the first stage is the input voltage
Av = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16) for the second stage.
Av = 783 Ω/22.7 Ω
Av = 34.5 vout(1) = Av(vin)
vout(1) = 41.3(0.594 mV)
The output voltage of the first stage is the input voltage vout(1) = 24.5 mV
for the second stage.
vout(1) = Av(vin) rc(2) = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15)
vout(1) = 34.5(0.625 mV) rc(2) = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ
vout(1) = 21.6 mV rc(2) = 2.65 kΩ
rc(2) = Rc || RL (Eq. 8-15) Av(2) = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-19)
rc(2) = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ Av(2) = 2.65 kΩ/17.1 Ω
rc(2) = 2.65 kΩ Av(2) = 155
Av(2) = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16) vout(2) = Av(vin)

Av(2) = 2.65 kΩ/22.7Ω vout(2) = 155(24.5 mV)
Av(2) = 117 vout(2) = 3.80 V
Answer: The output voltage is 3.80 V.
1-43
R1 = 10 kΩ Av = rf /re (Eq. 9-2)
R2 = 2.2 kΩ Av = 5 kΩ/50 Ω
RC = 3.6 kΩ Av = 100
RE = 1 kΩ
RL = 10 kΩ
RG = 600 Ω 9-5. Given:
Vcc =10 V re = 125 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V Av = 100
β = 300
Solution:
Solution:
Av = rf /re (Eq. 9-2)
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) rf = 100(125 Ω)
VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]10 V rf = 12.5 kΩ
VBB = 1.8 V
Answer: The feedback resistor would need to be 12.5 kΩ.
VE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V 9-6. Given:
VE = 1.1 V R1 = 2.2 kΩ
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) R2 = 2.2 kΩ
IE = 1.1 V/1 kΩ RE = 1 kΩ
IE = 1.1 mA RL = 3.3 kΩ
RG = 50 Ω
r'e = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10) β = 200
r'e = (25 mV) /1.1 mA VCC = 15 V
r'e = 22.7 Ω VBE = 0.7 V
zin = R1 || R2 || βr'e Solution:
zin = 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 300(22.7 Ω) VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
zin = 1.43 kΩ VBB = [2.2 kΩ/(2.2 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)]15 V
The input impedance for each stage is 1.43 kΩ. VBB = 7.5 V
vin(1) = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg (Eq. 8-17) VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
vin(1) = [1.43 kΩ/(600 Ω + 1.43 kΩ)]1 mV VE = 7.5 V – 0.7 V
vin(1) = 0.704 mV VE = 6.8 V
The input impedance for the second stage is the load IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
resistance for the first stage. IE = 6.8 V/1 kΩ
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15) IE = 6.8 mA
rc = 3.6 kΩ || 1.43 kΩ r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
rc = 1.02 kΩ r'e = 25 mV/6.8 mA
Av = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16) r'e = 3.68 Ω
Av = 1.02 kΩ/22.7 Ω re = RE || RL (Eq. 9-3)
Av = 45 re = 1 kΩ || 3.3 kΩ
The output voltage of the first stage is the input voltage re = 767 Ω
for the second stage. zin(base) = β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-5)
vout(1) = Av(vin) zin(base) = 200(767 Ω + 3.48 Ω)
vout(1) = 45(0.704 mV) zin(base) = 154 kΩ
vout(1) = 31.7 mV zin(stage) = 154 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ = 1.09 kΩ
rc(2) = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15) Answer: The input impedance of the base is 154 kΩ, and
rc(2) = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ the input impedance of the stage is 1.09 kΩ.
rc(2) = 2.65 kΩ
9-7. Given:
Av(2) = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16) R1 = 2.2 kΩ
Av(2) = 2.65 kΩ/22.7 Ω R2 = 2.2 kΩ
Av(2) = 117 RE = 1 kΩ
vout(2) = Av(vin) RL = 3.3 kΩ
vout(2) = 117(31.7 mV) RG = 50 Ω
vout(2) = 3.71 V β = 150
VCC = 15 V
Answer: The output voltage is 3.71 V. VBE = 0.7 V
re = 767 Ω (from Prob. 9-6)
rf = 5 kΩ
re = 50 Ω Solution:
zin = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6)
zin = 2.2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 150(767 Ω + 3.48 Ω)
zin = 1.09 kΩ
1-44
vin = [zin/(zin + RG)]vg RE = 2 kΩ
vin = [1.09 kΩ/(1.09 kΩ + 50 Ω)]1 V RL = 6.6 kΩ
vin = 0.956 V RG = 100 Ω
β = 150
Answer: The input voltage is 0.956 V.
VCC = 15 V
9-8. Given: VBE = 0.7 V
R1 = 2.2 kΩ Solution:
R2 = 2.2 kΩ VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
RE = 1 kΩ VBB = [4.4 kΩ/(4.4 kΩ + 4.4 kΩ)]15 V
RL = 3.3 kΩ VBB = 7.5 V
RG = 50 Ω
β = 175 VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VCC = 15 V VE = 7.5 V – 0.7 V
VBE = 0.7 V VE = 6.8 V
r'e = 3.68 Ω (from Prob. 9-6) IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
re = 767 Ω (from Prob. 9-6) IE = 6.8 V/2 kΩ
Solution: IE = 3.4 mA
Av = re /(re + r'e) (Eq. 11-2) r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
Av = 767 Ω/(767 Ω + 3.48 Ω) r'e = 25 mV/3.4 mA
Av = 0.995 r'e = 7.35 Ω
zin = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6) re = RE || RL (Eq. 9-3)
zin = 2.2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 175(767 Ω + 3.48 Ω) re = 2 kΩ || 6.6 kΩ
zin = 1.09 kΩ re = 1.53 kΩ
vin = [zin/(zin + RG)]vg zin = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6)
vin = [1.09 kΩ/(1.09 kΩ + 50 Ω)]1 V zin = 4.4 kΩ || 4.4 kΩ || 150(1.53 kΩ + 7.35 kΩ)
vin = 0.956 V zin = 2.18 kΩ
vout = Av(vin) (Eq. 8-3) vin = [zin/(zin + RG)]vg
vout = (0.995)(0.956 V) vin = [2.18 kΩ/(2.18 kΩ + 100 Ω)]1 V
vout = 0.951 V vin = 0.956 V
Answer: The gain is 0.995, and the output voltage is Answer: The input impedance doubles to 2.18 kΩ, and
0.951 V. the input voltage remains the same at 0.956 V.
R1 = 2.2 kΩ R1 = 100 Ω
R2 = 2.2 kΩ R2 = 200 Ω
RE = 1 kΩ RE = 30 Ω
RL = 3.3 kΩ RL = 10 Ω
RG = 50 Ω RG = 50 Ω
β = 50 to 300 β = 200
VCC =15 V VCC = 20 V
VBE = 0.7 V VBE = 0.7 V
r'e = 3.68 Ω (from Prob. 9-6) Solution:
re = 767 Ω (from Prob. 9-6)
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
Solution: VBB = [200 Ω/(100 Ω + 200 Ω)]20 V
zin(min) = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6) VBB = 13.3 V
zin(min) = 2.2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 50(767 Ω + 3.48 Ω) VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
zin(min) = 1.07 kΩ VE = 13.3 V – 0.7 V
zin(max) = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6) VE = 12.6 V
zin(max) = 2.2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ || 300(767 Ω + 3.48 Ω) IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
zin(max) = 1.09 kΩ IE = 12.6 V/30 Ω
vin(min) = [zin/(zin + RG)]VG IE = 420 mA
vin(min) = [1.07 kΩ/(1.07 kΩ + 50 Ω)]1 V r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
vin(min) = 0.955 V r'e = 25 mV/420 mA
vin(min) = [zin/(zin + RG)]vg r'e = 0.06 Ω
vin(min) = [1.09 kΩ/(1.09 kΩ + 50 Ω)]1 V re = RE || RL (Eq. 9-3)

vin(min) = 0.956 V re = 30 Ω || 10 Ω
re = 7.5 Ω
Answer: The input voltage varies over the range of 0.955
to 0.956 V. zin(base) = β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-5)
zin(base) = 200(7.5 Ω + 0.06 Ω)
9-10. Given: zin(base) = 1.51 kΩ
R1 = 4.4 kΩ
R2 = 4.4 kΩ
1-45
zin (stage) = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6) Solution:
zin (stage) = 100 Ω || 200 Ω || 1.51 kΩ zout = RE || [r'e + (RG || R1 || R2)/β] (Eq. 9-7)
zin (stage) = 63.8 Ω zout = 1 kΩ || [3.68 Ω + (50 Ω || 2.2 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ)/200]
Answer: The input impedance of the base is 1.51 kΩ, and zout = 3.9 Ω
the input impedance to the stage is 63.8 Ω. Answer: The output impedance is 3.9 Ω.
R1 = 100 Ω R1 = 100 Ω
R2 = 200 Ω R2 = 200 Ω
RE = 30 Ω RE = 30 Ω
RL = 50 Ω RL = 10 Ω
RG = 50 Ω RG = 50 Ω
β = 150 β = 100
VCC = 20 V VCC = 20 V
VBE = 0.7 V VBE = 0.7 V
r'e = 0.06 Ω (from Prob. 9-11) r'e = 0.06 Ω (from Prob. 9-11)
re = 7.5 Ω (from Prob. 9-11) re = 7.5 Ω (from Prob. 9-11)
Solution: Solution:
zin = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6) zout = RE || [r'e + (RG || R1 || R2)/β] (Eq. 9-7)
zin = 100 Ω || 200 Ω || 150(7.5 Ω + 0.06 Ω) zout = 30 Ω || [0.06 Ω + (50 Ω || 100 Ω || 200 Ω)/100]
zin = 63 Ω zout = 0.342 Ω
vin = [zin/(zin + RG)]vg
Answer: The output impedance is 0.342 Ω.
vin = [63 Ω/(63 Ω + 50 Ω)]1 V
vin = 0.558 V 9-16. Given:
Answer: The input voltage is 0.558 V. Q2 β = 200 (ac & dc)
R1 = 4.7 kΩ
9-13. Given: R2= 1 kΩ
R1 = 100 Ω RC = 1.5 kΩ
R2 = 200 Ω RE = 330 Ω
RE = 30 Ω RL = 150 Ω
RL = 10 Ω VCC = 15 V
RG = 50 Ω Solution:
β = 175
VCC = 20 V VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
VBE = 0.7 V VBB = [1 kΩ/(4.7 kΩ + 1 kΩ)]15 V
r'e = 0.06 Ω (from Prob. 9-11) VBB = 2.63 V
re = 7.5 Ω (from Prob. 9-11) VE = VBB − VBE
Solution: VE = 2.63 V − 0.7 V
VE = 1.93 V
Av = re/(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-4)
Av = 7.5/(7.5 + 0.06) IE = VE/RE
Av = 0.992 IE = 1.93 V/330 Ω
IE = 5.85 mA
zin = R1 || R2 || β(re + r'e) (Eq. 9-6)
zin = 100 Ω || 200 Ω || 175(7.5 Ω + 0.06 Ω) r'e = (25 mV)/IE
zin = 63.5 Ω r'e = (25 mV)/5.85 mA
vin = [zin/(zin + RG)]VG r'e = 4.28 Ω
vin = [63.5 Ω/(63.5 Ω + 50 Ω)]1 V zinQ2 = βre2
vin = 0.559 V zinQ2 = 200 (150 Ω)
vout = Av(vin) (Eq. 8-3) zinQ2 = 30 kΩ
vout = (0.992)(0.559 V) rc = RC || zinQ2
vout = 0.555 V rc = 1.5 kΩ || 30 kΩ
Answer: The gain is 0.992, and the output voltage is rc = 1.429 kΩ
0.555 V. Av = rc/r'e
9-14. Given: Av = 1.429 kΩ/4.28 Ω
Av = 335
R1 = 2.2 kΩ
R2 = 2.2 kΩ Answer: The voltage gain is 335.
RE = 1 kΩ 9-17. Given:
RL = 3.3 kΩ
RG = 50 Ω β = 150 (ac & dc)
β = 200 R1 = 4.7 kΩ
VCC = 15 V R2 = 1 kΩ
VBE = 0.7V RC = 1.5 kΩ
r'e = 3.68 Ω (from Prob. 9-6) RE = 330 Ω
re = 767 Ω (from Prob. 9-6) RL = 150 Ω
1-46
VCC = 15 V 9-19. Given:
vg = 10 mV β = 200 (ac & dc)
R2 = 1 kΩ
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
RC = 1.5 kΩ
VBB = [1 kΩ/(4.7 kΩ + 1 kΩ)]15 V
RE = 330 Ω
VBB = 2.63 V
RL = 150 Ω
VE = VBB − VBE VCC = 15 V
VE = 2.63 V − 0.7 V
Solution:
VE = 1.93 V
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
IE = VE/RE VBB = [1 kΩ/(4.7 kΩ + 1 kΩ)]15 V
IE = 1.93 V/330 Ω VBB = 2.63 V
IE = 5.85 mA
VE = VBB − VBE
r'e = (25 mV)/IE VE = 2.63 V − 0.7 V
r'e = (25 mV)/5.85 mA VE = 1.93 V
r'e = 4.28 Ω
IE = VE /RE
zinQ2 = βRL IE = 1.93 V/330 Ω
zinQ2 = 150 (150 Ω) IE = 5.85 mA
zinQ2 = 22.5 kΩ
r'e = (25 mV)/IE
rc = RC || zinQ2 r'e = (25 mV)/5.85 mA
rc = 1.5 kΩ || 22.5 kΩ r'e = 4.27 Ω
rc = 1.406 kΩ
rc = RC || RL
Av1 = rc/r'e rc = 1.5 kΩ || 150 Ω
Av1 = 1.4 kΩ/4.28 Ω rc = 136.5 Ω
Av1 = 327
Av1 = rc/r'e
vout = Av1(vg) = 327(10 mV) = 3.27 V Av1 = 136.5 Ω/4.27 Ω
Answer: The 1st stage voltage gain is 327, the 2nd stage Av1 = 31.9
voltage gain is 1, vout = 3.27 V. Answer: The voltage gain drops to 31.9.
β = 200 (ac & dc) R1 = 150 kΩ
R1 = 4.7 kΩ R2 = 150 kΩ
R2 = 1 kΩ RE = 470 Ω
RC = 1.5 kΩ RL = 1 kΩ
RE = 330 Ω RG = 5.1 kΩ
RL = 125 Ω VCC = 15 V
VCC = 15 V β = 5000
Solution: Solution:
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC re = RE || RL (Eq. 9-3)
VBB = [1 kΩ/(4.7 kΩ + 1 kΩ)]15 V re = 470 Ω || 1 kΩ
VBB = 2.63 V re = 320 Ω
VE = VBB − VBE zin(base) = βre
VE = 2.63 V − 0.7 V zin(base) = (5000)(320)
VE = 1.93 V zin(base) = 1.6 MΩ
IE = VE/RE Answer: The input impedance of the base is1.6 MΩ.
IE = 1.93 V/330 kΩ
IE = 5.85 mA 9-21. Given:
r'e = (25 mV)/IE R1 = 150 kΩ
r'e = (25 mV)/5.85 mA R2 = 150 kΩ
r'e = 4.28 Ω RE = 470 Ω
RL = 1 kΩ
zinQ2 = βRL RG = 5.1 kΩ
zinQ2 = 200 (125 Ω) VCC = 15 V
zinQ2 = 25 kΩ β = 7000
rc = RC || zinQ2 re = 320 Ω (from Prob. 9-20)
rc = 1.5 kΩ || 25 kΩ Solution:
rc = 1.415 kΩ zin(base) = βre
Av1 = rc/r'e zin(base) = (7000) (320)
Av1 = 1.415 kΩ/4.28 Ω zin(base) = 2.24 MΩ
Av1 = 331
Answer: The voltage gain remains at 331.
1-47
zin = R1 || R2 || zin(base) (Eq. 9-6) Answer: The output voltage is 6.8 V, and the zener
zin = 150 kΩ || 150 kΩ || 2.24 MΩ current is 7.5 mA.
zin = 72.6 kΩ 9-25. Given:
vin = [zin/(zin + RG)]vg VZ = 7.5 V
vin = [72.6 kΩ/(72.6 kΩ + 5.1 kΩ)]10 mV VBE = 0.7 V
vin = 9.34 mV RS = 1 kΩ
Answer: The input voltage is 9.34 mV. VCC = 25 V
R1 = 1 kΩ Vout = VZ – VBE (Eq. 9-11)
R2 = 2 kΩ Vout = 7.5 V – 0.7 V
RE = 10 Ω Vout = 6.8 V
RL = 8 Ω
Take the base current into account.
RG = 600 Ω
VCC = 20 V IZ = (VCC – VZ)/RS – Iout/β
β1 = 150 IZ = (25 – 7.5)/1 kΩ – (6.8 V/33 Ω)/150
β2 = 150 IZ = 17.5 mA – 1.37 mA
IZ = 16.1 mA
Solution:
Answer: The output voltage is 6.8 V, and the zener
re = RE || RL (Eq. 9-3)
current is 16.1 mA.
re = 10 Ω || 8 Ω
re = 4.44 Ω 9-26. Given: With the wiper in the middle, the voltage divider
is effectively two resistors: each has a value of 1.5 kΩ.
β = β1β2 (Eq. 9-9)
β = 150(150) Vz = 7.5 V
β = 22500 VBE = 0.7 V
zin(base) = βre Solution:
zin(base) = (22500)(4.44 Ω)
zin(base) = 100 kΩ Vout = [(R3 + R4)/R4](VZ + VBE) (Eq. 9-14)
Vout = [(1.5 kΩ + 1.5 kΩ)/1.5 kΩ](7.5 V + 0.7 V)
Answer: The input impedance of the base is 100 kΩ. Vout = 16.4 V
9-23. Given: Answer: The output voltage is 16.4 V.
R1 = 1 kΩ 9-27. Given: With the wiper all the way up, the voltage divider
R2 = 2 kΩ is effectively two resistors: the top has a value of 1 kΩ,
RE = 10 Ω and the bottom has a value of 2 kΩ.
RL = 8 Ω
RG = 600 Ω VZ = 7.5 V
VCC = 20 V VBE = 0.7 V
β = 2000 With the wiper all the way down, the voltage divider is
re = 4.44 Ω (from Prob. 9-22) effectively two resistors: the top has a value of 2 kΩ, and
Solution: the bottom has a value of 1 kΩ.
zin(base) = βre Solution:
zin(base) = (2000)(4.44 Ω) Vout(top) = [(R3 + R4)/R4](VZ + VBE) (Eq. 9-14)
zin(base) = 8.88 kΩ Vout(top) = [(1 kΩ + 2 kΩ)/1.5 kΩ](7.5 V + 0.7 V)
zin = R1 || R2 || zin(base) (Eq. 9-6) Vout(top) = 12.3 V
zin = 1 kΩ || 2 kΩ || 8.88 kΩ Vout(bottom) = [(R3 + R4)/R4](VZ + VBE) (Eq. 9-14)
zin = 620 Ω Vout(bottom) = [(2 kΩ + 1 kΩ)/1 kΩ](7.5 V + 0.7 V)
vin = [zin/(zin + RG)]vg Vout(bottom) = 24.6 V
vin = [620 Ω/(620 Ω + 600 Ω)]1 V Answer: The output voltage with the wiper all the way up
vin = 0.508 V is 12.3 V, and all the way down is 24.6 V.
Answer: The input voltage is 0.508 V.
9-28. Given:
9-24. Given: R1 = 10 kΩ
VZ = 7.5 V R2 = 2 kΩ
VBE = 0.7 V RC = 3.3 kΩ
RS = 1 kΩ RE = 2 kΩ
VCC = 15 V VCC =12 V
Solution: Solution:
Vout = VZ – VBE (Eq. 9-11) VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
Vout = 7.5 V – 0.7 V VBB = [2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2 kΩ)]12 V
Vout = 6.8 V VBB = 2 V
IZ = (VCC – VZ)/RS VE = VBB – VBE
IZ = (15 V– 7.5 V)/1 kΩ VE = 2 V – 0.7 V
IZ = 7.5 mA VE = 1.3 V
1-48
IE = VE/RE 9-31. Given:
IE = 1.3 V/2 kΩ R1 = 10 kΩ
IE = 650 μA R2 = 2 kΩ
Answer: The emitter current is 650 μA. RC = 3.3 kΩ
RE = 2 kΩ
9-29. Given: RG = 50 Ω
R1 = 10 kΩ VCC = 12 V
R2 = 2 kΩ vg = 2 mV
RC = 3.3 kΩ
Solution:
RE = 2 Ω
VCC = 12 V VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
VBB = [2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2 kΩ)]12 V
Solution: VBB = 2 V
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
VE = VBB – VBE
VBB = [2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2 kΩ)]12 V
VE = 2 V – 0.7 V
VBB = 2 V
VE = 1.3 V
VE = VBB – VBE
IE = VE/RE
VE = 2 V – 0.7 V
IE = 1.3 V/2 kΩ
VE = 1.3 V
IE = 650 μA
IE = VE/RE
r'e = (25 mV)/I E
IE = 1.3 V/2 kΩ
r'e = (25 mV)/650 μA
IE = 650 μA
r'e = 38.46 Ω
r'e = (25 mV)/I E
re = RC || RL
r'e = (25 mV)/650 μA
re = 3.3 kΩ || 10 kΩ
r'e = 38.46 Ω
re = 2.48 kΩ
rc = RC || RL
Av = rc/r'e
rc = 3.3 kΩ || 10 kΩ
Av = 2.48 kΩ/38.46 Ω
rc = 2.48 kΩ
Av = 64.4
Av = rc/r'e
zin(stage) = RE || r'e
Av = 2.48 kΩ/38.46 Ω
Av = 64.4 Since RE >> r'e
Answer: The voltage gain at 64.4. zin(stage) = r'e = 38.5 Ω
9-30. Given: vin ≈ [zin/(RG + zin)]vg
R1 = 10 kΩ vin = [38.5 Ω/(50 Ω + 38.5 Ω)] 2 mV
R2 = 2 kΩ vin = 870 μV
RC = 3.3 kΩ vout = Av(vin)
RE = 2 Ω vout = 64.4(870 μV)
VCC = 12 V vout = 56 mV
Solution: Answer: The output voltage is 56 mV.
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC 9-32. Given:
VBB = [2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2 kΩ)]12 V
VBB = 2 V R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 2 kΩ
VE = VBB – VBE RC = 3.3 kΩ
VE = 2 V – 0.7 V RE = 2 kΩ
VE = 1.3 V RG = 50 Ω
IE = VE/RE VCC = 15 V
IE = 1.3 V/2 kΩ vg = 2 mV
IE = 650 μA Solution:
r'e = (25 mV)/IE VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
r'e = (25 mV)/650 μA VBB = [2 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 2 kΩ)]15 V
r'e = 38.46 Ω = 38.5 Ω VBB = 2.5 V
zin(emitter) = r'e VE = VBB – VBE
zin(emitter) = 38.5 Ω VE = 2.5 V – 0.7 V
zin(stage) = RE || r'e VE = 1.8 V
Since RE >> r'e IE = VE/RE
zin(stage) ≅ r'e = 38.5 Ω IE = 1.8 V/2 kΩ
zout ≈ RC IE = 900 μA
zout = 3.3 kΩ
r'e = (25 mV)/I E
Answer: The zin(emitter) = 38.5 Ω, the zin(stage) = r'e = 38.5 Ω. r'e = (25 mV) /900 μA
r'e = 27.8 Ω
1-49
rc = RC || RL Answer: The values are VB = 4.48 V, VE = 3.78 V, VC =
rc = 3.3 kΩ || 10 kΩ 11.22 V, IE = 3.78 mA, IC = 3.78 mA, and IB = 25.2 μA.
rc = 2.48 kΩ 9-35. Given:
Av = rc/r'e R1 = 4.7 kΩ
Av = 2.48 kΩ/27.8 Ω R2 = 2 kΩ
Av = 89.3 RC = 1 kΩ
zin(stage) = RE || r'e RE = 1 kΩ
VCC = 15 V
Since RE >> r'e β = 150
zin(stage) = r'e = 27.8 Ω vin = 5 mV
vout(2) is an emitter follower that has a gain of 1.
vin ≈ [zin/(RG + zin)]vg
vin = [27.8 kΩ/(50 Ω + 27.8 Ω)]2 mV Solution:
vin = 715 μV rc = 1 kΩ
re = 1 kΩ
vout = Av(vin)
vout = 89.3(715 μV) Av = rc/re (Eq. 8-19)
vout = 63.8 mV Av = 1 kΩ/1 kΩ
Av = 1
Answer: The output voltage is 63.8 mV.
Answer: Both outputs are 5 mV; the top one is 180° out
CRITICAL THINKING of phase. The purpose of this circuit is to produce two
signals that are the same magnitude and 180° out of
9-33. Given:
phase.
VZ = 7.5 V
VCC = 15 V 9-36. Given:
Vout = 6.8 V (from Prob. 9-24) R1 = 33 kΩ
RL = 33 Ω R2 = 10 kΩ
RC = 4.7 kΩ
Solution: RE = 2.2 kΩ
VCE = VCC – Vout VCC = 12 V
VCE = 15 V – 6.8 V vin = 10 mV
VCE = 8.2 V
Solution:
IC = Iout = Vout/RL VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
IC = 6.8 V/33 Ω VBB = [10 kΩ/(33 kΩ + 10 kΩ)]12 V
IC = 206 mA VBB = 2.79 V
P = VCEIC VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
P = (8.2 V)(206 mA) VE = 2.79 V – 0.7 V
P = 1.69 W VE = 2.09 V
Answer: 1.69 W
9-34. Given: IE = 2.09 V/2.2 kΩ
R1 = 4.7 kΩ IE = 0.95 mA
R2 = 2 kΩ rc = 4.7 kΩ
RC = 1 kΩ
RE = 1 kΩ r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
VCC = 15 V r'e = 25 mV/0.95 mA
β = 150 r'e = 26.3 Ω
Solution: Av = rc/re' (Eq. 8-16)
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)] VCC (Eq. 7-4) Av = 4.7 kΩ /26.3 Ω
VBB = [2 kΩ/(4.7 kΩ + 2 kΩ)]15 V Av = 179
VBB = 4.48 V vout = Av(vin)
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) vout = 179(10 mV)
VE = 4.48 V – 0.7 V vout = 1.79 V
VE = 3.78 V When the control voltage is 5 V, the control transistor is
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) saturated and grounds the input; thus the output is zero.
IE = 3.78 V/1 kΩ Answer: With the control voltage at 0 V, the output is
IE = 3.78 mA 1.79 V. With the control voltage at 5 V, the output is 0 V.
IE = IC (Eq. 7-7) This circuit could be a mute circuit.
VC = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 7-18) 9-37. Given:
VC = 15 V – 3.78 mA(1 kΩ)
VC = 11.22 V RL = 33 Ω
RS = 1 kΩ
IB = IC/β VCC = 15 V
IB = 3.78 mA/150 βdc = 200
IB = 25.2 μA
1-50
Solution: vin = [815 Ω/(270 Ω + 815 Ω)](100 mVp-p)
IE = (VCC – VBE)/(RL + (RS/βdc)) vin = 75 mVp-p
IE = (15 V – 0.7 V)/(33 Ω + (1 kΩ/200)) vout = (75 mVp-p)(4.49)
IE = 376 mA vout = 337 mVp-p
Vout = VE = IERE = (376 mA)(33 Ω) Answer: The output voltage would be 337 mVp-p.
Vout = 12.4 V
9-42. Answer: The output would decrease to zero volts.
9-43. Given:
9-38. Given:
Trouble 1: Since there is voltage at H and none at I, the
RL = 33 Ω trouble is an open C4.
RS = 1 kΩ
VCC = 15 V Trouble 2: Since there is voltage at F and none at G, the
βdc = 100 trouble is an open between F and G.
Solution: Trouble 3: Since there is voltage at A and none at B, the
IB = (VCC – VBE)/RS trouble is an open C1.
IB = (15 V – 0.7 V)/1 kΩ 9-44. Answers:
IB = 14.3 mA Trouble 4: Since E is not a ground, potential trouble is
IE = βdcIB an open C3.
IE = (100)(14.3 mA) Trouble 5: Since there is a voltage at B and none at C, the
IE = 1.43 A trouble is an open between B and C.
PD = ICVCE Trouble 6: Since there is voltage at D and none at F, the
PD = (1.43 A)(15 V) trouble is an open C2.
PD = 21.5 W
Trouble 7: Since there is voltage at G and none at H, the
Answer: The transistor will dissipate 21.5 W and be trouble is an open Q2.
destroyed.
9-45. C3 is shorted
9-39. Given:
9-46. C2 is open
Wiper is at 50%
RL = 100 Ω 9-47. Q1 B-E short
Solution: 9-48. Q2 is open
Vout = [(1.5 kΩ + 1.5 kΩ)/1.5 kΩ](8.2 V) 9-49. R2 is shorted
Vout = 16.4 V
Iout = 16.4 V/100 Ω Chapter 10 Power Amplifiers
Iout = 164 mA
PD = (164 mA)(25 V – 16.4 V) SELF-TEST
PD = 1.41 W 1. b 10. d 19. a 28. a
2. b 11. c 20. c 29. d
Answer: The power dissipation of Q2 is 1.41 W when the
3. c 12. d 21. b 30. d
wiper is at 50%.
4. a 13. b 22. d 31. b
9-40. Given: 5. c 14. b 23. a 32. c
βdc = 100 for both transistors 6. d 15. b 24. a 33. d
7. d 16. b 25. b 34. c
Solution: 8. b 17. c 26. c 35. a
IE = (7.5 V – 0.7 V – 0.7 V)/470 Ω 9. b 18. a 27. c
IE = 13 mA
r'e = 25 mV/13 mA
r'e = 1.93 Ω 6. Tuned RF amplifier. It would be impractical to use a Class-C
amplifier for an audio application because it would distort the
zout = r'e + [((5.1 kΩ || 150 kΩ || 150 kΩ)/10,000) || 470 Ω] signal.
zout = (1.93 Ω + 0.478 Ω) || 470 Ω 8. The lower the duty cycle is, the less the current drain.
zout = 2.4 Ω 11. Thermal conductive paste used to create a low thermal
Answer: The output impedance is 2.4 Ω. resistance path between the case and the heat sink.
12. Class-A. No signal is lost in a Class-A amplifier: 360° in,
9-41. Given: 360° out. With Class-C, over half the signal is lost.
vg = 100 mV 13. Narrowband.
Solution:
Av1 = 1.5 kΩ/(4.27 Ω + 330 Ω) PROBLEMS
Av1 = 4.49 10-1. Given:
zin = 4.7 kΩ || 1 kΩ || (200)(334) R1 = 2 kΩ
zin = 815 Ω R2 = 470 Ω
RC = 680 Ω
1-51
RE = 220 Ω or
RL = 2.7 kΩ
VCEQ = VC – VE
VCC = 15 V
VCEQ = 8.36 V – 2.15 V
Solution: VCEQ = 6.21 V
RC = 680 Ω MPP = 2MP
IC(sat) = VCC/(RC + RE) (Eq. 10-1) MPP = 2(5.31 V)
IC(sat) = 15 V/(680 Ω + 220 Ω) MPP = 10.62 V
IC(sat) = 16.67 mA
Answer: The maximum peak-to-peak voltage is 10.62 V.
Answer: The dc collector resistance 680 Ω, and the dc
saturation current is 16.67 mA. 10-4. Given:
R1 = 4 kΩ
10-2. Given:
R2 = 940 Ω
R1 = 2 kΩ RC = 1.36 kΩ
R2 = 470 Ω RE = 440 Ω
RC = 680 Ω RL = 5.4 kΩ
RE = 220 Ω VCC = 15 V
RL = 2.7 kΩ VBE = 0.7 V
VCC = 15 V RG = 100 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V
RG = 50 Ω Solution:
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15)
Solution:
rc = 1.36 kΩ || 5.4 kΩ
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15) rc = 1086 Ω
rc = 680 Ω || 2.7 kΩ
rc = 543 Ω Answer: The ac collector resistance is 1086 Ω.
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) 10-5. Given:

VBB = [470 Ω/(2 kΩ + 470 Ω)]15 V R1 = 6 kΩ
VBB = 2.85 V R2 =1.41 kΩ
RC = 2.04 kΩ
RE = 660 Ω
VE = 2.85 V – 0.7 V
RL = 8.1 kΩ
VE = 2.15 V
VCC = 15 V
IE = ICQ = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) VBE = 0.7 V
ICQ = 2.15 V/220 Ω RG = 150 Ω
ICQ = 9.77 mA
Solution:
Since ICQ is the center of the load line, the load line is rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15)
linear, the other end is zero, and the ac saturation current rc = 2.04 kΩ || 8.1 kΩ
is double the Q point current. The ac saturation current rc = 1.63 kΩ
is 19.5 mA.
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
Answer: The ac collector resistance is 543 Ω, and the ac VBB = [1.41 kΩ/(6 kΩ + 1.41 kΩ)]15 V
saturation current is 19.5 mA. VBB = 2.85 V
10-3. Given: VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
R1 = 2 kΩ VE = 2.84 V – 0.7 V
R2 = 470 Ω VE = 2.15 V
RC = 680 Ω
IE = ICQ = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
RE = 220 Ω
ICQ = 2.15 V/660 Ω
RL = 2.7 kΩ
ICQ = 3.26 mA
VCC = 15 V
VBE = 0.7 V VC = VCC – RCICQ
RG = 50 Ω VC = 15 V – (2.04 kΩ)(3.26 mA)
rc = 543 Ω (from Prob. 10-2) VC = 8.35 V
ICQ = 9.77 mA (from Prob. 10-2)
MP = ICQrc or VCEQ (Eq. 10-8)
VE = 2.15 V (from Prob. 10-2)
MP = (3.26 mA)(1.63 kΩ)
Solution: MP = 5.31 V
VC = VCC – RCICQ or
VC = 15 V – (680 Ω)(9.77 mA)
VCEQ = VC – VE
VC = 8.36 V
VCEQ = 8.35 V – 2.15 V
MP = ICQrc or VCEQ (Eq. 10-8) VCEQ = 6.2 V
MP = (9.77 mA)(543 Ω)
MPP = 2MP
MP = 5.31 V
MPP = 2(5.31 V)
MPP = 10.62 V
Answer: The maximum peak-to-peak voltage is 10.62 V.
1-52
R1 = 200 Ω VC = VCC – RCICQ
R2 = 100 Ω VC = 30 V – (100 Ω)(137 mA)
RC = 100 Ω VC = 16.3 V
RE = 68 Ω
VCEQ = VC – VE
RL = 100 Ω
VCEQ = 16.3 V – 9.3 V
VCC = 30 V
VCEQ = 7 V
Solution:
MP = VCEQ = 7 V
RC = 100 Ω MPP = 2MP = 14 V
IC(sat) = VCC/RC + RE or
IC(sat) = 30 V/100 Ω + 68 Ω
IC(sat) = 179 mA MP = ICQrc
MP = (137 mA)(50 Ω)
Answer: The dc collector resistance is 100 Ω, and the MP = 6.85 V
saturation current is 179 mA. MPP = 2MP = 13.7 V
10-7. Given: Answer: The maximum peak-to-peak voltage is 13.7 V.
R1 = 200 Ω 10-9. Given:
R2 = 100 Ω
RC = 100 Ω R1 = 400 Ω
RE = 68 Ω R2 = 200 Ω
RL = 100 Ω RC = 200 Ω
VCC = 30 V RE = 136 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V RL = 200 Ω
VCC = 30 V
Solution: VBE = 0.7 V
rc = RC || RL Solution:
rc = 100 Ω || 100 Ω
rc = 50 Ω rc = RC || RL
rc = 200 Ω || 200 Ω
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC rc = 100 Ω
VBB = [100 Ω/(200 Ω + 100 Ω)]30 V
VBB = 10 V Answer: The ac collector resistance is 100 Ω.
VE = VBB – VBE 10-10. Given:

VE = 10 V – 0.7 V R1 = 600 Ω
VE = 9.3 V R2 = 300 Ω
RC = 300 Ω
IE = ICQ = VE/RE
RE = 204 Ω
ICQ = 9.3 V/68 Ω
RL = 300 Ω
ICQ = 137 mA
VCC = 30 V
VC = VCC – ICQRC VBE = 0.7 V
VC = 30 V – (137 mA)(100 Ω)
Solution:
VC = 16.3 V
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
VCEQ = VC – VE VBB = [300 Ω/(600 Ω + 300 Ω)]30 V
VCEQ = 16.3 V – 9.3 V VBB = 10 V
VCEQ = 7 V
VE = VBB – VBE
ic(sat) = ICQ + VCEQ/rc VE = 10 V – 0.7 V
ic(sat) = 137 mA + 7 V/50 Ω VE = 9.3 V
ic(sat) = 277 mA
IE = ICQ = VE/RE
Answer: The ac collector resistance is 50 Ω, and the ac ICQ = 9.3 V/204 Ω
saturation current is 277 mA. ICQ = 45.59 mA
10-8. Given: VC = VCC – RCICQ
R1 = 200 Ω VC = 30 V – (300 Ω)(45.59 mA)
R2 = 100 Ω VC = 16.3 V
RC = 100 Ω
VCEQ = VC – VE
RE = 68 Ω
VCEQ = 16.3 V – 9.3 V
RL = 100 Ω
VCEQ = 7 V
VCC = 30 V
VBE = 0.7 V MP = VCEQ = 7 V
rc = 50 Ω (from Prob. 10-7) MPP = 2MP = 14 V
ICQ = 137 mA (from Prob. 10-7)
or
ic(sat) = 277 mA (from Prob. 10-7)
VE = 9.3 V (from Prob. 10-7) MP = ICQrc
MP = (45.59 mA) (150 Ω)
1-53
MP = 6.85 V 10-15. Given:
MPP = 2MP = 13.7 V MPP = 10.62 V (from Prob. 10-3)
Answer: The maximum peak-to-peak voltage is 13.7 V. RL = 2.7 kΩ
Pdc = 237.6 mW (from Prob. 10-14)
10-11. Given:
Solution:
Pout = 2 W
Pin = 4 mW Pout(max) = MPP2/8RL (Eq. 10-15)
Pout = (10.62 V)2/8(2.7 kΩ)
Solution: Pout = 5.22 mW
AP = Pout/Pin (Eq. 10-12)
η = [Pout/Pin]100%
AP = 2 W/4 mW
η = [5.22 mW/237.6 mW]100%
AP = 500
η = 2.2%
Answer: The power gain is 500.
Answer: The efficiency is 2.2%.
10-12. Given:
10-16. Given:
Vout = 15 Vp-p
RL = 1 kΩ
VCEQ = 6.21 V (from Prob. 10-3)
Pin = 400 μW
Solution:
Solution:
PDQ = VCEQ ICQ (Eq. 10-16)
Pout = V2/8RL
PDQ = (6.21 V)(9.77 mA)
Pout = (15 V)2/8 kΩ
PDQ = 60.7 mW
Pout = 28.1 mW
Answer: The quiescent power dissipation is 60.7 mW.
AP = Pout/Pin (Eq. 10-12)
AP = 28.1 mW/400 μW 10-17. Given:
AP = 70.3 R1 = 200 Ω
Answer: The power gain is 70.3. R2 = 100 Ω
RC = 100 Ω
10-13. Given: RE = 68 Ω
R1 = 2 kΩ RL = 100 Ω
R2 = 470 Ω VCC = 30 V
RC = 680 Ω VBE = 0.7 V
RE = 220 Ω VBB = 10 V (from Prob. 10-7)
RL = 2.7 kΩ
Solution:
VCC = 15 V
VBE = 0.7 V Ibias = VCC/(R1 + R2)
RG = 50 Ω Ibias = 30 V/(200 Ω + 100 Ω)
VBB = 2.85 V (from Prob. 10-2) Ibias = 100 mA
Solution: VE = VBB – VBE
VE = 10 V – 0.7 V
Ibias = VCC/(R1 + R2)
VE = 9.3 V
Ibias = 15 V/(2 kΩ + 470 Ω)
Ibias = 6.07 mA IE = VE/RE
IE = 9.3 V/68 Ω
IE = 136.8 mA ≈ 137 mA
VE = 2.85 V – 0.7 V
VE = 2.15 V Idc = Ibias + IE
Idc = 100 mA + 137 mA
Idc = 237 mA
IE = 2.15 V/220 Ω
IE = 9.77 mA Answer: The current drain is 237 mA.
Idc = Ibias + IE 10-18. Given:
Idc = 6.07 mA + 9.77 mA Idc = 237 mA (from Prob. 10-17)
Idc = 15.84 mA VCC = 30 V
Answer: The current drain is 15.84 mA. Solution:
10-14. Given: Pdc = IdcVCC
Idc = 15.84 mA (from Prob. 10-13) Pdc = (237 mA)(30 V)
VCC = 15 V Pdc = 7.11 W
Solution: Answer: The dc input power is 7.11 W.
Pdc = IdcVCC (Eq. 10-17) 10-19. Given:
Pdc = (15.84 mA)(15 V) MPP = 2MP = 13.7 V (from Prob. 10-10)
Pdc = 237.6 mW Pdc = 7.11 W (from Prob. 10-18)
Answer: The dc input power is 237.6 mW. RL = 100 Ω
1-54
Solution: Idc = Ibias + IE
Pout(max) = MPP2/8RL Idc = 0.82 A + 1.1 A
Pout = (13.7 V)2/8(100 Ω) Idc = 1.92 A
Pout = 235 mW Pdc = IdcVCC (Eq. 10-17)
η = [Pout/Pin]100% Pdc = (1.92 A)(10 V)
η = [235 mW/7.11 W]100% Pdc = 19.2 W
η = 3.3% η = [Pout/Pin]100%
Answer: The efficiency is 3.3%. η = [0.977 W/19.2 W]100%
η = 5.1%
10-20. Given:
Answer: The output power is 0.977 W, and the efficiency
ICQ = 137 mA (from Prob. 10-7) is 5.1%.
VCEQ = 7 V (from Prob. 10-8)
10-23. Given:
Solution:
VCE(cutoff) = 12 V
PDQ = VCEQICQ
PDQ = (7 V)(137 mA) Solution:
PDQ = 960 mW MPP = 12 VCE(cutoff)
Answer: The quiescent power dissipation is 960 mW. MPP = 2(12 V)
MPP = 24 V
10-21. Given:
Answer: The maximum peak-to-peak voltage is 24 V.
R1 = 10 Ω
R2 = 2.2 Ω 10-24. Given:
RE = 1 Ω VCC = MPP = 30 V
VCC = 10 V RL = 16 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
Solution:
PD(max) = MPP2/40RL
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) PD(max) = (30 V)2/40(16 Ω)
VBB = [2.2 Ω/(10 Ω + 2.2 Ω)] 10 V PD(max) = 1.41 W
VBB = 1.80 V
Answer: The maximum power dissipation of each
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) transistor is 1.41 W.
VE = 1.80 V – 0.7 V
VE = 1.10 V 10-25. Given:
VCC = MPP = 30 V
RL = 16 Ω
IE = 1.1 V/1 Ω
IE = 1.1 A Solution:
Answer: The dc emitter current is 1.1 A. Pout(max) = MPP2/8RL
Pout(max) = (30 V)2/8(16 Ω)
10-22. Given: Pout(max) = 7.03 W
R1 = 10 Ω
Answer: The maximum output power is 7.03 W.
R2 = 2.2 Ω
RE = 1 Ω 10-26. Given:
VCC = 10 V R1 = 100 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V R2 = 100 Ω
RC = 3.2 Ω RL = 50 Ω
Vout = 5 Vp-p VCC = 30 V
Solution: VDiode = 0.7 V
Pout = vout2/8RL (Eq. 10-14) Solution:
Pout = (5 V)2/8(3.2 Ω) Ibias = (VCC – 2VDiode)/(R1 + R2)
Pout = 0.977 W Ibias = 28.6 V/(100 Ω + 100 Ω)
Ibias = VCC/(R1 + R2) Ibias = 143 mA
Ibias = 10 V/(10 Ω + 2.2 Ω) ICEQ ≈ Ibias = 143 mA
Ibias = 0.82 A
Answer: The quiescent collector current is 143 mA.
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = [2.2 Ω/(10 Ω + 3.2 Ω)]10 V 10-27. Given:
VBB = 1.80 V VCC = MPP = 30 V
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5) RL = 50 Ω
VE = 1.80 V – 0.7 V Solution:
VE = 1.10 V Ibias = (VCC – 2VDiode)/(R1 + R2)
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6) Ibias = 28.6 V/(100 Ω + 100 Ω)
IE = 1.10 V/1 Ω Ibias = 143 mA
IE = 1.1 A Idc = 238 mA
1-55
Pdc = IdcVCC rc = R3 || zin(stage 2)
Pdc = 238 mA(30 V) zin(stage 2) = 12 kΩ || 910 Ω || β r'e
Pdc = 7.14 W rc = 1 kΩ || 12 kΩ || 910 Ω || 200(100 Ω)
Pout(max) = MPP2/8RL rc = 496 Ω
Pout(max) = (30 V)2/8(50 Ω) Av(stage 1) = rc / r'e
Pout(max) = 2.25 W Av(stage 1) = 496 Ω/2.5 Ω
Av(stage 1) = 188
η = [Pout/Pin]100%
η = [2.25 W/7.14 W]100% Answer: The voltage gain of the first stage is 188.
η = 31.5%
10-31. Given for 2nd Stage:
Answer: The efficiency is 31.5%. R5 = 12 kΩ
10-28. Given: R6 = 1 kΩ (variable)
R8 = 100 Ω
VCC = MPP = 30 V
R7 = 1 kΩ
RL = 50 Ω
VE = 1.43 V
Solution:
3rd Stage:
Ibias = (VCC – 2VDiode)/(R1 + R2)
β = 200
Ibias = 28.6 V/(1 kΩ + 1 kΩ)
VCC = 30 V
Ibias = ICQ = 14.3 mA
RL = 100 Ω
Idc = 110 mA
Solution:
Pdc = IdcVCC IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
Pdc = 110 mA(30 V) IE = 1.43 V/100 Ω
Pdc = 3.3 W IE = 14.3 mA
Pout(max) = MPP2/8RL r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
Pout(max) = (30 V)2/8(50 Ω) r'e = 25 mV/(14.3 mA)
Pout(max) = 2.25 W r'e = 1.75 Ω
η = [Pout/Pin]100% re = R8 (second stage)
η = [2.25 W/3.3 W]100% re = 100 Ω
η = 68.3%
zin(base) = β re (Eq. 8-21)
Answer: The efficiency is 68.3% and the quiescent zin(base) = 200(100 Ω)
collector current is 14.3 mA. zin(base) = 20 kΩ
10-29. Given: rc = R7 || zin(base)
MPP = 30 V rc = 1 kΩ || 20 kΩ
RL = 100 Ω rc = 952 Ω
Av = rc/(re + r'e)
Solution:
Av = 952 Ω/(100 Ω + 1.75 Ω)
Pout(max) = MPP2/8RL Av = 9.36
Pout(max) = (30 V)2/8(100 Ω)
Pout(max) = 1.13 W Answer: The gain of the second stage is 9.36.
Answer: The maximum power output is 1.13 W. 10-32. Given:

IE = 14.3 mA
10-30. Given for 1st stage:
R1 = 10 kΩ Solution:
R2 = 5.6 kΩ ICQ = Ibias = 14.3 mA
R3 = 1 kΩ
Answer: The quiescent collector current is 14.3 mA.
R4 = 1 kΩ
VBB = 10.7 V 10-33. Given:
VE = 10 V Av1 = 188 (from Prob. 10-30)
Second Stage: Av2 = 9.36 (from Prob. 10-31)
R6 = 1 kΩ (variable) Av3 = 1 (Eq. 10-25)
R7 = 1 kΩ Av = Av1Av2Av3
R8 = 100 Ω Av = (188)(9.36)(1)
β = 200 Av = 1679
VCC = 30 V
Answer: The total voltage gain is 1679.
Solution:
10-34. Given: νin = 5 Vrms.
r'e = 25 mV/IE
r'e = 25 mV/(10 V/1 kΩ) Solution:
r'e = 2.5 Ω
Vp-p = 2.828 Vrms.
re = R8 (second stage) Vp-p = 2.828(5 V)
re = 100 Ω Vp-p = 14.14 Vp-p
1-56
Since the input is clamped at 0.7 V, the negative peak 10-41. Given:
is –13.44 V. The average value is –6.37 V, so the DMM Idc = 0.5 mA
will read –6.37 V. VCC = 30 V
Answer: The input voltage is 14.14 Vp-p, and the base Solution:
voltage is –6.37 V.
Pdc = VCCIdc (Eq. 10-17)
10-35. Given: Pdc = (30 V)(0.5 mA)
L = 1 μH Pdc = 15 mW
C = 220 pF Answer: The dc input power is 15 mW.
___
fr = 1/(2π√_____________
LC ) (Eq. 10-29) Idc = 0.4 mA
fr = 1/[2π√(1 μH)(220 pF) ] VCC = 30 V
fr = 10.73 MHz vout = 30 Vp-p
Answer: The resonant frequency is 10.73 MHz. RL = 10 kΩ

L = 2 μH Pdc = VCCIdc (Eq. 10-17)
C = 220 pF Pdc = (30 V)(0.4 mA)
Pdc = 12 mW
Solution:
____ Pout = vout2/8RL (Eq. 10-14)
fr = 1/(2π√_____________
LC) (Eq. 10-29) Pout = (30 Vp-p)2 /8(10 kΩ)
fr = 1/[2π√(2 μH)(220 pF) ] Pout = 11.25 mW
fr = 7.59 MHz
η = (Pout/Pin)100% (Eq. 10-18)
Answer: The resonant frequency is 7.59 MHz. η = (11.25 mW/12 mW)100%
10-37. Given: η = 93.75%
L = 1 μH Answer: The efficiency is 93.75%.
C = 100 pF
10-43. Given:
Solution: Q = 125
___
fr = 1/(2π√_____________
LC ) (Eq. 10-29) fr = 10.73 MHz (from Prob. 10-35)
fr = 1/[2π√(1 μH)(100 pF) ]
fr = 15.92 MHz Solution:
B = fr/Q
Answer: The resonant frequency is 15.92 MHz. B = 10.73 MHz/125
10-38. Given: B = 85.84 kHz
Pout = 11 mW Answer: The bandwidth is 85.84 kHz.
Pin = 50 μW
10-44. Given:
Solution: Q = 125
Ap = Pout/Pin (Eq. 10-12) fr = 10.73 MHz (from Prob. 10-35)
Ap = 11 mW/50 μW RL = 10 kΩ
Ap = 220 MPP = 60 V (from Prob. 10-40)
Answer: The power gain is 220. L = 1 μH

νout = 50 Vp-p XL = 2πfL
RL = 10 kΩ XL = 2(3.14)(10.73 MHz)(1 μH)
XL = 67.38 Ω
Solution:
RP = QXL (Eq. 10-33)
Pout = ν2out/8RL (Eq. 10-14) RP = (125)(67.38 Ω)
Pout = (50 Vp-p)2/8(10 kΩ) RP = 8.42 kΩ
Pout = 31.25 mW
rC = RP || RL (Eq. 10-34)
Answer: The output power is 31.25 mW. rC = 8.42 kΩ || 10 kΩ
10-40. Given: VCC = 30 V. rC = 4.57 kΩ
Solution: PD = MPP2/40rC (Eq. 10-39)
MPP = 2 VCC (Eq. 10-38) PD = (60 V)2/40(4.57 kΩ)
MPP = 2(30 V) PD = 19.7 mW
MPP = 60 V Answer: The worst-case power dissipation is 19.7 mW.
Pout = MPP2/8RL (Eq. 10-15) 10-45. Given:
Pout = (60 Vp-p)2/8(10 kΩ)
PD = 625 mW
Pout = 45 mW
D = 5 mW/°C
Answer: The maximum output power is 45 mW. TA = 100°C
1-57
Solution: Answer: See the graph.
ΔP = D(TA – 25°C) (Eq. 10-40)
ΔP = (5 mW/°C)(100°C – 25°C) IC
ΔP = 375 mW 20 mA
16 mA Alternating current
PD(max) = PD – ΔP
PD(max) = 625 mW – 375 mW 12 mA
Q
PD(max) = 250 mW 8 mA Direct
Answer: The worst-case power rating is 250 mW. 4 mA current
VCE
10-46. Given: Derating curve on Fig. 10-34. 0 mA
0V 11.5 V 15 V
Answer: The maximum dissipation at 100°C is 2 W.
10-47. Given: 10-53. C2 is shorted
PD = 115 W
10-54. D1 is open
D = 0.657 W/°C
TC = 90°C 10-55. VCC is now 20 V
Solution: 10-56. Q1 B-E shorted
ΔP = D(TC – 25°C) (Eq. 10-40) 10-57. R6 is shorted
ΔP = (0.657 W/°C)(90°C – 25°C)
ΔP = 42.7 W 10-58. Class-B/AB push-pull power amplifier
PD(max) = PD – ΔP 10-59. Approximately 24 Vp-p
PD(max) = 115 W – 42.7 W 10-60. Compensation diodes used for temperature stability
PD(max) = 72.3 W
10-61. 511 microamps
Answer: The power rating is 72.3 W with a case tempera-
ture of 90°C. 10-62. Approximately zero volts dc
CRITICAL THINKING
Chapter 11 JFETS
10-48. Answer: The input is larger than the maximum allowed
input for an undistorted output. The input is driving the SELF-TEST
output into saturation, clipping the wave off, and turning 1. a 8. c 14. d 20. c
it into a square wave. 2. d 9. d 15. a 21. c
3. c 10. c 16. b 22. b
10-49. Answer: Electrically, it would be safe to touch, but it may 4. d 11. c 17. c 23. b
be hot and cause a burn. 5. b 12. a 18. c 24. d
10-50. Answer: No, the maximum efficiency of anything is 6. b 13. c 19. a 25. d
100 percent. It is impossible to get more power out of a 7. d
device than is put into the device.
10-51. Answer: No, the ac load line is more vertical because the
ac collector resistance is usually less than the dc collec- 7. The gate can be triggered using the static electricity of the
tor resistance. If the collector had an inductor instead of human hand to put the device into saturation briefly, enough
a resistor, the ac resistance would be greater than the dc to trigger another circuit, such as a one-shot multivibrator.
resistance and make the ac load line less vertical. 10. It has low input capacitance that allows it to amplify higher fre-
quencies (VHF and UHF) than are possible with a CS amplifier.
10-52. Given: 11. Although they do not have as much voltage gain as bipolar
transistors, they have a high input impedance and very low
IC(sat) = 16.67 mA (from Prob. 10-1)
noise. This is preferred in applications in which the incoming
VCC = 15 V
signal may be a few microvolts to be followed by an amplifi-
cation of a million or more.
MP = ICQ rc = 5.31 V (from Prob. 10-3)
VCEQ = 6.21 V (from Prob. 10-3)
PROBLEMS
Solution:
The left side of the dc load line is IC(sat), and the right side 11-1. Given:
is VCC. The Q point is ICQ, VCEQ. The ac load line passes IG = 1 nA
through the Q point. The right side of the ac load line is Reverse voltage = –15 V
ICQ rc above the Q point, or 11.52 V. This gives the line Solution:
a slope of ICQ/ICQ rc = 9.77 mA/5.31 V = 1.84 mA/V. To
find the ac saturation current, take the ac voltage maxi- Rin = Reverse voltage/IG
mum multiplied by the slope = (11.52 V) (1.84 mA/V) = Rin = 15 V/1 nA
21.2 mA. Rin = 15 GΩ
Answer: The input resistance is 15 GΩ.
1-58
IG = 1 μA VGS/VGS(off) = 1/2
Reverse voltage = –20 V VGS = 1/2(VGS(off))
Ambient Temperature = 100°C VGS = 1/2(–6 V)
VGS = –3 V
Solution:
Rin = Reverse voltage/IG ID /IDSS = 1/4
Rin = 20 V/1 nA ID = 1/4 16 mA
Rin = 20 MΩ ID = 4 mA
Answer: The input resistance of the gate is 20 MΩ at Answer: The gate voltage at the 1/2 cutoff point is –3 V,
100°C. and the drain current is 4 mA.

IDSS = 20 mA IDSS = 10 mA
VP = 4 V VGS(off) = –4 V
Solution: Solution:
IDSS = Maximum drain current = 20 mA VGS/VGS(off) = 1/2
VGS(off) = –VP (Eq. 11-2) VGS = 1/2(VGS(off))
VGS(off) = –4 V VGS = 1/2(–4 V)
VGS = –2 V
RDS = VP /IDSS (Eq. 11-1)
RDS = 4 V/20 mA ID/IDSS = 1/4
RDS = 200 Ω ID = 1/4 10 mA
ID = 2.5 mA
Answer: The maximum drain current is 20 mA, the
gate-source cutoff voltage is –4 V, and the value of RDS Answer: The gate voltage at the 1/2 cutoff point is –2 V,
is 200 Ω. and the drain current is 2.5 mA.

IDSS = 16 mA IDSS = 14 mA
VGS(off) = –2 V VGS(off) = –4 V
VGS(1) = –1 V
Solution: VGS(2) = –3 V
VGS(off) = –VP (Eq. 11-2) Solution:
VP = 2 V
ID = IDSS[1 – (VGS(1)/VGS(off))]2 (Eq. 11-3)
RDS = VP /IDSS (Eq. 11-1) ID = 14 mA[1 – (–1 V/–4V)]2
RDS = 2 V/16 mA ID = 7.88 mA
RDS = 125 Ω
ID = IDSS[1 – (VGS(2)/VGS(off))]2 (Eq. 11-3)
Answer: The pinch-off voltage is 2 V, and the value of ID = 14 mA[1 – (–3 V/–4V)]2
RDS is 125 Ω. ID = 0.88 mA
11-5. Given: Answer: The drain current is 7.88 mA when the gate
IDSS(min) = 1 mA voltage is –1 V, and 0.88 mA when the gate voltage
IDSS(max) = 5 mA is –3 V.
VGS(off)min = –0.5 V 11-9. Given:
VGS(off)max = –6 V
VDD = 15 V
Solution: RD = 10 kΩ
VGS(off) = –VP (Eq. 11-2) VGS(off) = –3 V
VP(min) = 0.5 V IDSS = 5 mA
VP(max) = 6 V Solution:
RDS(min) = VP(min)/IDSS(min) (Eq. 11-1) ID(sat) = VDD /RD
RDS(min) = 0.5 V/1 mA ID(sat) = 15 V/10 kΩ
RDS(min) = 500 Ω ID(sat) = 1.5 mA
RDS(max) = VP(max)/IDSS(max) (Eq. 11-1) VGS(off) = –VP (Eq. 11-2)
RDS(max) = 6 V/5 mA VP = 3 V
RDS(max) = 1.1 kΩ
RDS = VP /IDSS (Eq. 11-1)
Answer: The minimum value of RDS is 500 Ω, and the RDS = 3 V/5 mA
maximum value is 1.1 kΩ. RDS = 600 Ω
11-6. Given: VD = [RDS/(RDS + RD)]VDD
IDSS = 16 mA VD = [600 Ω/(600 Ω + 10 kΩ)]15 V
VGS(off) = –6 V VD = 0.849 V
Answer: The drain saturation current is 1.5 mA, and the
drain voltage is 0.849 V.
1-59
VDD = 15 V VG = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VDD
RD = 20 kΩ VG = [1 MΩ/(1.5 MΩ + 1 MΩ)] 25 V
IDSS = 5 mA VG = 10 V
VGS(off) = –3 V
ID = VG/RS (Eq. 11-10)
Solution: ID = 10 V/22 kΩ
VGS(off) = –VP (Eq. 11-2) ID = 0.455 mA
VP = 3 V VD = VDD – IDRD (Eq. 11-4)
RDS = VP /IDSS (Eq. 11-1) VD = 25 V – (0.455 mA)(10 kΩ)
RDS = 3 V/5 mA VD = 20.45 V
RDS = 600 Ω Answer: The drain voltage is 20.45 V.
VD = [RDS/(RDS + RD)]VDD 11-14. Given:
VD = [600 Ω/(600 Ω + 20 kΩ)]15 V
R1 = 1.5 MΩ
VD = 0.437 V
R2 = 1 MΩ
Answer: The drain voltage is 0.437 V. RS = 22 kΩ
RD = 10 kΩ
11-11. Given:
VDD = 25 V
VDD = 20 V VG = 10 V (from Prob. 11-13)
RD = 20 kΩ
VGS(off) = –6 V ID = 0.455 mA (from Prob. 11-13)
IDSS = 30 mA VD = 20.45 V (from Prob. 11-13)
Solution: Solution:
VGS(off) = –VP (Eq. 11-2) ID(sat) = VDD/(RD + RS)
VP = 6 V ID(sat) = 25 V/(10 kΩ + 22 kΩ)
ID(sat) = 0.781 mA
RDS = VP/IDSS (Eq. 11-1)
RDS = 6 V/30 mA VS ≈ VG
RDS = 200 Ω
VDSQ = VD – VS
VD = [RDS/(RDS + RD)]VDD VDSQ = 20.45 V – 10 V
VD = [200 Ω/(200 Ω + 20 kΩ)]20 V VDSQ = 10.45 V
VD = 0.198 V
Answer: The drain voltage is 0.198 V. ID (mA)
0.781
11-12. Given:
Q
VDD = 20 V 0.455
RD = 10 kΩ
VGS(off) = –6 V
IDSS = 30 mA
Solution: 10.45 VDS (V) 25
ID(sat) = VDD/RD DC load line and Q point for Prob. 11–14.
ID(sat) = 20 V/10 kΩ 11-15. Given:
ID(sat) = 2 mA
VDD = 25 V
VGS(off) = VP (Eq. 11-2) VSS = –25 V
VP = 6 V RD = 7.5 kΩ
RDS = VP/IDSS (Eq. 11-1) RS = 18 kΩ
RDS = 6 V/30 mA Solution:
RDS = 200 Ω ID = VSS/RS (Eq. 11-12)
VD = [RDS/(RDS + RD)]VDD ID = –25 V/18 kΩ
VD = [200 Ω/(200 Ω + 10 kΩ)]20 V ID = 1.39 mA
VD = 0.392 V VD = VDD – IDRD (Eq. 11-4)
Answer: The drain saturation current is 2 mA, and the VD = 25 V – (1.39 mA)(7.5 kΩ)
drain voltage is 0.392 V. VD = 14.58 V
11-13. Given: Answer: The drain voltage is 14.58 V.
R1 = 1.5 MΩ 11-16. Given:
R2 = 1 MΩ VDD = 25 V
RS = 22 kΩ VSS = –25 V
RD = 10 kΩ RD = 7.5 kΩ
VDD = 25 V RS = 30 kΩ
1-60
Solution: Solution:
ID = VSS/RS (Eq. 11-12) ID = VS/RS
ID = –25 V/30 kΩ ID = 1.5 V/1 kΩ
ID = 0.833 mA ID = 1.5 mA
VD = VDD – IDRD (Eq.11-4) VD = VDD – IDRD
VD = 25 V – (0.833 mA)(7.5 kΩ) VD = 25 V – (1.5 mA)(8.2 kΩ)
VD = 18.75 V VD = 12.7 V
Answer: The drain voltage is 18.75 V. Answer: The drain voltage is 12.7 V.
11-17. Given: 11-21. Given:
VDD = 15 V VDD = 25 V
VEE = –9 V RD = 10 kΩ
RD = 7.5 kΩ RS = 22 kΩ
RE = 8.2 kΩ R1 = 1.5 MΩ
VBE = 0.7 V R2 = 1 MΩ
Solution: Answer: The gate-source voltage is –2.5 V, and the drain
ID = (VEE – VBE)/RE (Eq.11-13) current is 0.55 mA from the transconductance curve.
ID = (9 V – 0.7 V)/8.2 kΩ 11-22. Given:
ID = 1.01 mA
VDD = 15 V
VD = VDD – IDRD (Eq.11-4) RG = 2.2 MΩ
VD = 15 V – (1.01 mA)(7.5 kΩ) RE = 8.2 kΩ
VD = 7.43 V VEE = –9 V
Answer: The drain voltage is 7.43 V, and the drain cur- Answer: The gate-source voltage is –2.0 V, and the drain
rent is 1.01 mA. voltage is 7.5 V from the transconductance curve.
11-18. Given: 11-23. Given:
VDD = 15 V VDD = 25 V
VEE = –9 V RG = 1.5 MΩ
RD = 4.7 kΩ RS = 1 kΩ
RE = 8.2 kΩ
Answer: The gate-source voltage is –1.5 V, and the drain
VBE = 0.7 V
current is 1.5 mA.
Solution:
11-24. Given:
ID = (VEE – VBE)/RE (Eq.11-13)
ID = (9 V – 0.7 V)/8.2 kΩ VDD = 25 V
ID = 1.01 mA RG = 1.5 MΩ
RS = 2 kΩ
VD = VDD – IDRD (Eq.11-4)
VD = 15 V – (1.01 mA)(4.7 kΩ) Answer: The gate-source voltage is –2.0 V, and the drain
VD = 10.25 V current is 1 mA and the drain-source voltage is 14.8 V.
Answer: The drain voltage is 10.25 V, and the drain cur- 11-25. Given:
rent is 1.01 mA. gm0 = 4000 μs
11-19. Given: IDSS = 10 mA
VDD = 25 V Solution:
RD = 8.2 kΩ VGS(off) = –2IDSS/gm0 (Eq.11-15)
RS = 1 kΩ VGS(off) = –2(10 mA)/4000 μs
ID = 1.5 mA VGS(off) = –5 V
Solution: gm = gm0 [1 – (VGS/VGS(off))] (Eq.11-16)
VGS = –IDRS (Eq.11-7) gm = 4000 μs[1 – (–1 V/–5V)]
VGS = –(1.5 mA)(1 kΩ) gm = 3200 μs
VGS = –1.5 V Answer: The gate-source cutoff voltage is –5 V, and the
VD = VDD – IDRD – IDRS gm0 for VGS = –1 V is 3200 μs.
VD = 25 V – (1.5 mA)(8.2 kΩ) – (1.5 mA)(1 kΩ) 11-26. Given:
VD = 11.2 V
gm0 = 1500 μs
Answer: The gate-source voltage is –1.5 V, and the drain- IDSS = 2.5 mA
source voltage is 11.2 V. VGS = –1 V
VDD = 25 V VGS(off) = –2IDSS/gm0 (Eq.11-15)
RD = 8.2 kΩ VGS(off) = –2(2.5 mA)/1500 μs
RS = 1 kΩ VGS(off) = –3.33 V
VS = 1.5 V
1-61
gm = gm0 [1 – (VGS/VGS(off))] (Eq.11-16) Solution:
gm = 1500 μs[1 – (–1 V/–3.3 V)] rd = RD || RL
gm = 1045 μs rd = 1 kΩ || 10 kΩ
Answer: The gm for VGS = –1 V is 1045 μs. rd = 909 Ω
11-27. Given: VGS(off) = –2IDSS/gm0 (Eq.11-15)
gm0 = –2IDSS/VGS(off)
gm0 = 6000 μs
gm0 = –2(12 mA)/–4 V
IDSS = 12 mA
gm0 = 6000 μs
VGS = –2 V
VG = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VDD
Solution:
VG = [10 MΩ/(20 MΩ + 10 MΩ)] 30 V
VGS(off) = –2IDSS/gm0 (Eq.11-15) VG = 10 V
VGS(off) = –2(12 mA)/6000 μs
VGS(off) = –4 V ID = VG/RS (Eq.11-10)
ID = 10 V/2 kΩ
Since the ratio of VGS to VGS(off) is one-half, the following ID = 5 mA
equation can be used:
From the graph, VGS is approximately –1.4 V when ID is
ID/IDSS = 1/4 5 mA.
ID = 1/4(IDSS)
ID = 1/4(12 mA) With Eq.11-16, gm0 = 3900 μs. Then:
ID = 3 mA Av = gmrd (Eq.11-17)
gm = gm0 [1 – (VGS /VGS(off))] (Eq.11-16) Av = (3900 μs)(909 Ω)
gm = 6000 μs[1 – (–2 V/–4 V)] Av = 3.54
gm = 3000 μs vout = Av(vin)
Answer: The drain current is 3 mA, and the transcon- vout = 3.54(2 mV)
ductance is 3000 μs. vout = 7.09 mV
11-28. Given: Answer: The output voltage is 7.09 mV.

VDD = 30 V 11-30. Given:
R1 = 20 MΩ VDD = 30 V
R2 = 10 MΩ R1 = 20 MΩ
RD = 1 kΩ R2 = 10 MΩ
RS = 2 kΩ RS = 3.3 kΩ
RL = 10 kΩ RL = 1 kΩ
vg = 2 mV vin = 5 mV
gm = 3000 μs gm = 2000 μs
Solution: Solution:
rd = RD || RL rS = RS || RL
rd = 1 kΩ || 10 kΩ rS = 3.3 kΩ || 1 kΩ
rd = 909 Ω rS = 767 Ω
zin = R1 || R2 Av = (gmrs)/(1 + gmrs) (Eq.11-21)
zin = 20 MΩ || 10 MΩ Av = (2000 μs)(767 Ω)/[1 + (2000 μs)(767 Ω)]
zin = 6.67 MΩ Av = 0.605
Av = gmrd (Eq.11-17) vout = Av(vin)
Av = (3000 μs)(909 Ω) vout = (0.605)(5 mV)
Av = 2.73 vout = 3.03 mV
vout = Av(vin) zout = RS || 1/gm
vout = (2.73)(2 mV) zout = 3.3 kΩ || 1/2000 μs
vout = 5.46 mV zout = 434 Ω
Answer: zin = 6.67 MΩ and the output voltage is 5.46 mV. Answer: The output voltage is 3.03 mV and zout is 434 Ω.
11-29. Given: 11-31. Given:
VDD = 30 V VDD = 30 V
R1 = 20 MΩ R1 = 20 MΩ
R2 = 10 MΩ R2 = 10 MΩ
RD = 1 kΩ RS = 3.3 kΩ
RS = 2 kΩ RL = 1 kΩ
RL = 10 kΩ vin = 5 mV
vg = 2 mV
IDSS = 12 mA (from the graph) IDSS = 6 mA (from the graph)
VGS(off) = –4 V (from the graph) VGS(off) = –4 V (from the graph)
rS = 767 Ω (from Prob.11-30)
1-62
Solution: vout = [RD/(RDS + Rout)]vin
VGS(off) = –2IDSS/gm0 (Eq.11-15) vout = [33 kΩ/(600 Ω + 33 kΩ)]25 mVp-p
vout = 24.55 mVp-p
gm0 = –2IDSS/VGS(off)
gm0 = –2(6 mA)/ –4 V On-off ratio = vout(max)/vout(min) (Eq.11-23)
gm0 = 3000 μs On-off ratio = 24.55 mVp-p/0 mVp-p
On-off ratio = ∞
VG = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VDD
VG = [10 MΩ/(20 MΩ + 10 MΩ)] 30 V Answer: The output voltage at a VGS of –10 V is 0 mVp-p,
VG = 10 V the output voltage at a VGS of 0 V is 24.55 mVp-p, and the
on-off ratio is ∞.
ID = VG/RS (Eq.11-7)
ID = 10 V/3.3 kΩ
ID ≅ 3 mA CRITICAL THINKING
From the graph, VGS is roughly –1.25 V when ID = 3 mA. 11-34. Answer:
With Eq. (11-16), gm = 2060 μs. IDSS = 20 mA
VDS(max) = 5 V for the ohmic region
With Eq. (11-21): VDS = 5 to 30 V in the active range
gmrS = (2060 μs)(767 Ω) = 1.58 11-35. Given:
Av = 1.58/(1 + 1.58) = 0.612
VGS(off) = –8 V (from the graph)
vout = Av(vin) IDSS = 32 mA (from the graph)
vout = (0.612)(5 mV) VGS(1) = –4 V
vout = 3.06 mV VGS(2) = –2 V
Answer: The output voltage is 3.06 mV. Solution:
11-32. Given: VGS(off) = –2IDSS/gm0 (Eq.11-15)
RD = 22 kΩ gm0 = –2IDSS/VGS(off)
vin = 50 mVp-p gm0 = –2(32 mA)/–8 V
IDSS = 10 mA gm0 = 8000 μs
VP = 2 V
gm = gm0 [1 – (VGS /VGS(off))] (Eq.11-16)
Solution: gm = 8000 μs[1 – (VGS/–8 V)]
RDS = VP/IDSS (Eq.11-1) ID = IDSS[1 – (VGS(1)/VGS(off))]2 (Eq.11-3)
RDS = 2 V/10 mA ID = 32 mA[1 – (–4 V/–8 V)]2
RDS = 200 Ω ID = 8 mA
With VGS at –10 V the JFET is cut off and appears as an ID = IDSS[1 – (VGS(2)/VGS(off))]2 (Eq.11-3)
open; thus vout = vin = 50 mVp-p. ID = 32 mA[1 – (–2 V/–8 V)]2
With VGS at 0 V, the JFET is conducting and a voltage ID = 18 mA
divider is created with RD. Answer: The transconductance equation is gm = 8000 μs
vout = [RDS/(RDS + Rin)]vin [1 – (VGS/–8 V)], the drain current at –4 V is 8 mA, and
vout = [200 Ω/(200 Ω + 22 kΩ)]50 mVp-p the drain current at –2 V is 18 mA.
vout = 0.45 mVp-p 11-36. Given:
On-off ratio = vout(max)/vout(min) (Eq.11-23) VGS(off) = –5 V (from the graph)
On-off ratio = 50 mVp-p/0.45 mVp-p IDSS = 12 mA (from the graph)
On-off ratio = 111 VGS = –1 V
Answer: The output voltage at a VGS of –10 V is 50 mVp-p, Solution:
the output voltage at a VGS of 0 V is 0.45 mVp-p, and the
ID = IDSS[1 – (VGS/VGS(off))]2 (Eq.11-3)
on-off ratio is 111.
ID = 12 mA[1 – (–1 V/–5 V)]2
11-33. Given: ID = 7.68 mA
RD = 33 kΩ Answer: The drain current is 7.68 mA.
vin = 25 mVp-p
IDSS = 5 mA 11-37. Given:
VP = 3 V VDD = 15 V
VEE = –10 V
Solution:
RD = 3.3 kΩ
RDS = VP/IDSS (Eq.11-1) RE = 4.7 kΩ
RDS = 3 V/5 mA VBE = 0.7 V
RDS = 600 Ω gm = 2000 μs
With VGS at –10 V the JFET is cut off and appears as an vg = vin = 3 mV
open; thus vin = 0 mVp-p. Solution:
With VGS at 0 V, the JFET is conducting and a voltage ID = (VEE – VBE)/RE (Eq.11-13)
divider is created with the output resistance. ID = (10 V – 0.7 V)/4.7 kΩ
ID = 2 mA
1-63
VD = VDD – IDRD (Eq.11-4) vd = 357 mV vd = 200 mV
VD = 15 V – (2 mA)(3.3 kΩ) vout = 357 mV vout = 200 mV
VD = 8.4 V
Answer: Open R1.
rd = RD || RL
11-42. Given:
rd = 3.3 kΩ || 15 kΩ
rd = 2.7 kΩ Normal Operation With Trouble
VGS = –1.6 V VGS = –0.6 V
Av = gmrd (Eq.11-17) ID = 4.8 mA ID = 7.58 mA
Av = (2000 μs)(2.7 kΩ) VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 1.25 V
Av = 5.4 vg = 100 mV vg = 100 mV
vout = Av(vin) vS = 0 V vS = 0 V
vout = (5.4)(3 mV) vd = 357 mV vd = 29 mV
vout = 16.2 mV vout = 357 mV vout = 29 mV
Answer: The drain voltage is 8.4 V, and the output Answer: Open R2.
voltage is 16.2 mV. 11-43. Given:
11-38. Answer: Normal Operation With Trouble
a. Multiply 4 mA and 510 Ω to get 2.04 V. VGS = –1.6 V VGS = –0.56 V
b. It must equal 2.04 V. ID = 4.8 mA ID = 0 mA
c. Because of the linearity of the circuit, the meter reads VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 0 V
half of maximum, or 0.5 mA. vg = 100 mV vg = 100 mV
vS = 0 V vS = 0 V
11-39. Given: vd = 357 mV vd = 0 mV
IDSS = 16 mA vout = 357 mV vout = 0 mV
RDS = 200 Ω
Answer: Open RD.
RL = 10 kΩ
VDD = 30 V 11-44. Given:
Solution: Since VGS is 0 V, it is operating in the active Normal Operation With Trouble
region. The JFET appears to be a current source, but VGS = –1.6 V VGS = –8 V
since the load is so large, the power supply cannot supply ID = 4.8 mA ID = 0 mA
enough voltage to produce that current and it drops into VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 8 V
the ohmic region and the JFET acts like resistor. vg = 100 mV vg = 100 mV
vS = 0 V vS = 0 V
I = VDD/(RDS + RL)
vd = 357 mV vd = 0 mV
I = 30 V/(200 Ω + 10 kΩ)
vout = 357 mV vout = 0 mV
I = 2.94 mA
Answer: Open RS.
VDS = IRDS
VDS = (2.94 mA)(200 Ω) 11-45. Given:
VDS = 0.59 V Normal Operation With Trouble
If the load is shorted, RL = 0 Ω and the JFET operates in VGS = –1.6 V VGS = +8 V
the active region. ID = 4.8 mA ID = 0 mA
VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 24 V
I = IDSS vg = 100 mV vg = 100 mV
I = 16 mA vS = 0 V vS = 0 V
VDS = VDD vd = 357 mV vd = 0 mV
VDS = 30 V vout = 357 mV vout = 0 mV
Answer: During normal operation, the current is 2.94 mA Answer: Open G-S.
and the voltage across the JFET is 0.59 V. With the load 11-46. Given:
shorted, the current is 16 mA and the voltage is 30 V.
Normal Operation With Trouble
11-40. Answer: VGS = –1.6 V VGS = –1.61 V
a. The gm0 is 6000 μs. Multiply this by 1 kΩ to get a ID = 4.8 mA ID = 4.8 mA
voltage gain of 6. VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 9.6 V
b. At –1 V, the gm is 4500 μs and the voltage gain is 4.5. vg = 100 mV vg = 100 mV
c. 3 vS = 0 V vS = 87 V
d. 1.5 vd = 357 mV vd = 40 mV
e. 0.75 vout = 357 mV vout = 40 mV
11-41. Given: Answer: Open Bypass Capacitor.
Normal Operation With Trouble 11-47. Given:
VGS = –1.6 V VGS = –2.75 V Normal Operation With Trouble
ID = 4.8 mA ID = 1.38 mA VGS = –1.6 V VGS = –1.6 V
VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 19.9 V ID = 4.8 mA ID = 4.8 mA
vg = 100 mV vg = 100 mV VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 9.6 V
vS = 0 V vS = 0 V vg = 100 mV vg = 100 mV
vS = 0 V vS = 0 V
1-64
vd = 357 mV vd = 397 mV Solution:
vout = 357 mV vout = 0 mV ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2
Answer: Open Drain Coupling Capacitor. ID = 4 mA(1 – (–0.5 V/–2.0 V))2
ID = 2.25 mA
11-48. Given:
ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2
Normal Operation With Trouble
ID = 4 mA(1 – (–1 V/–2.0 V))2
VGS = –1.6 V VGS = 0 V
ID = 1 mA
ID = 4.8 mA ID = 7.58 mA
VDS = 9.6 V VDS = 1.5 V ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2
vg = 100 mV vg = 1 mV ID = 4 mA(1 – (–1.5 V/–2.0 V))2
vS = 0 V vS = 0 V ID = 0.25 mA
vd = 357 mV vd = 0 V
Answer:
vout = 357 mV vout = 0 V
VGS = –0.5 V, ID = 2.25 mA
Answer: Open Drain Coupling Capacitor. VGS = –1 V, ID = 1 mA
11-49. R2 is shorted VGS = –1.5 V, ID = 0.25 mA
12-2. Given:
11-50. C2 is open
VGS = –0.5 V
11-51. C3 is shorted VGS = –1.0 V
VGS = –1.5 V
11-52. vg is 1 mVp-p VGS = +0.5 V
VGS = +1.0 V
11-53. Q1 is shorted D-S VGS = +1.5 V
VGS(off) = –2 V
IDSS = 4 mA
Chapter 12 MOSFETs Solution:
SELF-TEST ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2 (Eq. 12-1)
1. c 8. c 15. a 22. b ID = 4 mA(1 – (+0.5 V/–2.0 V))2
2. d 9. b 16. b 23. d ID = 6.25 mA
3. d 10. d 17. d 24. d ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2 (Eq. 12-1)
4. c 11. a 18. d 25. c ID = 4 mA(1 – (+1 V/–2.0 V))2
5. c 12. b 19. c 26. d ID = 9 mA
6. d 13. d 20. d
7. d 14. c 21. a ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2 (Eq. 12-1)
ID = 4 mA(1 – (+1.5 V/–2.0 V))2
ID = 12.25 mA
Answer:
5. MOS technology, especially CMOS, consumes low power
and requires a small space. The result is complex circuits that VGS = 0.5 V, ID = 6.25 mA
are lightweight, will last a long time on batteries, and are VGS = 1 V, ID = 9 mA
suitable for solar power. VGS = 1.5 V, ID = 12.25 mA
9. Because the thin insulating layer within the device is easily 12-3. Given:
destroyed by static electricity.
10. Ship or store the devices in antistatic foam material or wire VGS = –1.0 V
wrap around leads. Also, technicians should be grounded by VGS = –2.0 V
using an antistatic wrist strap, touching the chassis, or stand- VGS = 0 V
ing on antistatic (grounding) mats. Finally, use grounded sol- VGS = +1.5 V
dering irons and test equipment. VGS = +2.5 V
11. MOSFETs have faster switching times, resulting in less time VGS(off) = +3 V
spent in the active region, which produces higher efficiency IDSS = 12 mA
and reduced heat-sink requirements. MOSFETs are also Solution:
immune to thermal runaway and are easily connected in par- ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2 (Eq. 12-1)
allel for greater power dissipation. ID = 4 mA(1 – (+1.5 V/+3.0V))2
ID = 3 mA
PROBLEMS ID = IDSS(1 – (VGS/VGS(off)))2 (Eq. 12-1)
12-1. Given: ID = 4 mA(1 – (2.5 V/+3.0 V))2
VGS = –0.5 V ID = 0.333 mA
VGS = –1.0 V Answer:
VGS = –1.5 V
VGS = 1.5 V, ID = 3 mA
VGS = + 0.5 V
VGS = 2.5 V, ID = 333 μA
VGS = +1.0 V
VGS = +1.5 V
VGS(off) = –2 V
IDSS = 4 mA
1-65
VGS(off) = –3 V RDS(on) = VDS(on)/ID(on) (Eq. 12-1)
IDSS = 12 mA RDS(on) = 0.1 V/10 mA
RDS(on) = 10 Ω
Solution:
VDS = VDD – (IDSSRD) (Eq. 12-2) Answer: The drain-source resistance is 10 Ω.
VDS = 12 V – ((12 mA)(470 Ω)) 12-8b. Given:
VDS = 6.36 V
VDS(on) = 0.25 V
ID = IDSS = 12 mA ID(on) = 45 mA
Answer: The drain current is 12 mA and the drainsource Solution:
voltage is 6.36 V. RDS(on) = VDS(on)/ID(on) (Eq. 12-1)
12-5. Given: RDS(on) = 0.25 V/45 mA
RDS(on) = 5.56 Ω
gm0 = 4000 μs
RD = 470 Ω Answer: The drain-source resistance is 5.56 Ω.
RL = 2 kΩ
12-8c. Given:
vin = 100 mV
VDS(on) = 0.75 V
Solution: ID(on) = 100 mA
rd = RD || RL
Solution:
rd = 470 Ω || 2 kΩ
rd = 381 Ω RDS(on) = VDS(on)/ID(on) (Eq. 12-1)
RDS(on) = 0.75 V/100 mA
Av = gmrd RDS(on) = 7.5 Ω
Av = (4000 μs)(381 Ω)
Av = 1.52 Answer: The drain-source resistance is 7.5 Ω.
vout = vinAv 12-8d. Given:
vout = (100 mV)(1.52) VDS(on) = 0.15 V
vout = 152 mV ID(on) = 200 mA
Answer: The voltage gain is 1.52, the voltage out is Solution:
152 mV, and rd is 381 Ω. RDS(on) = VDS(on)/ID(on) (Eq. 12-1)
12-6. Given: RDS(on) = 0.15 V/200 mA
gm0 = 4000 μs RDS(on) = 0.75 Ω
RD = 680 Ω Answer: The drain-source resistance is 0.75 Ω.
RL = 10 kΩ
vin = 100 mV 12-9a. Given:
VGS(on) = 3 V
Solution: ID(on) = 500 mA
rd = RD || RL RDS(on) = 2 Ω
rd = 680 Ω || 10 kΩ ID(sat) = 25 mA
rd = 637 Ω
Solution:
Av = gmrd VDS = ID(sat)RDS(on)
Av = (4000 μs)(637 Ω) VDS = 25 mA (2 Ω)
Av = 2.55 VDS = 0.05 V
vout = vinAv Answer: The voltage across the E-MOSFET is 0.05 V.
vout = (100 mV)(2.55)
vout = 255 mV 12-9b. Given:
Answer: The voltage gain is 2.55, the voltage out is VGS(on) = 3 V
255 mV, and rd is 637 Ω. ID(on) = 500 mA
RDS(on) = 2 Ω
12-7. Given: ID(sat) = 50 mA
gm0 = 4000 μs Solution:
RD = 680 Ω
RL = 2 kΩ VDS = ID(sat)RDS(on)
Vin = 100 mV VDS = 50 mA (2 Ω)
RG = 1 MΩ VDS = 0.1 V
Solution: Answer: The voltage across the E-MOSFET is 0.1 V.

zin ≈ RG ≈ 1MΩ 12-9c. Given:
Answer: The input impedance is approximately 1 MΩ. VGS(on) = 3 V
ID(on) = 500 mA
12-8a. Given: RDS(on) = 2 Ω
VDS(on) = 0.1 V ID(sat) = 100 mA
ID(on) = 10 mA
1-66
Solution: Answer: The drain voltage is 0.57 V.
VDS = ID(sat)RDS(on) 12-14. Given:
VDS = 100 mA (2 Ω)
VGS(on) = 5 V (from Table 12-1)
VDS = 0.2 V
ID(on) = 200 mA (from Table 12-1)
Answer: The voltage across the E-MOSFET is 0.2 V. RDS(on) = 7.5 Ω (from Table 12-1)
12-9d. Given: VDD = 30 V
RD = 1 kΩ
VGS(on) = 3 V VLED = 2 V
ID(on) = 500 mA
RDS(on) = 2 Ω Solution:
ID(sat) = 200 mA ID = (VDD – VLED)/(RDS(on) + RD)
Solution: ID = (30 V – 2 V)/(7.5 Ω + 1 kΩ)
ID = 27.8 mA
VDS = ID(sat)RDS(on)
VDS = 200 mA (2 Ω) Answer: The LED current is 27.8 mA.
VDS = 0.4 V 12-15. Given:
Answer: The voltage across the E-MOSFET is 0.4 V. VGS(on) = 2.6 V (from Table 12-1)
12-10. Given: ID(on) = 20 mA (from Table 12-1)
RDS(on) = 28 Ω (from Table 12-1)
VGS(on) = 2.5 V (from Table 12-1)
VDD = 20 V
ID(on) = 100 mA (from Table 12-1)
RD = 1 kΩ
RDS(on) = 10 Ω (from Table 12-1)
VDD = 20 V Solution:
RD = 390 Ω ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD)
Solution: ID = (20 V)/(28 Ω + 1 kΩ)
VD = [RDS(on)/(RDS(on) + RD)]VDD ID = 19.5 mA
VD = [10 Ω/(10 Ω + 390 Ω)]20 V IL = VDD/RL
VD = 0.5 V IL = 20 V/2 Ω
IL = 10 A
Answer: The voltage across the E-MOSFET is 0.5 V.
12-11. Given: Answer: The MOSFET current is 19.5 mA. The load
current is 10 A.
VGS(on) = 2.6 V (from Table 12-1)
ID(on) = 20 mA (from Table 12-1) 12-16. Given:
RDS(on) = 28 Ω (from Table 12-1) ID(active) = 1 mA
VDD = 15 V VDS(active) = 10 V
RD = 1.8 kΩ
Solution:
Solution:
RD = VDS(active) /ID(active) (Eq. 12-6)
VD = [RDS(on)/(RDS(on) + RD)]VDD RD = 10 V/1 mA
VD = [28 Ω/(28 Ω + 1.8 kΩ)]15 V RD = 10 kΩ
VD = 0.23 V
Answer: The drain resistance is 10 kΩ.
Answer: The drain voltage is 0.23 V.
12-17. Given:
12-12. Given:
RDS(on) = 300 Ω
VGS(on) = 5 V (from Table 12-1) VDD = 12 V
ID(on) = 200 mA (from Table 12-1) RD = 8 kΩ
RDS(on) = 7.5 Ω (from Table 12-1)
VDD = 25 V Solution: When the input is low, the lower MOSFET is
RD = 150 Ω open and the output voltage is pulled up to the supply
voltage. When the input is high, the lower MOSFET has
Solution: a resistance of 300 Ω.
VD = [RD/(RDS(on) + RD)]VDD vout = [RDS(on)/(RDS(on) + RD)]VDD
VD = [150 Ω/(7.5 Ω + 150 Ω)] 25 V vout = [300 Ω/(300 Ω + 8 kΩ)]12 V
VD = 23.8 V vout = 0.43 V
Answer: The drain voltage is 23.8 V. Answer: When the input voltage is low, the output volt-
12-13. Given: age is 12 V; when the input voltage is high, the output
VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-1) voltage is 0.43 V.
ID(on) = 1 A (from Table 12-1) 12-18. Given:
RDS(on) = 150 Ω
VDD = 12 V
VDD = 18 V
RD = 18 Ω
RD = 2 kΩ
Solution:
Solution: When the input is low, the lower MOSFET is
VD = [RDS(on)/(RDS(on) + RD)]VDD open and the output voltage is pulled up to the supply
VD = [0.9 Ω/(0.9 Ω + 18 Ω)]12 V voltage. When the input is high, the lower MOSFET has
VD = 0.57 V a resistance of 150 Ω.
1-67
vout = [RDS(on)/(RDS(on) + RD)]VDD ID = (12 V)/(1.95 Ω + 6 Ω)
vout = [150 Ω/(150 Ω + 2 kΩ)]18 V ID = 1.51 A
vout = 1.26 V Answer: The current is 1.51 A when the input is high.
Answer: When the input voltage is low, the output volt- 12-26. Given:
age is 18 V; when the input voltage is high, the output
voltage is 1.26 V. VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2)
ID(on) = 5 A (from Table 12-2)
12-19. Answer: The output waveform is a square wave with an RDS(on) = 1.07 Ω (from Table 12-2)
upper peak of +12 V and a lower peak of 0.43 V. VDD = 15 V
RD = 3 Ω
12-20. Answer: Inverted square wave from +12 V to 0 V.
Solution: When the input is low, the MOSFET is open
12-21. Answer: The on MOSFET has an RDS(on) of 10 V divided and no current flows. When the input is high, the MOS-
by 1 mA, which equals 10 kΩ. The off MOSFET has an FET has a resistance of RDS(on) = 1.07 Ω.
RDS(off) of 10 V divided by 1 μA, which equals 10 MΩ. ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD)
When the input voltage is high, the lower MOSFET is on, ID = (15 V)/(1.07 Ω + 3 Ω)
and the output voltage is given by: ID = 3.69 A
10 kΩ 12 V ≅ 0.012V
vout = _________
10.01 MΩ Answer: The current is 0 A when the input is low, and
3.69 A when the input is high.
When the input voltage is low, the lower MOSFET is off,
and the output voltage is given by: 12-27. Given:
10 MΩ 12 V ≅ 12V
vout = _________ VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2)
10.01 MΩ ID(on) = 5 A (from Table 12-2)
12-22. Given: RDS(on) = 1.07 Ω (from Table 12-2)
12-V peak square-wave input VDD = 15 V
f = 1 kHz RD = 5 Ω
Assume the same values from the previous problem. Solution: When it is dark, the photodiode acts like an
open and the gate voltage is 10 V. When the input is 10 V,
Answer: The signal will be 180° out of phase and have the MOSFET has a resistance of RDS(on) = 1.07 Ω.
a maximum value of 12 V and a minimum value of 0 V.
ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD)
12-23. Given: ID = (15 V)/(1.07 Ω + 5 Ω)
VDD = 12 V ID = 2.47 A
RDS(on) = 5 kΩ P = (2.47 A)2 (5 Ω) = 30.5 W
Solution: Answer: The power is 30.5 W when it is dark.

ID = VDD/2(RDS(on)) 12.28. Given:
ID = 12 V/2(5 kΩ) VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2)
ID = 1.2 mA ID(on) = 2 A (from Table 12-2)
Answer: The current is 1.2 mA. RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω (from Table 12-2)
VDD = 24 V
12-24. Given: RD = 12 Ω
VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2) Solution: When the input is low, the MOSFET is open
ID(on) = 2 A (from Table 12-2) and no current flows. When the input is high, the MOS-
RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω (from Table 12-2) FET has a resistance of RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω.
VDD = 12 V
RD = 10 Ω ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD)
ID = (24 V)/(1.95 Ω +12 Ω)
Solution: When the input is low, the MOSFET is open ID = 1.72 A
and no current flows. When the input is high, the MOS-
FET has a resistance of RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω. Answer: The current is 0 A when the input is low, and
1.72 A when the input is high.
ID = (12 V)/(1.95 Ω + 10 Ω) 12-29. Given:
ID = 1 A VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2)
Answer: The current is 0 A when the input is low, and ID(on) = 2 A (from Table 12-2)
1 A when the input is high. RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω (from Table 12-2)
VDD = 12 V
12-25. Given: RD = 18 Ω
VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2) Solution: When the probes are underwater, their resis-
ID(on) = 2 A (from Table 12-2) tance is low and the gate voltage is also low. When the
RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω (from Table 12-2) input is low, the MOSFET is open and no current flows.
VDD = 12 V When the probes are out of the water, their resistance is
RD = 6 Ω high and the gate voltage is also high. When the input is
Solution: When the input is high, the MOSFET has a high, the MOSFET has a resistance of RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω.
resistance of RDS(on) = 1.95 Ω. ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD)
ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD) ID = (12 V)/(1.95 Ω + 18 Ω)
ID = 0.6 A
1-68
Answer: The current is 0 A when the probes are underwa- RL = 5 Ω
ter, and 0.6 A when the probes are above the water. EN signal = +5 V
12-30. Given: Solution: When the enable signal is high, the output volt-
VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2) age across the load is divided between RDS(on) and RL.
ID(on) = 5 A (from Table 12-2) VL = [RL/(RL + RDS(on))]Vin
RDS(on) = 1.07 Ω (from Table 12-2) VL = [5 Ω/(5 Ω + 0.1 Ω)]15 V
VDD = 20 V VL = 14.7 V
RD = 4 Ω
Answer: When the enable signal is high, the output volt-
R1 = R2 = 1 MΩ
age is 14.7 V.
C = 20 μF
12-34. Given:
Solution:
Vin = 15 V
τ = RC
Q2 RDS(on) = 0.1 Ω
τ = (1 MΩ || 1 MΩ)(20 μF)
RL = 5 Ω
τ = 10 s
EN signal = +5 V
At full brightness, the FET appears to have a resistance
Solution:
of RDS(on) = 1.07 Ω.
IL = Vin/(RDS(on) + RL)
ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD) IL = 15 V/(0.1 Ω + 5 Ω)
ID = (20 V)/(1.07 Ω + 4 Ω) IL = 2.94 A
ID = 3.94 A
Q2 PLOSS = (IL)2(RDS(on))
P = I2R Q2 PLOSS = (2.94 A)2(0.1 Ω)
P = (3.94 A)2(4 Ω) Q2 PLOSS = 865 mW
P = 62.1 W
PL = (IL)2(RL)
Answer: The time constant is 10 s, and the lamp power PL = (2.94 A)2(5 Ω)
dissipation at full brightness is 62.1 W. PL = 43.2 W
12-31. Given: Answer: When the enable signal is +5.0 V, Q2's power
VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-2) loss is 865 mW and the output load power is 43.2 W.
ID(on) = 5 A (from Table 12-2) 12-35. Given:
VDD = 20 V ID(on) = 75 mA
RD = 6 Ω VGS(on) = 4.5 V
R1 = R2 = 2 MΩ VGS(th) = 0.8
C = 20 μF Solution:
Solution: k = IDS(on)/(VGS(on) – VGS(th))2
τ = RC k = 75 mA/(4.5 V – 0.8 V)2
τ = (2 MΩ || 2 MΩ)(20 μF) k = 5.48 × 10–3 A/V2
τ = 20 s ID = k[VGS – VGS(th)]2
ID = 5.48 × 10–3 A/V2[3 – 0.8]2
At full brightness, the FET appears to have a resistance
ID = 26 mA
of RDS(on) = 1.07 Ω.
ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD) Answer: The value for k is 5.48 × 10–3 A/V2 and the drain
ID = (20 V)/(1.07 Ω + 6 Ω) current is 26 mA.
ID = 2.83 A 12-36. Given:
Answer: The time constant is 20 s, and the lamp current RD = 150 Ω
at full brightness is 2.83 A. RL = 1 kΩ
vin = 50 mV
12-32. Given:
Vin = 15 V Solution:
Q1 RDS(on) = 1 Ω rd = RD || RL
R1 = 10 kΩ rd = 150 Ω || 1 kΩ
EN signal = 0 V and +5 V rd = 130 Ω
Solution: When the input EN is low (0 V), Q1 is off and k = 5.48 × 10–3 A/V2 (from Problem 12-35)
ID = 0 A. When the EN signal is high (+5 V), Q1 is on. gm = 2k[VGS – VGS(th)]
ID = Vin/(R1 + RDS(on)) gm = 24 mS
ID = 15 V/(10 kΩ + 1 Ω) Av = gmrd
ID = 1.5 mA Av = (24 mS)(130 Ω)
Av = 3.14
Answer: The current of Q1 is 0 A when the EN signal is
low and 1.5 mA when the enable signal is high. vout = vgAv
vout = (50 mV)(3.14)
12-33. Given: vout = 157 mV
Vin = 15 V
Answer: The voltage gain is 3.14, the voltage out is
Q2 RDS(on) = 0.1 Ω
157 mV, and gm is 24 mS.
1-69
12-37. Given: RDS(on) = 0.9 Ω (from Table 12-1)
RD = 50 Ω VDD = 12 V
ID(on) = 600 mA RD = 18 Ω
VGS(on) = 4.5 V Solution:
VGS(th) = 2.1 V
Solution: ID = (12 V)/(0.9 Ω + 18 Ω)
k = IDS(on)/(VGS(on) – VGS(th))2 ID = 0.635 A
k = 600 mA/(4.5 V – 2.1 V)2 P = ID2 RD
k = 104 × 10–3 A/V2 P = (0.635 A)2(18 Ω)
ID = k[VGS – VGS(th)]2 P = 7.26 W
ID = 104 × 10-3 A/V2[3 – 2.1]2 Pave = P (duty cycle)
ID = 84.4 mA Pave = 7.26 W(0.25)
Answer: The value for k is 104 × 10–3 A/V2 and the drain Pave = 1.81 W
current is 84.4 mA. Answer: The average power dissipation in the load resis-
12-38. Given: tor is 1.81 W.
RD = 15 Ω 12-41. Given:
RL = 1 kΩ VDD = 12 V
vin = 50 mV RDS(on) = 100 Ω
VDD = 12 V RDS(off) = 10 MΩ
Solution: Iave = 50 μA
rd = RD || RL Solution: Since the FETs are complementary, one is off
rd = 15 Ω || 1 kΩ and the other is on. Thus the current drawn from the
rd = 14.8 Ω power supply is going to be controlled by the off device.
Av = gmrd ID = VDD /RDS(off)
Av = (395.8 mS)(14.8 Ω) ID = 12 V/10 MΩ
Av = 5.85 ID = 1.2 μA
vout = VinAv P = VDDID

vout = (50 mV)(5.85) P = (12 V)(1.2 μA)
vout = 292 mV P = 14.4 μW
Answer: The voltage gain is 5.85, the voltage out is P = VDDIave

292 mV, and gm is 395.8 mS. P = (12 V)(50 μA)
P = 600 μW
CRITICAL THINKING Answer: The quiescent power drain is 14.4 μW, and the
average power drain is 600 μW.
12-39. Given:
VGS(on) = 5 V (from Table 12-1) 12-42. Given:
ID(on) = 200 mA (from Table 12-1) VG = 3 V
RDS(on) = 7.5 Ω (from Table 12-1) VDD = 15 V
VDD = 25 V R1 = 1 MΩ
RD = 150 Ω Solution:
f = 1 kHz
VR = VDD – VG
Solution: VR = 15 V – 3 V
ID = (VDD)/(RDS(on) + RD) VR = 12 V
ID = (25 V)/(7.5 Ω + 150 Ω) I = VR/R1
ID = 158.7 mA I = 12 V/1 MΩ
Since the signal is a square wave, the off time equals the I = 12 μA
on time, which gives it a duty cycle of 0.5. The current through R2 is 3 V divided by 2 MΩ, which
Duty cycle = on time/total time equals 1.5 μA. Therefore, the photodiode current is 12 μA
P = ID2 RD minus 1.5 μA, or 10.5 μA.
P = (158.7 mA)2(150 Ω) Answer: The diode current is 10.5 μA.
P = 3.78 W
Pave = P (duty cycle) 12-43. Given: RDS(on) = 0.17 Ω at 25°C.
Pave = 3.78 W(0.5) Solution: As the temperature rises 100°C, the normalized
Pave = 1.89 W resistance increases by a factor of 2.25. Thus 2.25/100°C =
Answer: The average power dissipation in the load resis- 0.0225/°C. The temperature increases 75°C. Thus the resis-
tor is 1.89 W. tance increases by a factor of 75°C(0.0225/°C) = 1.69.
12-40. Given: 0.17(1.69) = 0.29 Ω

VGS(on) = 10 V (from Table 12-1) Answer: The resistance at 100°C is 0.29 Ω.
ID(on) = 1 A (from Table 12-1)
1-70
12-44. Given: 13-2. Given:
Vin = 12 V VD = 0.7 V
Turns ratio = 4:1 VB = 12 V
V = 19 V
Solution: The primary voltage will be 12 V.
R1 = 5 kΩ
N1/N2 = 4
N1/N2 = V1/V2 Solution: Just before breakover, the capacitor voltage is
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) VB.
V2 = 12 V/4 I = (V – VB)/R1
V2 = 3 V I = (19 V – 12 V)/5 kΩ
I = 1.4 mA
Answer: The output voltage is 3 V.
While the diode is conducting, the voltage across it is
12-45. C1 is open 0.7 V.
12-46. VCC has failed and is now 0 V I = (V – VD)/R1
I = (19 V – 0.7 V)/5 kΩ
12-47. Q1 has failed I = 3.66 mA
12-48. VG is set to 5 Vp, not 50 mVp Answer: The current through the resistor just before
breakover is 1.4 mA, and during conduction is 3.66 mA.
12-49. R1 is shorted
13-3. Given:
VD = 0.7 V
Chapter 13 Thyristors VB = 12 V
V = 19 V
SELF-TEST R1 = 5 kΩ
1. c 9. b 17. d 25. d C1 = 0.02 μF
2. b 10. c 18. a 26. d Solution:
3. d 11. a 19. a 27. b RC = (5 kΩ)(0.02 μF)
4. c 12. b 20. b 28. a RC = 0.1 ms
5. b 13. d 21. c 29. c T = 0.1 ms since the period equals the RC time constant
6. b 14. d 22. b 30. b
7. a 15. d 23. c 31. a f = 1/T
8. b 16. d 24. b f = 1/0.1 ms
f = 10 kHz
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Answer: The RC time constant is 0.1 ms, and the fre-
quency is 10 kHz.
5. The SCR remains latched once the initial stimulus is
removed; the transistor does not. This prevents silencing the 13-4. Given:
alarm by a clever burglar or destruction of the sending unit by VD = 0.7 V
fire or flood, etc. VB = 20 V
6. In every section of the field. IH = 3 mA
7. Power-handling capability: The SCR can handle the most RS = 1 kΩ
current, and the power FET the least current. Efficiency:
The SCR is the most efficient since the control signal can be Solution: Since the diode is open before breakover, no
removed once SCR is conducting, and the power FET is the current flows before the device breaks over. Thus when
next-most efficient since its control current is low. Control the power supply reaches breakover voltage, the device
input: The power FET and BJT are easier to control because will break over.
they can be shut off using the control input. Maximum fre- V = IHRS + 0.7 V (Eq. 13-2)
quency: The power FET switches the fastest. V = (3 mA)(1 kΩ) + 0.7 V
V = 3.7 V
PROBLEMS Answer: The power supply voltage will be 20 V at break-
over and 3.7 V at dropout.
13-1. Given:
VD = 0.7 V 13-5. Given:
IH = 4 mA VD = 0.7 V
RS = 1 kΩ VB = 12 V
V = 19 V
Solution:
R1 = 10 kΩ
V = IH RS + 0.7 V (Eq. 13-2) C1 = 0.06 μF
V = (4 mA)(1 kΩ) + 0.7 V
V = 4.7 V Solution: The maximum voltage across the capacitor
will be breakover voltage, because as soon as the device
Answer: The power supply voltage will be 4.7 V at breaks over, the voltage drops to about 0.7 V.
dropout.
RC = (10 kΩ)(0.06 μF)
RC = 0.6 ms
Answer: The maximum voltage across the capacitor is
12 V, and the time constant is 0.6 ms.
1-71
13-6. Given: Answer: The input voltage required to turn on the SCR is
VGT = 1.0 V 34.5 V, and the supply voltage required to turn the SCR
IGT = 2 mA off is 1.17 V.
IH = 12 mA 13-10. Given:
VCC = 12 V VGT = 2 V
RG = 2.2 kΩ IGT = 8 mA
RL = 47 Ω IH = 2 mA
Solution: When the SCR is off, no current flows. The out- VCC = 12 V
put voltage when the SCR is off is the same as the power RG = 6.6 kΩ
supply voltage. RL = 141 Ω
Vin = VGT + IGTRG (Eq. 13-1) Solution:
Vin = 1 V + (2 mA)(2.2 kΩ) Vin = VGT + IGTRG (Eq. 13-1)
Vin = 5.4 V Vin = 2 V + (8 mA)(6.6 kΩ)
V = IHRL + 0.7 V (Eq. 13-2) Vin = 54.8 V
VCC = (12 mA)(47 Ω) + 0.7 V Answer: The input voltage required to turn on the SCR
VCC = 1.26 V is 54.8 V.
Answer: The output voltage when the SCR is off is 13-11. Given:
12 V. The input voltage required to turn on the SCR is
R1 = 3.3 kΩ
5.4 V, and the supply voltage required to turn the SCR
R2 = 6.8 kΩ
off is 1.26 V.
R3 = 750 Ω
13-7. Given: C1 = 4.7 μF
VGT = 0.7 V Solution:
IGT = 1.5 mA RC = RTH(cap)C1
IH = 2 mA RC = (2.54 kΩ)(4.7 μF)
VCC = 12 V RC = 11.9 msec
RG = 4.4 kΩ
RL = 94 Ω RTH = R || R1
RTH = 750 Ω || 3.3 kΩ
Solution: RTH = 611 Ω
Vin = VGT + IGTRG (Eq. 13-1)
Vin = 0.7 V + (1.5 mA)(4.4 kΩ) Answer: The charging time constant is 11.9 ms. and the
Vin = 7.3 V Thevenin resistance is 611 Ω.
Answer: The input voltage required to turn on the SCR 13-12. Given:
is 7.3 V. R1 = 1 kΩ
R2 = 4.6 kΩ
13-8. Answer: The highest output occurs when 0.8 V is across C = 0.47 μF
the 500-Ω resistor. The current through this resistor is
0.8 V divided by 500 Ω, which equals 1.6 mA. This Solution:
1.6 mA must flow through the 3.3-kΩ resistor. The XC = 1/(2πfC)
200 μA of gate current must also flow through the XC = 1/2π(60 Hz)(0.47 μF)
3.3-kΩ resistor. If we ignore the 200 μA on the grounds XC = 5644 Ω
that it is much smaller than 1.6 mA, we get an approximate ________
answer of: Z = √_________________
R2 + XC2
V = 0.8 V + (1.6 mA)(3.3 kΩ) = 6.08 V Z = √5.6 kΩ2 + 5.644 kΩ2
Z = 7.95 kΩ
If we include the 200 μA, we get a slightly larger output
voltage:
X
( )
θZ = ∠ – arctan ___C
R
V = 0.8 V + (1.6 mA + 200 μA)(3.3 kΩ) = 6.74 V (
5.644 kΩ
θZ = ∠ – arctan ________
θZ = ∠ – 45º
5.6 kΩ )
13-9. Given:
V
VGT = 1.5 V IC ∠ θ = _______________
in
IGT = 15 mA
IH = 10 mA
( )
X
ZT ∠ – arctan ___C
R
VCC = 12 V IC ∠ θ = 120 V ∠ 0º
______________
RG = 2.2 kΩ 7.95 kΩ ∠ – 45º
RL = 47 Ω IC ∠ θ = 15 mA ∠ 45º
Solution: VC = (IC ∠ θ) (XC ∠ – 90º)
VC = (15 mA ∠ 45º)(5644 Ω ∠ – 90º)
Vin = VGT + IGTRG (Eq. 13-1) VC = 85 V ∠ – 45º
Vin = 1.5 V + (15 mA)(2.2 kΩ)
Vin = 34.5 V θºcond =180º– θºfiring
θºcond =180º – 45º
VCC = IHRL + 0.7 V (Eq. 13-2) θºcond =135
VCC = (10 mA)(47 Ω) + 0.7 V
VCC = 1.17 V Answer: The firing angle is 45º, the conduction angle is
135º, and the voltage across the capacitor is 85 Vac.
1-72
R1 = 1 kΩ VCC = VZ + VGT (Eq. 13-3)
R2 = 50 kΩ pot VCC = 10 V + 0.8 V
C = 0.47 μF VCC = 10.8 V
Solution: Perform the following calculations with an R Answer: The voltage needed to trigger the crowbar is
value of 1 kΩ and 51 kΩ. 10.8 V.
XC = 1/(2πfC) 13-16. Given:
XC = 1/(2π(60 Hz))(0.47 μF)
VGT = 1.5 V
XC = 5644 Ω
_______ IGT = 200 μA
Z = √_______________
R2 + XC 2 VZ = 10 V ± 10%
√
Z = 1 kΩ2+ 5.644 kΩ2 Solution:
Z = 5.732 kΩ
VZ(max) = VZ + 0.1(VZ)
( )
XC
θZ = ∠ – arctan __
R VZ(max) = 10 V + 0.1(10 V)
VZ(max) = 11 V
(
5.644 kΩ
θZ = ∠ – arctan _______
1 kΩ )
θZ = ∠ – 80º VCC = VZ + VGT (Eq. 13-3)
V VCC = 11 V + 1.5 V
IC ∠ θ = ______________
in
VCC = 12.5 V
ZT ∠ –arctan __
XC
R ( ) Answer: The voltage needed to trigger the crowbar is
120 V ∠ 0º
IC ∠ θ = _______________
5.732 kΩ ∠ – 80º 12.5 V.
IC ∠ θ = 20.9 mA ∠ 80º 13-17. Given:
VC = (IC ∠ θ) (XC ∠ – 90º) VGT = 0.8 V
VC = (20.9 mA ∠ 80º)(5644 Ω ∠ – 90º) IGT = 200 μA
VC = 118 V ∠ – 10º VZ = 12 V
Answer: The minimum firing angle is 10º, and the Solution:
maximum firing angle is 83.7º.
Vtrig = VZ + VGT (Eq. 13-3)
13-14. Given: Vtrig = 12 V + 0.8 V
Vtrig = 12.8 V
R1 = 1 kΩ
R2 = 50 kΩ pot Answer: The SCR will trigger at 12.8 V.
C = 0.47 μF 13-18. Given:
Solution: Perform the following calculations with an R VGT = 0.8 V
value of 1 kΩ and 51 kΩ. IGT = 200 μA
XC = 1/(2πfC) VZ = 11 V
XC = 1/(2π(60 Hz))(0.47 μF) Solution:
XC = 5644 Ω
________ VCC = VZ + VGT (Eq. 13-3)
Z = √_______________
R2 + XC2 VCC = 11 V + 0.8 V
√
Z = 1 kΩ2+ 5.644 kΩ2 VCC = 11.8 V
Z = 5.732 kΩ Answer: The voltage needed to trigger the crowbar is
( )
XC
θZ = ∠ – arctan __
R
11.8 V.
θZ = ∠ – arctan
θZ = ∠ – 80º
(
5.644 kΩ
________
1 kΩ ) 13-19. Given:
VB = 20 V
Vin
IC ∠ θ = _______________ VGT = 2.5 V
XC
ZT ∠ – arctan __
R ( ) Solution: Ignore the gate current in the triac. Then
120 V ∠ 0º
IC ∠ θ = _______________ VC = VB + VGT
5.732 kΩ ∠ – 80º VC = 20 V + 2.5 V
IC ∠ θ = 20.9 mA ∠ 80º VC = 22.5 V
VC = (IC ∠ θ) (XC ∠ – 90º) Answer: The capacitor voltage required to turn on the
VC = (20.9 mA ∠ 80º)(5644 Ω ∠ – 90º) triac is 22.5 V.
VC = 118 V ∠ – 10º
13-20. Given:
θºcond = 180º – θºfiring
θºcond = 180º – 10º Vin = 100 V
θºcond = 170º RL = 15 Ω
Answer: The minimum conduction angle is 96.3º, and the Solution: Ideally, when the triac is conducting, the volt-
maximum conduction angle is 170º. age drop across it is 0 V.
13-15. Given: I = Vin/RL
I = 100 V/15 Ω
VGT = 0.8 V I = 6.67 A
IGT = 200 μA
VZ = 10 V Answer: The load current is 6.67 A.
1-73
13-21. Given: RCmin = RmaxC1
VB = 28 V RCmin = (1 kΩ)(0.1 μF)
VGT = 2.5 V RCmin = 0.1 msec
Solution: Ignore the current through the diac and triac. Tmax = 0.2(RC1 max)
Then Tmax = 0.2(5.1 ms)
Tmax = 1.02 ms
VC = VB + VGT
VC = 28 V + 2.5 V Tmin = 0.2(RC1 min)
VC = 30.5 V Tmin = 0.2(0.1 ms)
Tmin = 0.02 ms
Answer: The capacitor voltage required to turn on the
triac is 30.5 V. fmax = 1/Tmin
fmax = 1/0.02 ms
13-22. Given: fmax = 50 kHz
VCC = 15 V
R2 = 1 kΩ fmin = 1/Tmax
R3 = 2 kΩ fmin = 1/1.02 ms
fmin = 980 Hz
Solution:
Answer: The maximum frequency is 50 kHz, and the
Vgate = [R3/(R2 + R3)]VCC (Voltage divider formula) minimum is 980 Hz.
Vgate = [2 kΩ/(1 kΩ + 2 kΩ)]15 V
Vgate = 10 V 13-28. Given:
Vanode = VTrig + 0.7 V RL = 100 Ω
Vanode = 10 V + 0.7 VCC = 15 V
Vanode = 10.7 V Solution: In a dark room the SCR is off and the output
Answer: The gate trigger voltage is 10 V and the anode voltage is 15 V. Once the SCR fires, its voltage drops to
is 10.7 V. 0.7 V.
I = (VCC – 0.7 V)/RL
13-23. Given: I = (15 V – 0.7 V)/100 Ω
VCC = 15 V I = 143 mA
Vgate = 10 V
Vanode = 10.7 V Answer: The output voltage when it is dark is 15 V and
when it is light is 0.7 V, and the current through the resis-
Solution: tor is 143 mA when it is light.
VR4 = Vanode – 0.7 V 13-29. Answer:
VR4 = 10.7 V – 0.7
VR4 = 10 V Trouble 1: Since there is voltage at D and not at E, the
Answer: The peak voltage across R4 = 10 V. wire connecting the two is open.
13-24. Answer: The output waveform will be a sawtooth wave- Trouble 2: No supply voltage.
form from 0 V to 10.7 V. Trouble 3: Since there is voltage at B and not at C, the
transformer is the problem.
CRITICAL THINKING Trouble 4: Since there is voltage at A and not at B, the
fuse is open.
13-25. Answer: The breakover voltage of the diode, which is
10 V. 13-30. Answer:
13-26. Answer: The breakover voltage of the diode, which is Trouble 5: Since there is an overvoltage and the crowbar
10 V. is off, the problem is the crowbar.
13-27. Given: Trouble 6: Since there is voltage at C and not at D and the
load resistor is not shorted, the rectifier is the problem.
R1 = 0 to 50 kΩ
R2 = 1 kΩ Trouble 7: Since there is voltage at E and not at F, the
C1 = 0.1 μF wire connecting the two is open.
T = 20%(RC) Trouble 8: Since there is voltage at A and not at B, the
Solution: fuse is open.
Rmax = R2 + R1(max) 13-31. The fuse is open
Rmax = 1 kΩ + 50 kΩ
Rmax = 51 kΩ 13-32. The SCR D3 has been triggered on
Rmin = R2 + R1(min) 13-33. Open transformer secondary
Rmin = 1 kΩ + 0 kΩ
Rmin = 1 kΩ 13-34. C1 is open
RCmax = RmaxC1 13-35. VS is 0 V
RCmax = (51 kΩ)(0.1 μF)
RCmax = 5.1 ms
1-74
Chapter 14 Frequency Effects 14-2. Answer: See the figure below.
SELF-TEST Av
1. a 6. c 11. c 16. a
2. b 7. b 12. c 17. d
3. c 8. c 13. d 18. b 500,000
4. c 9. c 14. a 19. c 353,000
5. b 10. d 15. c 20. a

f
1. Too much stray-wiring capacitance. Shorten the leads as 15 Hz
much as possible. Frequency response for Prob. 14-2.
2. With a sine wave, find the frequency at which the voltage 14-3. Given:
gain is down 3 dB. With a square wave, use the step-response
method. Av(mid) = 200
5. Some oscilloscopes (with plug-in vertical preamps) specify f2 = 10 kHz
the risetime of the main frame. A risetime of 7.0 ns converts f = 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 500 kHz, 1 MHz
to a bandwidth of 50 MHz. Solution: Substitute in the appropriate value for f.
6. Use a step voltage and measure the risetime of the output
signal. Av = Av(mid)
______________
____________
8. Maximum power transfer.
9. dBm is referenced to 1 mW, whereas dB is not referenced to
any standard.
√1 + ( ________
f 2
f2 )
10. Because it amplifies down to 0 Hz, which is the frequency of
a dc signal. Av = 200
______________
11. Semilogarithmic ____________
12. It is a computer program that provides electronic circuit √1 + ( ________
10 kHz )
100 kHz 2
simulation. It is used to build, test, and analyze simulated Av = 19.9

circuits.
Answer: Av = 19.9 at 100 kHz, Av = 9.98 at 200 kHz,
Av = 4 at 500 kHz, Av = 2 at 1 MHz.
PROBLEMS
14-4. Given: AP = 5, 10, 20, 40
14-1. Given:
Solution:
Av(mid) = 1000
f1 = 100 Hz AP(dB) = 10 logAP
f2 = 100 kHz AP(dB) = 10 log(5)
AP(dB) = 7 dB
Solution: _________
AP(dB) = 10 logAP
Av(20K) = Av(mid)/[√_________________
1 + (f1/f)2] (Eq. 14-3)
AP(dB) = 10 log(10)
Av(20K) = 1000/[√1 + (100 Hz/20 Hz)2 ] AP(dB) = 10 dB
Av(20K) = 196
_________ AP(dB) = 10 logAP
Av(300K) = Av(mid)/[√_____________________
1 + (f /f2)2 ] (Eq. 14-3) AP(dB) = 10 log(20)
Av(300K) = 1000/[√1 + (300 kHz/100 kHz)2 ] AP(dB) = 13 dB
Av(300K) = 316 AP(dB) = 10 logAP
Answer: The frequency response looks like the figure AP(dB) = 10 log(40)
below; the gain at 20 Hz is 196, and at 300 kHz is 316. AP(dB) = 16 dB
Answer: The decibel power gain is 7 dB at a power gain
Av of 5, 10 dB at 10, 13 dB at 20, and 16 dB at 40.
14-5. Given: Ap = 0.4, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05
1000 Solution:
707 AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8)
AP(dB) = 10 log(0.4)
AP(dB) = –3.98
100 Hz 300 kHz AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8)
Frequency response for Prob. 14-1. AP(dB) = 10 log(0. 2)
AP(dB) = –6.99
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8)
AP(dB) = 10 log(0.1)
AP(dB) = –10
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8)
AP(dB) = 10 log(0.05)
AP(dB) = –13
1-75
Answer: The decibel power gain is –3.98 at a power gain 14-10. Given:
of 0.4, –6.99 at 0.2, –10 at 0.1, and –13 at 0.05. Av1(dB) = 30 dB
14-6. Given: Ap = 2, 20, 200, 2000 Av2(dB) = 52 dB
Solution: Solution:
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8) Av(dB) = Av1(dB) + Av2(dB) (Eq. 14-11)
AP(dB) = 10 log(2) Av(dB) = 30 dB + 52 dB
AP(dB) = 3 dB Av(dB) = 82 dB
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8) Av = antilog(Av(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15)
AP(dB) = 10 log(20) Av = antilog(82 dB/20)
AP(dB) = 13 dB Av = 12,589
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8) Answer: The decibel voltage gain is 82, and the voltage
AP(dB) = 10 log(200) gain is 12,589.
AP(dB) = 23 dB 14-11. Given:
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8) Av1(dB) = 30 dB
AP(dB) = 10 log(2000) Av2(dB) = 52 dB
AP(dB) = 33 dB
Solution:
Answer: The decibel power gain is 3 dB at a power gain
Av1 = antilog(Av1(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15)
of 2, 13 dB at 20, 23 dB at 200, and 33 dB at 2000.
Av1 = antilog(30 dB/20)
14-7. Given: AP = 0.4, 0.04, 0.004 Av1 = 31.6
Solution: Av2 = antilog(Av2(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15)
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8) Av2 = antilog(52 dB/20)
AP(dB) = 10 log(0.4) Av2 = 398
AP(dB) = –3.98 Answer: The voltage gain of the first stage is 31.6, and
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8) the second stage is 398.
AP(dB) = 10 log(0.04) 14-12. Given: Av = 100,000
AP(dB) = –13.98
Solution:
AP(dB) = 10 logAP (Eq. 14-8)
Av(dB) = 20 logAv (Eq. 14-9)
AP(dB) = 10 log(0.004)
Av(dB) = 20 log(100,000)
AP(dB) = –23.98
Av(dB) = 100
Answer: The decibel power gain is –3.98 dB at a power
Answer: The decibel voltage gain is 100 dB.
gain of 0.4, –13.98 dB at 0.04, and –23.98 dB at 0.004.
14-13. Given: AdB = 34 dB
14-8. Given:
Solution:
Av1 = 200
Av2 = 100 Av = antilog(Av(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15)
Av = antilog(34 dB/20)
Solution: Av = 50.1
Av = Av1Av2 (Eq. 14-10)
Answer: The voltage gain is 50.1.
Av = (200)(100)
Av = 20,000 14-14. Given:
Av(dB) = 20 logAv (Eq. 14-8) Av1 = 25.8
Av(dB) = 20 log(20,000) Av2 = 117
Av(dB) = 86 dB Solution:
Answer: The voltage gain is 20,000, and the decibel volt- Av1(dB) = 20 logAv1 (Eq. 14-9)
age gain is 86 dB. Av1(dB) = 20 log(25.8)
14-9. Given: Av1(dB) = 28.2 dB
Av1 = 200 Av2(dB) = 20 logAv2 (Eq. 14-9)
Av2 = 100 Av2(dB) = 20 log(117)
Av2(dB) = 41.4 dB
Solution:
Av(dB) = Av1(dB) + Av2(dB) (Eq. 14-11)
Av1(dB) = 20 logAv1 (Eq. 14-8)
Av(dB) = 28.2 dB + 41.4 dB
Av1(dB) = 20 log(200)
Av(dB) = 69.6 dB
Av1(dB) = 46 dB
Answer: The decibel voltage gain for the first stage
Av2(dB) = 20 logAv2 (Eq. 14-8)
is 28.2 dB, the second stage is 41.4 dB, and overall is
Av2(dB) = 20 log(100)
69.6 dB.
Av2(dB) = 40 dB
14-15. Given:
Answer: The decibel voltage gain for stage 1 is 46 dB,
and stage 2 is 40 dB. AP1(dB) = 23 dB
AP2(dB) = 18 dB
1-76
Solution: PdBm = 10 log(P/1 mW) (Eq. 14-16)
AP1(dB) = Av1(dB) = 23 dB PdBm = 10 log(4.87 W/1 mW)
AP2(dB) = Av2(dB) = 18 dB PdBm = 36.9 dBm
Av(dB) = Av1(dB) + Av2(dB) (Eq. 14-11) Answer: 25 mW is 14 dBm, 93.5 mW is 19.7 dBm, and
Av(dB) = 23 dB + 18 dB 4.87 W is 36.9 dBm.
Av(dB) = 41 dB
14-20. Given:
Answer: The total decibel voltage gain is 41 dB, the first- V = 1 μV, 34.8 mV, 12.9 V, and 345 V
stage decibel voltage gain is 23 dB, and the second stage
voltage gain is 18 dB. Solution:
VdBV = 20 logV (Eq. 14-18)
14-16. Given: VdBV = 20 log(1 μV)
Vin = 10 μV VdBV = –120 dBV
RG = 300 Ω
VdBV = 20 logV (Eq. 14-18)
AP1(dB) = 23 dB
VdBV = 20 log(34.8 mV)
AP2(dB) = 18 dB
VdBV = –29.2 dBV
AP(dB) = 41 dB (from Prob. 14-15)
VdBV = 20 logV (Eq. 14-18)
Solution: VdBV = 20 log(12.9 V)
AP = antilog(APdB/10) (Eq. 14-15) VdBV = 22.2 dBV
AP = antilog(41 dB/10)
AP = 12,589 VdBV = 20 logV (Eq. 14-18)
VdBV = 20 log(345 V)
Pin = V2/R VdBV = 50.8 dBV
Pin = (5 μV)2/300 Ω (because half of the source volt-
age appears at the input) Answer: 1 μV is –120 dBV, 34.8 mV is –29.2 dBV, 12.9 V
Pin = 0.0833 pW is 22.2 dBV, and 345 V is 50.8 dBV.
Pout = APPin 14-21. Given:

Pout = (12,589)(0.0833 pW) Av(mid) = 200,000
Pout = 1.05 nW f2 = 10 Hz
_____ Roll-off = 20 dB/decade
vout = √_______________
Pout R
vout = √ (1.05 nW)(300 Ω) Answer:
vout = 0.56 mV Av(dB) = 20 log Av (Eq. 14-9)
Answer: The load voltage is 0.56 mV, and the load power Av(dB) = 20 log(200,000)
is 1.05 nW. Av(dB) = 106 dB
14-17. Given: From the graph below, the gain at 1 MHz is 6 dB.
PdBm = 20 dBm Av = antilog(Av(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15)
Av = antilog(6 dB/20)
Solution:
Av = 2
P = antilog(PdBm/10) (Eq. 14-17)
P = antilog(20 dBm/10) Answer: The voltage gain at 1 MHz is 2.
P = 100 mW Av(dB)
Answer: The output power is 100 mW. 106 dB
14-18. Given:
86 dB
VdBV = –45
66 dB
Solution:
V = antilog(VdBV/20) (Eq. 14-19) 46 dB
V = antilog(–45 dBV/20)
V = 5.6 mV 26 dB
Answer: The output voltage is 5.6 mV. 6 dB

14-19. Given: 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
P = 25 mW, 93.5 mW, and 4.87 W Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 14-21.
Solution:
PdBm = 10 log(P/1 mW) (Eq. 14-16) 14-22. Given:
PdBm = 10 log(25 mW/1 mW) Av(mid) = 316,000
PdBm = 14 dBm f2 = 40 Hz
Roll-off = 20 dB/decade
PdBm = 10 log(P/1 mW) (Eq. 14-16)
PdBm = 10 log(93.5 mW/1 mW) Answer:
PdBm = 19.7 dBm Av(dB) = 20 log Av (Eq. 14-9)
Av(dB) = 20 log(316,000)
Av(dB) = 110 dB
1-77
Answer: See figure below. 14-25. Given:
Av(dB) R = 15 kΩ
C = 100 pF
110 dB Av(mid) = 400
Solution:
90 dB
f2 = 1/(2πRC)
70 dB f2 = 1/[2π(15 kΩ)(100 pF)]
f2 = 106 kHz
50 dB
Av(dB) = 20 log Av (Eq. 14-9)
30 dB Av(dB) = 20 log(400)
Av(dB) = 52 dB
10 dB
Answer: See figure at top of next column.
40 Hz 4 kHz 400 kHz
Av(dB)
Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 14-22.
14-23. Given:
C = 1000 pF
R = 10 kΩ
Solution:
f2 = 1/(2πRC) 52 dB
f2 = 1/[2π (10 kΩ)(1000 pF)]
f2 = 15.9 kHz 32 dB
Answer: See figure below. 12 dB

Av(dB) 106 kHz 1.06 MHz 10.6 MHz
15.9 kHz Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 14-25.

0 dB f 14-26. Given:
20 dB/decade
C = 5 pF
Av = 200,000
Solution:
Cin = C(Av + 1) (Eq. 14-26)
Cin = 5 pF(200,000 + 1)
Cin = 1 μF
Answer: The Miller input capacitance is 1 μF.
Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 14-23. 14-27. Given:
14-24. Given: Cin(M) = 15 pF
Av = 250,000
R = 1 kΩ
RL = 10 kΩ
C = 50 pF RG = 1 kΩ
Solution: Solution:
f2 = 1/(2πRC) Cin(M) = C(Av + 1) (Eq. 14-26)
f2 = 1/[2π(1 kΩ)(50 pF)] Cin(M) = 15 pF(250,000 + 1)
f2 = 3.18 MHz Cin(M) = 3.75 μF
Answer: See figure below. f2 = 1/(2πRC)
f2 = 1/[2π (1 kΩ)(3.75 μF)]
Av(dB)
f2 = 42 Hz
3.18 MHz Av(dB) = 20 log Av (Eq. 14-9)
0 dB f Av(dB) = 20 log(250,000)
Av(dB) = 108 dB
20 dB/decade
Answer: See figure below.
1-78
Av(dB) 14-31. Given:
108 dB TR = 0.25 μs
Solution:
88 dB
f2 = 0.35/TR (Eq. 14-29)
68 dB f2 = 0.35/0.25 μs
f2 = 1.4 MHz
48 dB
Answer: The bandwidth is 1.4 MHz.
28 dB
14-32. Given:
8 dB f2 = 100 kHz
42 Hz 420 Hz 4.2 kHz 42 kHz 420 kHz 4.2 MHz Solution:
f2 = 0.35/ TR (Eq. 14-29)
TR = 0.35/f2
TR = 0.35/100 kHz
14-28. Given: TR = 3.5 μs
C = 50 pF
Av = 200,000 Answer: The risetime is 3.5 μs.

Cin(M) = C(Av + 1) (Eq. 14-26) Cin = 1 μF
Cin(M) = 50 pF(200,000 + 1) RG = 50 Ω
Cin(M) = 10 μF Solution:
Answer: The Miller input capacitance is 10 μF. R = RG + zin(stage)
R = RG + R1 || R2 || βr'e
14-29. Given: R = 1.34 kΩ
C = 100 pF
Av = 150,000 fC1 = 1/(2πRCin)
RL = 10 kΩ fC1 = 1/[2π(1.34 kΩ)(1 μF)]
RG = 1 kΩ fC1 = 119 Hz
Solution: Answer: The lower cutoff frequency for the base cou-
pling circuit is 119 Hz.
Cin(M) = C(Av + 1) (Eq. 14-26)
Cin(M) = 100 pF(150,000 + 1) 14-34. Given:
Cin(M) = 15 μF Cout = 4.7 μF
f2 = 1/(2πRC) RC = 3.6 kΩ
f2 = 1/[2π(1 kΩ)(15 μF)] RL = 10 kΩ
f2 = 11 Hz Solution:
Av(dB) = 20 log Av (Eq. 14-9) R = RC + RL
Av(dB) = 20 log(150,000) R = 36 kΩ + 10 kΩ
Av(dB) = 104 dB R = 13.6 kΩ
Answer: See figure below. fC1 = 1/(2πRCout)
fC1 = 1/[2π(13.6 kΩ)(4.7 μF)]
Av(dB) fC1 = 2.49 Hz
104 dB Answer: The lower cutoff frequency for the collector
84 dB coupling circuit is 2.49 Hz.
64 dB
14-35. Given:
CE = 25 μF
44 dB
RG = 50 Ω
24 dB RE = 1 kΩ
4 dB Solution:
11 Hz 110 Hz 1.1 kHz 11 kHz 110 kHz 1.1 MHz fC1 = 1/(2πzoutCE)
fC1 = 1/[2π(22.4 Ω)(25 μF)]
Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 14-29. fC1 = 284 Hz
14-30. Given: Answer: The lower cutoff frequency for the emitter
TR = 10 μs bypass circuit is 284 Hz.
f2 = 0.35/TR (Eq. 14-29) C'c = 2 pF
f2 = 0.35/10 μs C'e = 10 pF
f2 = 35 kHz C'Stray = 5 pF
R1 = 10 kΩ
Answer: The upper cutoff frequency is 35 kHz.
R2 = 2.2 kΩ
1-79
RC = 3.6 kΩ 14-39. Given:
RL = 10 kΩ R1 = 2 MΩ
RG = 50 Ω R2 = 1 MΩ
β = 200 RD = 1 kΩ
Solution: RL = 10 kΩ
RG = 50 Ω
rg = RG || R1 || R2 Cgd = 5 pF (from Prob. 14-37)
rg = 50 Ω || 10 kΩ || 2.2 kΩ Cgs = 25 pF (from Prob. 14-37)
rg = 48 Ω Cds = 15 pF (from Prob. 14-37)
Cin(M) = 236 pF Solution:
C = Cin(M) + C'e = 246 pF
Av = gmrd
Base Av = (16.5 ms)(1 kΩ || 10 kΩ)
f2 = 1/(2πrgC) Av = 15
f2 = 1/[2π(48 Ω)(246 pF)] Cin(M) = Cgd(Av + 1) (Eq. 14-40)
f2 = 13.5 MHz Cin(M) = 5 pF(15 + 1)
Collector Cin(M) = 80 pF
C = Cout(M) + Cstray C = Cgs + Cin(M)
C = 2 pF + 5 pF = 7 pF C = 25 pF + 80 pF
R = RC || RL C = 105 pF
R = 3.6 kΩ || 10 kΩ R = RG || R1 || R2
R = 2.65 kΩ R = 50 Ω || 2 MΩ || 1 MΩ
f2 = 1/(2πRC) R = 50 Ω
f2 = 1/[2π(2.65 kΩ)(7 pF)] Gate
f2 = 8.59 MHz f2 = 1/(2πRC)
Answer: The high cutoff frequency for the base is f2 = 1/[2π(50 Ω)(105 pF)]
13.5 MHz and the collector is 8.59 MHz. f2 = 30.3 MHz
14-37. Given: Collector
gm = 16.5 ms Cout(M) = Cgd[(Av + 1)/Av] (Eq. 14-41)
Ciss = 30 pF Cout(M) = 5 pF[(15 + 1)/15]
Coss = 20 pF Cout(M) = 5.3 pF
Crss = 5 pF C = Cds + Cout(M)
Solution: C = 15 pF + 5.3 pF
Cgd = Crss = 5 pF C = 20.3 pF
Cgs = Ciss – Crss Drain
Cgs = 30 pF – 5 pF R = RD || RL
Cgs = 25 pF f2 = 1/(2πRC)
Cds = Coss – Crss f2 = 1/[2π(909 Ω)(20.3 pF)]
Cds = 20 pF – 5 pF f2 = 8.61 MHz
Cds = 15 pF Answer: The high frequency cutoff for the gate is
Answer: Cgs = 25 pF, Cgd = Crss = 5 pF, Cds = 15 pF. 30.3 MHz and the drain is 8.61 MHz.
14-38. Given:
CRITICAL THINKING
R1 = 2 MΩ
R2 = 1 MΩ 14-40. Given:
RD = 1 kΩ f2 = 100 Hz
RL = 10 kΩ Av(dB) = 80 dB
RG = 50 Ω
C1 = 0.01 μF Solution:
C2 = 1 μF Av(mid) = antilog(Av(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15)
Av(mid) = antilog(80 dB/20)
Solution:
Av(mid) = 10,000
Rin = zin(stage) ________
Rin = R1 || R2 Av(20K) = Av(mid)/[√1__________________
+ (f/f2)2 ] (Eq. 14-3)
Rin = 667 kΩ (RG is considered insignificant) Av(20K) = 10,000/[√1 + (20 kHz/100 Hz)2 ]
Av(20K) = 50
fC1 = 1/(2πRinC1)
fC1 = 1/[2π(667 kΩ)(0.01 μF)] Av(dB) = 20 log A (Eq. 14-9)
fC1 = 23.9 Hz or 14.5 Hz (from the output coupling Av(dB) = 20 log(50)
capacitor) Av(dB) = 34 dB
________
Answer: The dominant low cutoff frequency is 23.9 Hz. Av(44.4K) = Av(mid)/[√ 1____________________
+ (f/f2)2 ] (Eq. 14-3)
Av(44.4K) = 10,000/[√ 1 + (44.4 kHz/100 Hz)2 ]
Av(44.4K) = 22.5
1-80
Av(dB) = 20 log Av (Eq. 14-9) 14-48. CE is open
Av(dB) = 20 log(22.5)
Av(dB) = 27 dB 14-49. VCC is at 15 V, not 10 V
Answer: The decibel voltage gain at 20 kHz is 34 dB, and
at 44.4 kHz is 27 dB.
Chapter 15 Differential Amplifiers
14-41. Given:
SELF-TEST
f2 = 100 Hz
Second breakpoint is 10 kHz 1. b 7. b 13. c 19. b
Av(mid) = 120 dB 2. c 8. a 14. a 20. c
3. a 9. d 15. a 21. a
Solution: Since the roll-off is 20 dB/decade at a frequency 4. c 10. a 16. b 22. c
of 1 kHz (one decade above the cutoff frequency), the 5. b 11. c 17. d 23. c
gain is 100 dB (20 dB less than the midband), and at 6. a 12. b 18. c
10 kHz the gain is 80 dB. From this point the roll-off
increases to 40 dB/decade; thus at 100 kHz, the gain will
be 40 dB. JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Answer: The voltage gain at 100 kHz is 40 dB. 6. Use a transistor as a current source instead of a tail resistor.
It could be a regulator configuration or a current source.
14-42. Given: 9. A transistor acting as a current source.
vin = 20 mV 11. Current sources and active loads.
Av(mid) = 100 12. Increased voltage gain and higher CMRR.
13. Trick question. You can’t test a 741 with an ohmmeter.
Solution:
vout(max) = Av(mid)vin PROBLEMS
vout(max) = (100)(20 mV)
vout(max) = 2 V 15-1. Given:
At the 10% point = 0.1 vout(max) VCC = 15 V
At the 10% point = 0.1(2 V) VEE = –15 V
At the 10% point = 0.2 V RE = 270 kΩ
At the 90% point = 0.9 vout(max) RC = 180 kΩ
At the 90% point = 0.9(2 V) Solution:
At the 90% point = 1.8 V IT = VEE/RE (Eq. 15-5)
Answer: The voltage at the 10% point is 0.2 V, and at the IT = 15 V/270 kΩ
90% point is 1.8 V. IT = 55.6 μA
14-43. Given: IE = 1/2 IT
R = 4 kΩ IE = 1/2 (55.6 μA)
C = 50 pF IE = 27.8 μA
Solution: VC = VCC – (27.8 μA)(180 kΩ)

VC = 10 V
f2 = 1/(2πRC)
f2 = 1/[2π (4 kΩ)(50 pF)] Answer: The tail current is 55.6 μA, the emitter is
f2 = 796 kHz 27.8 μA, and the quiescent voltage is 10 V.
f2 = 0.35/TR (Eq. 14-29) 15-2. Given:
TR = 0.35/f2 VCC = 15 V
TR = 0.35/796 kHz VEE = –15 V
TR = 0.44 μs RE = 270 kΩ
Answer: The risetime is 0.44 μs. RC = 180 kΩ

f2 = 1 MHz IT = (VEE – VBE)/RE (Eq. 15-8)
TR = 1 μs IT = (15 V – 0.7 V)/270 kΩ
IT = 53 μA
Solution:
IE = 1/2 IT
f2 = 0.35/TR (Eq. 14-29) IE = 1/2(53 μA)
f2 = 0.35/1 μs IE = 26.5 μA
f2 = 350 kHz
VC = VCC – (26.5 μA)(180 kΩ)
Answer: The amplifier with the cutoff frequency of VC = 10.2 V
1 MHz has the larger bandwidth.
Answer: The tail current is 53 μA, the emitter current is
14-45. RG is 500 Ω instead of 50 Ω 26.5 μA, and the quiescent voltage is 10.2 V.
14-46. RE is 2 kΩ instead of 1 kΩ 15-3. Given:
VCC = 12 V
14-47. Cin has changed to 0.1 μF
VEE = –12 V
1-81
RE = 200 kΩ vout = Av(v1 – v2) (Eq. 15-2)
RC = 200 kΩ vout = 207.3(2.5 mV – 0)
vout = 518 mV
Solution:
IT = (VEE)/RE zin = 2β r'e (Eq. 15-11)
IT = (12 V)/200 kΩ zin = 2(275)(226.7 Ω)
IT = 60 μA zin = 125 kΩ
IE = 1/2 IT Answer: The output voltage is 518 mV, and the input
IE = 1/2(60 μA) impedance is 125 kΩ.
IE = 30 μA 15-6. Given:
Right Side VCC = 15 V
VC = VCC – (30 μA)(200 kΩ) VEE = –15 V
VC = 6 V RE = 68 kΩ
RC = 47 kΩ
Left Side β = 275
VC = 12 V v1 = 2.5 mV
Answer: The tail current is 60 μA, the emitter current is Solution:
30 μA, and the quiescent voltage is 6 V on the right side IT = (VEE – VBE)/RE (Eq. 15-5)
and 12 V on the left side. IT = (15 V – 0.7 V)/68 kΩ
15-4. Given: IT = 210.3 μA
VCC = 12 V IE = 1/2 IT (Eq. 15-6)
VEE = –12 V IE = 1/2(210.3 μA)
RE = 200 kΩ IE = 105.2 μA
RC = 200 kΩ r'e = 25 mV/ IE (Eq. 8-10)
Solution: r'e = 25 mV/105.2 μA
IT = (VEE – VBE)/RE r'e = 237.6 Ω
IT = (12 V – 0.7 V)/200 kΩ Av = RC/r'e (Eq. 15-10)
IT = 56.5 μA Av = 47 kΩ/237.6 Ω
IE = ½ IT Av = 197.8
IE = 1/2(56.5 μA) vout = Av(v1 – v2) (Eq. 15-2)
IE = 28.3 μA vout = 197.8(2.5 mV – 0)
Right Side vout = 494 mV
VC = VCC – (28.3 μA)(200 kΩ) zin = 2β r'e (Eq. 15-11)
VC = 6.35 V zin = 2(275)(237.6 Ω)
zin = 131 kΩ
Left Side
Answer: The output voltage is 494 mV, and the input
VC = 12 V
impedance is 131 kΩ.
Answer: The tail current is 56.5 μA, the emitter current is
15-7. Given:
28.3 μA, and the quiescent voltage is 6.35 V on the right
side and 12 V on the left side. VCC = 15 V
VEE = –15 V
15-5. Given: RE = 68 kΩ
VCC = 15 V RC = 47 kΩ
VEE = –15 V β = 275
RE = 68 kΩ v1 = 0 mV
RC = 47 kΩ v1 = 1 mV
β = 275
Solution:
v1 = 2.5 mV
IT = (VEE)/RE (Eq. 15-5)
Solution: IT = (15 V)/68 kΩ
IT = (VEE/RE) (Eq. 15-5) IT = 220.6 μA
IT = (15 V)/68 kΩ
IE = 1/2 IT (Eq. 15-6)
IT = 220.6 μA
IE = 1/2(220.6 μA)
IE = 1/2 IT (Eq. 15-6) IE = 110.3 μA
IE = 1/2 (220.6 μA)
r'e = 25 mV/IE (Eq. 8-10)
IE = 110.3 μA
r'e = 25 mV/110.3 μA
r'e = 25 mV/IE r'e = 226.7 Ω
r'e = 25 mV/110.3 μA
Av = RC/r'e (Eq. 15-10)
r'e = 226.7 Ω
Av = 47 kΩ /226.7 Ω
Av = RC/r'e (Eq. 15-10) Av = 207.3
Av = 47 kΩ/226.7 Ω
Av = 207.3
1-82
vout = Av(v1 – v2) (Eq. 15-2) With base resistors equal,
vout = 207.3(0 V – 1 mV) V1 err = 0
vout = –207 mV
V2 err = RBIin(off)
zin = 2β r′e (Eq. 15-11) V2 err = (10 kΩ)(200 nA)
zin = 2(275)(226.7 Ω) V2 err = 2 mV
zin = 125 kΩ
V3 err = Vin(off) (Eq. 15-18)
Answer: The output voltage is –207 mV, and the input V3 err = 5 mV
impedance is 125 kΩ.
Verror = Av(V1 err + V2 err + V3 err) (Eq. 15-19)
15-8. Given: Verror = 250(0 mV + 2 mV + 5 mV)
Av = 360 Verror = 1.75 V
Iin(bias) = 600 nA Answer: The output error voltage is 4 V. If the base resis-
Iin(off) = 100 nA tors are equal, the output error voltage is 1.75 V.
Vin(off) = 1 mV
RB1 = 10 kΩ 15-10. Given:
Solution: RC = 500 kΩ
RE = 500 kΩ
V1 err = (RBl – RB2)/Iin(bias) (Eq. 15-16) vin(CM) = 20 μV
V1 err = (10 kΩ – 0)600 nA
V1 err = 6 mV Solution:
V2 err = (RB1 + RB2)(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 15-17) Av(CM) = RC /2RE (Eq. 15-20)
V2 err = (10 kΩ + 0)(100 nA/2) Av(CM) = 500 kΩ/2(500 kΩ)
V2 err = 0.5 mV Av(CM) = 0.5
V3 err = Vin(off) (Eq. 15-18) vout(CM) = Av(CM)(vin(CM))
V3 err = 1 mV vout(CM) = 0.5(20 μV)
vout(CM) = 10 μV
Verror = Av(V1 err + V2 err + V3 err) (Eq. 15-19)
Verror = 360(6 mV + 0.5 mV + 1 mV) Answer: The common-mode voltage gain is 0.5, and the
Verror = 2.7 V common-mode output voltage is 10 μV.
With base resistors equal. 15-11. Given:
V1 err = 0. RC = 500 kΩ
RE = 500 kΩ
V2 err = RBIin(off) VCC = 15 V
V2 err = (10 kΩ)(100 nA) VEE = −15 V
V2 err = 1 mV vin(CM) = 5 mV
V3 err = Vin(off) (Eq. 15-18) vin = 2 mV
V3 err = 1 mV Av(CM) = 0.5 (from Prob. 15-10)
Verror = Av(V1 err + V2 err + V3 err) (Eq. 15-19) Solution:
Verror = 360(0 mV + 1 mV + 1 mV) vout(CM) = Av(CM)(vin(CM))
Verror = 0.72 μV vout(CM) = 0.5(5 mV)
Answer: The output error voltage is 2.7 V. If the base vout(CM) = 2.5 mV
resistors are equal, the output error voltage is 0.72 V. IT = (VEE − VBE)RE (Eq. 15-8)
15-9. Given IT = (15 V − 0.7)/500 kΩ
IT = 28.6 μA
Av = 250
Iin(bias) = 1 μA IE = IC = IT /2 (Eq. 15-6)
Iin(off) = 200 nA IE = IC = 28.6 μA/2
Vin(off) = 5 mV IE = IC = 14.3 μA
RB1 = 10 kΩ r'e = 25 mV/IE
Solution: r'e = 25 mV/14.3 μA
V1 err = (RB1 − RB2)Iin(bias) (Eq. 15-16) r'e = 1.75 kΩ
V1 err = (10 kΩ − 0)1 μA Since it is a single-ended output:
V1 err = 10 mV Av = Rc/2r'e (Eq. 15-9)
V2 err = (RB1 + RB2)(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 15-17) Av = 500 kΩ/2(1.75 kΩ)
V2 err = (10 kΩ + 0)(200 nA/2) Av = 143
V2 err = 1 mV vout1 = Av(v1 − v2) (Eq. 15-2)
V3 err = Vin(off) (Eq. 15-18) vout1 = 143(2 mV − 0)
V3 err = 5 mV vout1 = 286 mV
Verror = Av(V1 err + V2 err + V3 err) (Eq. 15-19) Answer: The output voltage is 286 mV (desired) and
Verror = 250(10 mV + 1 mV + 5 mV) 2.5 mV (common mode).
Verror = 4 V
1-83
15-12. Given: 15-15. Given:
Av = 100,000 VCC = 12 V
CMRRdB = 70 dB VEE = −12 V
vin(CM) = 5 μV RC = 51 kΩ
RE = 51 kΩ
Solution:
RL = 27 kΩ
CMRR = antilog(CMRRdB/20) v1 = 5 mV
CMRR = antilog(70 dB/20)
CMRR = 3162 Solution:
IT = (VEE − VBE)/RE (Eq. 15-8)
Av(CM) = Av/CMRR
IT = (12 V − 0.7 V)/51 kΩ
Av(CM) = 100,000/3,162
IT = 221.6 μA
Av(CM) = 31.6
IE = IC = IT /2 (Eq. 15-6)
vout(CM) = Av(CM)(vin(CM))
IE = IC = 221.6 μA/2
vout(CM) = 31.6(5 μV)
IE = IC = 110.8 μA
vout(CM) = 158 μV
r'e = 25 mV/IE
vout(desired) = Av(vin(desired))
r'e = 25 mV/110.8 μA
vout = (100,000)(5 μV)
r'e = 225.6 Ω
vout = 500 mV
Since it is differential output:
Answer: The common-mode voltage gain is 31.6, and the
output voltage is 158 μV. The desired output is 500 mV. Av = RC/r'e (Eq. 15-10)
Av = 51 kΩ/225.6 Ω
15-13. Given: Av = 226
RC = 500 kΩ
vout = Av(v1 − v2) (Eq. 15-2)
RE = 500 kΩ
vout = 226(5 mV − 0 V)
VCC = 10 V
vout = 1.13 V
VEE = −10 V
Av(CM) = 0.5 (from Prob. 15-10) RTH = 2RC
RTH = 2(51 kΩ)
Solution:
RTH = 102 kΩ
IT = (VEE − VBE)RE (Eq. 15-8)
IT = (10 V − 0.7)/500 kΩ The output voltage is divided between the Thevenin resis-
IT = 18.6 μA tance and the load resistance.
vL = [RL/(RTH + RL)]vout
IE = IC = IT /2 (Eq. 15-6)
vL = [27 kΩ/(102 kΩ + 27 kΩ)]vout
IE = IC = 18.6 μA/2
vL = 237 mV
IE = IC = 9.3 μA
Answer: The load voltage is 237 mV.
r'e = 25 mV/IE
r'e = 25 mV/9.3 μA 15-16. Given:
r'e = 2.69 kΩ VCC = 12 V
Since it is a single-ended output: VEE = −12 V
RC = 51 kΩ
Av = RC /2r'e (Eq. 15-9)
RE = 51 kΩ
Av = 500 kΩ/2(2.69 kΩ)
RL = 27 kΩ
Av = 93
v1 = 5 mV
CMRR = Av/Av(CM)
Solution:
CMRR = 93/0.5
CMRR = 186 IT = (VEE − VBE)/RE (Eq. 15-8)
IT = (12 V − 0.7 V)/51 kΩ
CMRRdB = 20 logCMRR IT = 221.6 μA
CMRRdB = 20 log186
CMRRdB = 45.4 dB IE = IC = IT /2 (Eq. 15-6)
IE = IC = 221.6 μA/2
Answer: The common-mode rejection ratio is 45.4 dB. IE = IC = 110.8 μA
15-14. Given: r'e = 25 mV/IE
Av = 150,000 r'e = 25 mV/110.8 μA
CMRRdB = 85 dB r'e = 225.6 Ω
Solution: Since it is differential output:
CMRR = antilog(CMRRdB/20) Av = RC/r'e (Eq. 15-10)
CMRR = antilog(85 dB/20) Av = 51 kΩ/225.6 Ω
CMRR = 17,783 Av = 226
Av(CM) = Av/CMRR vout = Av(v1 − v2) (Eq. 15-2)
Av(CM) = 150,000/17,783 vout = 226(5 mV − 0 V)
Av(CM) = 8.4 vout = 1.13 V
Answer: The common-mode voltage gain is 8.4.
1-84
RTH = 2RC through the active load is half the tail current, ideally,
RTH = 2(51 kΩ) 1 mA.
RTH = 102 kΩ
15-23. Answer: The resistor has to be changed to an ideal value
IL = vout/RTH of 30 V/15 μA, which equals 2 MΩ.
IL = 1.13 V/102 kΩ
IL = 11.1 μA 15-24. Given:
Answer: The load current is 11.1 μA. VCC = 12 V
VEE = −12 V
15-17. Answer: With the open base, the right transistor will go RC = 200 kΩ
into cutoff and its collector voltage will go high. Since RE = 200 kΩ
there is still a path for current through the left transistor, VBE = 0.7 V
it will conduct hard and its collector voltage will go low.
Thus the output will be high and the input will have little Room temperature = 25°C
effect. A diff amp or an op amp needs a current path to Left transistor: −2 mV/°C
ground for both bases. Right transistor: −2.1 mV/°C
Solution:
15-18. Given:
ΔT = 75°C − 25°C
VCC = 12 V ΔT = 50°C
VEE = −12 V
RC = 20 kΩ VBE(L) = 0.7 V + (−2 mV/°C) ΔT
RE = 200 kΩ VBE(L) = 0.7 V + (−2 mV/°C)50°C
VBE(L) = 0.6 V
Solution:
VBE(R) = 0.7 V + (−2.1 mV/°C) ΔT
IT = (VEE − VBE)/RE
VBE(R) = 0.7 V + (−2.1 mV/°C)50°C
IT = (12 V − 0.7 V)/200 kΩ
VBE(R) = 0.595 V
IT = 56.5 μA
Since each transistor has half the tail current through
IE = 1/2 IT
it, the tail resistor would appear twice as large to each
IE = 1/2 (56.5 μA)
transistor.
IE = 28.3 μA
IE = (VEE − VBE(R))RE (Eq. 15-8)
Vout = VCC − ICRC IE = (12 V − 0.595 V)/400 kΩ
Vout = 12 V − (28.3 μA)(20 kΩ) IE = 28.5 μA
Vout = 11.4 V
Vout = VCC − ICRC
Answer: The output voltage is 11.4 V. Vout = 12 V − (28.5 μA)(200 kΩ)
15-19. Answer: C. When the left base is open, all the tail current Vout = 6.3 V
must flow through the right transistor. This will pull the Answer: The output voltage is 6.0 V ideally, and 6.3 V
output voltage down to almost zero. using the 2nd approximation.
15-25. Given:
CRITICAL THINKING R1 = 5 kΩ
R2 = 10 kΩ
15-20. Given:
RC1 = RC2 = RE = 2 kΩ
VCC = 12 V VCC = 15 V
VEE = −12 V VEE = −15 V
RC = 200 kΩ
RE = 200 kΩ Solution:
VB(3) = [R1/(R1 + R2)]VEE
Solution:
VB(3) = [5 kΩ/(5 kΩ + 10 kΩ)] −15 V
IT = (VEE − VBE)/RE VB(3) = −5 V
IT = (12 V − 0.7 V)/200 kΩ
IT = 56.5 μA VE(3) = VB + 0.7
VE(3) = −5 V − 0.7 V
IE = 1/2 IT VE(3) = −5.7 V
IE = 1/2 (56.5 μA)
IE = 28.3 μA IE(3) = IT = (VEE − VE)/RE
IE(3) = IT = (15 V − 5.7 V)/2 kΩ
Vout = VCC − ICRC IE(3) = IT = 4.65 mA
Vout = 12 V − (28.3 μA)(20 kΩ)
Vout = 11.4 V IE(1) = IC(1) = IT /2 (Eq. 15-6)
IE(1) = IC(1) = 4.65 mA/2
Answer: The output voltage is 11.4 V. IE(1) = IC(1) = 2.33 mA
15-21. Given: Both bases are connected to ground. r'e = 25 mV/IE
Answer: Both bases are at 0 V. r'e = 25 mV/2.33 mA
r'e = 10.7 Ω
15-22. Answer: This is a current mirror. With Eq. (15-25),
you can calculate an ideal tail current of 2 mA and a
second-approximation current of 1.95 mA. The current
1-85
Av = RC/r'e PROBLEMS
Av = 2 kΩ/10.7 Ω
Av = 187 16-1. Given:
Answer: The r'e is 10.7 Ω, and the gain is 187. VCC = ±18 V
15-26. Given: Negative saturation voltage is −17 V
RC1 = RC2 = RE = 5 kΩ Av = 100,000 (from Table 16-1)
R2 = R4 = 10 kΩ
Solution:
R1 = R3 = 20 kΩ
VCC = 30 V v2 = 17 V/100,000
v2 = 170 μV
Solution:
Answer: The input voltage required to drive the 741C op
VB = [R2/(R2 + R1)]VCC
amp into negative saturation is 170 μV.
VB = [10 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 20 kΩ)]30 V
VB = 10 V 16-2. Given: CMRR = 100 dB (from Table 16-1)
VE = VB − 0.7 Solution:
VE = 10 V − 0.7 V Av = antilog(AdB/20) (Eq. 14-15)
VE = 9.3 V Av = antilog(100 dB/20)
IE = IT = VE/RE Av = 100,000
IE = IT = 9.3 V/5 kΩ Answer: The common-mode rejection ratio is 100 dB or
IE = IT = 1.86 mA 100,000.
IE = IC = IT /2 (Eq. 15-6) 16-3. Given:
IE = IC = 1.86 mA/2 Av(mid) = 200,000 (from Table 16-1)
IE = IC = 0.93 mA funity = 20 MHz
vout = VCC − ICRC Av(unity) = 1
vout = 30 V − (930 μA)(5 kΩ) Solution:
vout = 25.35 V ________
/[√1 + (f/f2)2 ]
Av(unity) = Av(mid)______________ (Eq. 14-3)
Answer: The tail current is 1.86 mA, and the output
200,000/[√1 + (20 MHz/f2)2 ]
1 =______________
voltages are 25.35 V.
[√1 + (20 MHz/f2)2 ] = 200,000
15-27. Q1 is open from collector to emitter
1 + (20 MHz/f2)2 = 40,000,000,000
15-28. VEE is at 0 V, not −15 V (20 MHz/f2)2 = 40,000,000,001
20 MHz/f2 = 200,000
15-29. VCC is at 25 V, not 15 V f2 = 20 MHz/200,000
f2 = 100 Hz
15-30. RE has changed to 33.8 kΩ ________
Av(1k) = Av(mid)/[√1 + (f/f2)2 ] (Eq. 14-3)
_________________
15-31. Q2 is open from collector to emitter Av(1k) = 200,000/[√ 1 + (1 kHz/100 Hz)2 ]
Av(1k) = 19,900
________
Av(10k) = Av(mid)/[√1 + (f/f2)2 ] (Eq. 14-3)
__________________
Chapter 16 Operational Amplifiers Av(10k) = 200,000/[√1 + (10 kHz/100 Hz)2 ]
Av(10k) = 2000
SELF-TEST ________
Av(100k) = Av(mid)/[√1 +___________________
(f/f2)2 ] (Eq. 14-3)
1. d 9. b 17. c 25. b
Av(100k) = 200,000/ [√1 + (100 kHz/100 Hz)2 ]
2. b 10. c 18. c 26. b
Av(100k) = 200
3. a 11. c 19. b 27. d
4. b 12. d 20. a 28. c Answer: The voltage gain at 1 kHz is 19,900, at 10 kHz is
5. d 13. d 21. c 29. c 2000, and at 100 kHz is 200.
6. a 14. d 22. b 30. a
16-4. Given:
7. b 15. d 23. c 31. b
8. a 16. c 24. d Δvout = 2 V
Δt = 0.4 μs
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Solution:
9. The LM318 is preferable when slew-rate distortion is too SR = Δvout/Δt
high with a 741C. Applications include high-frequency SR = 2 V/0.4 μs
(wideband) video signals, in which a low slew rate produces SR = 5 V/μs
a smeared picture, and digital interface circuits, in which tim- Answer: The slew rate is 5 V/μs.
ing slew would be objectionable. A disadvantage is that the
LM318 is more likely to break into oscillation unless good 16-5. Given:
design and construction practices are used. SR = 70 V/μs
11. Audio amps, video amps, IF amps, RF amps, and voltage Vp = 7 V
regulators.
12. Open feedback loop.
1-86
Solution: Av(dB) = 20 logAv(CL)
fmax = SR/2π (VP) (Eq. 16-2) Av(dB) = 20 log(10)
fmax = 70 V/μs/2π (7 V) Av(dB) = 20
fmax = 1.59 MHz Answer: The closed-loop voltage gain is 10, the band-
Answer: The power bandwidth is 1.59 MHz. width is 2 MHz, the output voltage at 1 kHz is 250 mVp-p,
and the output voltage at 10 MHz is 49 mVp-p.
16-6a. Given:
SR = 0.5 V/μs Av(dB)
VP = 1 V
Solution:
fmax = SR/2π(VP) (Eq. 16-2)
fmax = 0.5 V/μs/2π (1 V)
fmax = 79.6 kHz 20 dB
Answer: The power bandwidth is 79.6 kHz. 20 dB/decade

16-6b. Given:
SR = 3 V/μs
VP = 5 V f
Solution: 2 MHz 20 MHz
fmax = SR/2π (VP) (Eq. 16-2) Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 16-7.
fmax = 3 V/μs/2π(5 V)
fmax = 95.5 kHz 16-8. Given:
Answer: The power bandwidth is 95.5 kHz. Iin(bias) = 30 pA
Iin(off ) = 3 pA
16-6c. Given:
Vin(off ) = 1 mV
SR = 15 V/μs
VP = 10 V Solution:
Av(CL) = −Rf /R1 (Eq. 16-3)
Solution:
Av(CL) = −300 kΩ/15 kΩ
fmax = SR/2π (VP) (Eq. 16-2) Av(CL) = −20
fmax = 15 V/μs/2π(10 V)
fmax = 239 kHz RB2 = Rf || R1 (Eq. 16-11)
RB2 = 300 kΩ || 15 kΩ
Answer: The power bandwidth is 239 kHz. RB2 = 14.29 kΩ
16-7. Given: V1 err = (RB1 − RB2)Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8)
R1 = 180 Ω V1 err = (0 − 14.29 kΩ)(30 pA)
Rf = 1.8 kΩ V1 err = −429 nV
vin = 25 mVp-p V2 err = (RB1 + RB2)(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9)
funity = 20 MHz V2 err = (0 + 14.29 kΩ)(3 pA/2)
Solution: V2 err = 21.4 nV
Av(CL) = −Rf/R1 (Eq. 16-3) V3 err = Vin(off) = 1 mV
Av(CL) = −1.8 kΩ/180 Ω
Av(CL) = −10 Verror = ± Av(CL)(±V1 err ± V2 err ± V3 err)
Verror = 20(429 nV + 21.4 nV + 1 mV)
f2(CL) = funity/AvCL (Eq. 16-5) Verror = 20 mV
f2(CL) = 20 MHz/10
f2(CL) = 2 MHz Answer: The output voltage is 20 mV.
At 1 kHz the voltage gain is the closed loop gain. 16-9. Given:
vout = Av(CL)(vin) Iin(bias) = 50 pA
Iin(off) = 10 pA
vout = 10(25 mVp-p)
Vin(off) = 2 mV
vout = 250 mVp-p
Solution:
At 10 MHz the voltage gain is reduced.
Av(CL) Av(CL) = −Rf /R1 (Eq. 16-3)
Av(10 MHz) = __________
________ Av(CL) = −300 kΩ/15 kΩ
√1 + (f/f2)2 Av(CL) = −20
10
____________________
Av(10 MHz) = __________________
√1 + (10 MHz/2 MHz)2 RB2 = Rf || R1 (Eq. 16-11)
RB2 = 300 kΩ || 15 kΩ
Av(10 MHz) = 1.96 RB2 = 14.29 kΩ
vout = Av(10 MHz)(vin) V1 err = (RB1 − RB2)Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8)
vout = 1.96(25 mVp-p) V1 err = (0 − 14.29 kΩ)(50 pA)
vout = 49 mVp-p V1 err = −714.3 nV
1-87
V2 err = (RB1 + RB2)(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9) Solution:
V2 err = (0 + 14.29 kΩ)(10 pA/2) Av1(CL) = −Rf /R1 (Eq. 16-3)
V2 err = 71.4 nV Av1(CL) = −40 kΩ/10 kΩ
V3 err = Vin(off) = 2 mV Av1(CL) = −4
Verror = ± Av(CL)(± V1 err ± V2 err ± V3 err) Av2(CL) = −Rf /R2 (Eq. 16-3)
Verror = 20(714.3 nV + 71.4 nV + 2 mV) Av2(CL) = −40 kΩ/20 kΩ
Verror = 40 mV Av2(CL) = −2
Answer: The output voltage is 40 mV. Av3(CL) = −Rf /R3 (Eq. 16-3)
Av3(CL) = −40 kΩ/40 kΩ
16-10. Given: Av3(CL) = −1
R1 = 150 Ω
vout = Av1(CL)(vin1) + Av2(CL)(vin2) + Av3(CL)(vin3)
Rf = 3 kΩ
vout = −4(50 mVp-p) + −2(90 mVp-p) + −1(160 mVp-p)
vin = 25 mVp-p
vout = −540 mVp-p
funity = 20 MHz
RB2 = R1 || R2 || R3 || Rf (Eq. 16-14)
Solution:
RB2 = 10 kΩ || 20 kΩ || 40 kΩ || 40 kΩ
Av(CL) = (Rf /R1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12) RB2 = 5 kΩ
Av(CL) = (3 kΩ/150 Ω) + 1
Av(CL) = 21 Answer: The output voltage is 540 mVp-p, and the com-
pensating resistor should be 5 kΩ.
f2(CL) = funity/Av(CL) (Eq. 16-5)
f2(CL) = 20 MHz/21 16-13. Given:
f2(CL) = 952 kHz It is a voltage follower.
funity = 1 MHz (from Table 16-1)
At 100 kHz the voltage gain is the closed loop gain.
vin = 50 mVp-p
vout = Av(CL)(vin)
vout = 21(25 mVp-p) Solution:
vout = 525 mVp-p Av(CL) = 1 (Eq. 16-15)
f2(CL) = funity = 1 MHz
Answer: The closed-loop gain is 21, the bandwidth
is 952 kHz, and the output voltage at 100 kHz is vout = Av(CL)(vin)
525 mVp-p. vout = 1(50 mVp-p)
vout = 50 mVp-p
16-11. Given:
Iin(bias) = 50 pA Answer: The output voltage is 50 mVp-p, and the band-
Iin(off) = 10 pA width is 1 MHz.
Vin(off) = 2 mV
Av(CL) = 21 (from Prob. 16-10) CRITICAL THINKING
RB2 = R1 || Rf (Eq. 16-11) R1 = 1 kΩ
RB2 = 150 Ω || 3 kΩ Rf(max) = 101 kΩ
RB2 = 142.9 Ω Rf(min) = 1 kΩ
V1 err = (RB1 − RB2)Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8) funity = 20 MHz
V1 err = (0 − 142.9 Ω)(50 pA) Solution:
V1 err = −7.15 nV Av(CL)max = –Rf(max)/R1 (Eq. 16-3)
V2 err = (RB1 + RB2)(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9) Av(CL)max = –101 kΩ/1 kΩ
V2 err = (0 + 142.9 Ω)(10 pA/2) Av(CL)max = 101 (the minus sign for phase inversion is
V2 err = 715 nV ignored here)
V3 err = Vin(off) = 2 mV Av(CL)min = –Rf(min)/R1 (Eq. 16-3)
Av(CL)min = –1 kΩ/1 kΩ
Verror = ± Av(CL)(±V1 err ± V2 err ± V3 err) Av(CL)min = 1
Verror = 21(7.15 nV + 715 pV + 2 mV)
Verror = 42 mV f2(CL)max = funity/(Av(CL)min + 1)
f2(CL)max = 20 MHz/2
Answer: The output voltage is 42 mV. f2(CL)max = 10 MHz
16-12. Given: f2(CL)min = funity/Av(CL)max (Eq. 16-5)
R1 = 10 kΩ f2(CL)min = 20 MHz/101
R2 = 20 kΩ f2(CL)min = 198 kHz
R3 = 40 kΩ
Answer: The voltage gain has a range of 1 to 101 and a
Rf = 40 kΩ
bandwidth of 198 kHz to 10 MHz.
v1 = 50 mVp-p
v2 = 90 mVp-p 16-15. Given:
v3 = 160 mVp-p R1 = 2 kΩ
Rf(max) = 100 kΩ
Rf(min) = 0 kΩ
funity = 20 MHz
1-88
Solution: –Av2(CL)max = –Rf/R2 (Eq. 16-3)
Av(CL)max = (Rf(max)/R1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12) –Av2(CL)max = –100 kΩ/20 kΩ
Av(CL)max = (100 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1 –Av2(CL)max = –5
Av(CL)max = 51 –Av3(CL)max = –Rf /R3 (Eq. 16-3)
Av(CL)min = (Rf(min)/R1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12) –Av3(CL)max = –100 kΩ/40 kΩ
Av(CL)min = (0 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1 –Av3(CL)max = –2.5
Av(CL)min = 1 vout = Av1(CL)max(vin1) + Av2(CL)max(vin2) + Av3(CL)max(vin3)
f2(CL)max = funity/Av(CL)min (Eq. 16-5) vout = 10(50 mVp-p) + 5(90 mVp-p) + 2.5(160 mVp-p)
f2(CL)max = 20 MHz/1 vout = 1.35 Vp-p
f2(CL)max = 20 MHz Answer: The maximum output voltage is 1.35 Vp-p, and
f2(CL)min = funity/Av(CL)max (Eq. 16-5) the minimum output voltage is zero.
f2(CL)min = 20 MHz/51 16-21. Given:
f2(CL)min = 392 kHz
R1 = 220 Ω
Answer: The voltage gain has a range of 1 to 51 and a Rf1 = 47 kΩ
bandwidth of 392 kHz to 20 MHz. Rf2 = 18 kΩ
16-16. Answer: The voltage across the closed-loop output Rf3 = 39 kΩ
impedance is the difference between the ideal 50 mV and Solution:
the actual 49.98 mV. In other words, 0.02 mV is dropped –Av1(CL) = –Rf1/R1 (Eq. 16-3)
across the closed-loop output impedance. The load cur- –Av1(CL) = –47 kΩ/220 Ω
rent is 49.98 mV divided by 2 Ω, which is approximately –Av1(CL) = –214
25 mA. Divide 0.02 mV by 25 mA to get 0.0008 Ω for the
closed-loop output impedance. –Av2(CL) = –Rf2/R1 (Eq. 16-3)
–Av2(CL) = –18 kΩ/220 Ω
16-17. Given: –Av2(CL) = –82
f = 15 kHz –Av3(CL) = –Rf3/R1 (Eq. 16-3)
VP = 2 V –Av3(CL) = –39 kΩ/220 Ω
Solution: –Av3(CL) = –177
SS = 2πfVP Solution: The gain at position 1 is 214, at position 2 is 82,
SS = 2π(15 kHz)(2 V) and at position 3 is 177.
SS = 188 mV/μs
16-22. Given:
SS = 2πfVP R1 = 6 kΩ at position 2
SS = 2π(30 kHz)(2 V) R1 = 6 kΩ || 3 kΩ at position 1 = 2 kΩ
SS = 376 mV/μs Rf = 120 kΩ
Answer: The initial slope is 188 mV/μs, with a peak of funity = 1 MHz
2 V, and 376 mV/μs, with a frequency of 30 kHz. Solution:
16-18. Answer: Av1(CL) = (Rf/R1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12)
a. OP-07A Av1(CL) = (120 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1
b. TL082 and TL084 Av1(CL) = 61
c. LM3876 Av2(CL) = (Rf/R1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12)
d. LM7171 Av2(CL) = (120 kΩ/6 kΩ) + 1
e. OP-07A Av2(CL) = 21
16-19. Answer: f2(CL)1 = funity/Av(CL1) (Eq. 16-5)
CMRR = 38 dB (from Fig. 16-7a) f2(CL)1 = 1 MHz/61
MPP = 21 V (from Fig. 16-7b) f2(CL)1 = 16.4 kHz
Av = 1000 (from Fig. 16-7c)
f2(CL)2 = funity/Av(CL1)(max) (Eq. 16-5)
16-20. Given: f2(CL)2 = 1 MHz/21
R1 = 10 kΩ f2(CL)2 = 47.6 kHz
R2 = 20 kΩ Answer: The voltage gain at position 1 is 61, with a band-
R3 = 40 kΩ width of 16.4 kHz, and at position 2 is 21, with a band-
Rf(max) = 100 kΩ width of 47.6 kHz.
Rf(min) = 0 Ω
v1 = 50 mVp-p 16-23. Given:
v2 = 90 mVp-p R1 = ∞ at position 2
v3 = 160 mVp-p R1 = 3 kΩ at position 1
Rf = 120 kΩ
Solution: When the resistance is zero, the voltage gains
funity = 1 MHz
are zero and the output voltage is zero.
AVOL = 100,000
–Av1(CL)max = – Rf /R1 (Eq. 16-3)
–Av1(CL)max = –100 kΩ/10 kΩ
–Av1(CL)max = –10
1-89
Solution: V2 err = (RB1 + RB2)(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9)
Av1(CL) = (Rf/R1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12) V2 err = (0 + 100 kΩ)(200 nA/2)
Av1(CL) = (120 kΩ/3 kΩ) + 1 V2 err = 10 mV
Av1(CL) = 41 V3 err = Vin(off) = 6 mV
At position 2, it becomes a voltage follower: Av2(CL) = 1. Av(CL) = (Rf/R'1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12)
Answer: The voltage gain at position 1 is 41, and at Av(CL) = (100 kΩ/∞) + 1
position 2 is 1. Av(CL) = 1
16-24. Answer: The output will go to positive or negative Verror = ± Av(CL)(±V1 err ±V2 err ±V3 err)
saturation. Verror = 1(50 mV + 10 mV + 6 mV)
Verror = 66 mV
16-25. Answer: Answer: The output error voltage is 66 mV.
Position 1: The input voltage is applied directly to the
noninverting input. Because of the virtual short between 16-29. Given:
the noninverting and inverting input terminals, there is R1 = 2 kΩ
no ac voltage across the left 10-kΩ resistor. Since there is Rf = 100 kΩ
no ac voltage across the resistor, it can be removed from C = 1 μF
the circuit without changing the operation. With the resis- vin = 50 mVp-p
tor removed, the circuit reduces to a voltage follower and f = 1 kHz
Av(CL) = 1 and a closed-loop bandwidth of Solution:
funity 1 MHz = 1 MHz XC = 1/2πfC
f2(CL) = _____ = _____ XC = 1/[2π(1 kHz)(1 μF)]
Av(CL) 1
XC = 159 Ω
Position 2: The circuit is an inverting amplifier. The
magnitude of the voltage gain is Av(CL) = 1. Note that the Since XC is less than one-tenth of 2 kΩ, the bottom of the
closed-loop bandwidth is only half as much because 2 kΩ is approximately an ac ground.
Av(CL) = (Rf/R'1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12)
funity 1 MHz = 500 kHz Av(CL) = (100 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1
f2(CL) = ________ = ______
Av(CL) + 1 1+1 Av(CL) = 51
This was covered briefly in the chapter. See the equation vout = Av(CL)vin
at the top of p. 682 and the brief explanation that follows. vout = 51(50 mVp-p)
Chapter 17 discusses the closed-loop bandwidths in more vout = 2.55 Vp-p
detail. Answer: The output voltage is 2.55 Vp-p.
16-26. Answer: 16-30. Given:
Position 1: With the left resistor open, the circuit reduces Iin(bias) = 500 nA
to a voltage follower and Av(CL) = 1. Iin(off) = 200 nA
Position 2: With the left resistor open, the voltage gain Vin(off) = 6 mV
is zero. R1 = 2 kΩ
16-27. Answer: Go to positive or negative saturation. Rf = 100 kΩ
Solution:
16-28. Given:
R'1 = XC = R1
Iin(bias) = 500 nA
R'1 = 0 + 2 kΩ
Iin(off) = 200 nA
R'1 = 2 kΩ
Vin(off) = 6 mV
R1 = 2 kΩ RB2 = R1 || Rf (Eq. 16-11)
Rf = 100 kΩ RB2 = 2 kΩ || 100 kΩ
C = 1 µF RB2 = 1.96 kΩ
Solution: V1 err = (RB1 – RB2)Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8)
XC = 1/2πfC V1 err = (0 – 1.96 kΩ)(500 nA)
XC = 1/[2π(0)(1 µF)] V1 err = 980 μV
XC = ∞ V2 err = (RB1 + RB2)(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9)
R'1 = XC + R1 V2 err = (0 + 1.96 kΩ)(200 nA/2)
R'1= ∞ + 2 kΩ V2 err = 196 μV
R'1= ∞ V3 err = Vin(off) = 6 mV
RB2 = R1 || Rf (Eq. 16-11) Av(CL) = (Rf /R'1) + 1 (Eq. 16-12)
RB2 = ∞ || 100 kΩ Av(CL) = (100 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1
RB2 = 100 kΩ Av(CL) = 51
V1 err = (RB1 – RB2)Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8) Verror = ±Av(CL)(±V1 err ± V2 err ± V3 err)
V1 err = (0 – 100 kΩ)(500 nA) Verror = 51(980 μV + 196 μV + 6 m∆V)
V1 err = 50 mV Verror = 366 mV
Answer: The output voltage is 366 mV.
1-90
16-31. Rf changed to 9 kΩ Solution:
B = R1/(R1 + Rf) (Eq. 17-6)
16-32. Rf changed to 94 kΩ
B = 2.7 kΩ/(2.7 kΩ + 39 kΩ)
16-33. R1 4.7 kΩ, not 470 Ω B = 0.065
Av = 1/B (Eq. 17-4)
16-34. Rf is 3.9 kΩ instead of 39 kΩ Av = 1/0.065
16-35. Op amp has failed Av = 15.44
Answer: The feedback fraction is 0.065, and the closed-
16-36. Output of the XR2206 (U6) loop voltage gain is 15.44.
16-37. Push-pull Class-B/AB power amp 17-3. Given:
R1 = 4.7 kΩ
16-38. 24 Vp-p
Rf = 68 kΩ
16-39. 10 AVOL(dB) = 88 dB
Solution:
16-40. Output would latch at plus and minus Vmax
B = R1/(R1 + Rf) (Eq. 17-6)
B = 4.7 kΩ/(4.7 kΩ + 68 kΩ)
Chapter 17 Negative Feedback B = 0.065
SELF-TEST Av = 1/B (Eq. 17-4)

Av = 1/0.065
1. b 8. b 15. b 22. d Av = 15.47
2. d 9. b 16. d 23. d
3. a 10. b 17. c 24. b Answer: The feedback fraction is 0.065, and the closed-
4. a 11. d 18. b 25. a loop voltage gain is 15.47.
5. a 12. b 19. c 26. b 17-4. Given:
6. c 13. b 20. b 27. d
7. b 14. b 21. c 28. a R1 = 2.7 kΩ
Rf = 68 kΩ
AVOL(dB) = 108 dB
Solution:
8. Increased voltage gain and possible oscillation.
12. Current amplifier and transconductance amplifier. B = R1/(R1 + Rf) (Eq. 17-6)
B = 2.7 kΩ/(2.7 kΩ + 68 kΩ)
B = 0.038
PROBLEMS
Av = 1/B (Eq. 17-4)
17-1. Given: Av = 1/0.038
R1 = 2.7 kΩ Av = 26.32
Rf = 68 kΩ Av = antilog(AVOL(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15)
AVOL(dB) = 88 dB Av = antilog(108 dB/20)
Solution: Av = 251,189
B = R1/(R1 + Rf) (Eq. 17-6) % = 100%/(1 + AVOLB) (Eq 17-5)
B = 2.7 kΩ/(2.7 kΩ + 68 kΩ) %error = 100%/[1 + 251,189(0.038)]
B = 0.038 %error = 0.01%
Av = 1/B (Eq. 17-4) Av = AVOL/(1 + AVOLB) (Eq. 17-3)
Av = 1/0.038 Av = 251,189/[l + 251,189(0.038)]
Av = 26.32 Av = 26.31
Av = antilog(Av(dB)/20) (Eq. 14-15) Answer: The feedback fraction is 0.038, the ideal closed-
Av = antilog(88 dB/20) loop voltage gain is 26.32, the percent error is 0.01%, and
Av = 25,119 the exact voltage gain is 26.31.
%error = 100%(1 + AVOLB) (Eq 17-5) 17-5. Given:
%error = 100%[1 + 25,119(0.038)]
%error = 0.10% R1 = 100 Ω
Rf = 7.5 kΩ
Av = AVOL/(1 + AVOLB) (Eq. 17-3) Rin = 3 MΩ
Av = 25,119/[l + 25,119(0.038)] RCM = 500 MΩ
Av = 26.29 AVOL = 200,000
Answer: The feedback fraction is 0.038, the ideal closed- Solution:
loop voltage gain is 26.32, the percent error is
0.10%, and the exact voltage gain is 26.29. B = R1/(R1 + Rf ) (Eq. 17-6)
B = 100 Ω/(100 Ω + 7.5 kΩ)
17-2. Given: B = 0.013
R1 = 2.7 kΩ zin(CL) = (1 + AVOLB)Rin || RCM (Eq. 17-8)
Rf = 39 kΩ zin(CL) = [1 + 200,000(0.013)]3 MΩ || 500 MΩ
AVOL(dB) = 88 dB zin(CL) = 470 MΩ
1-91
Answer: The closed-loop input impedance is 470 MΩ. Solution:
17-6. Given: iout = vin/R1 (Eq. 17-19)
iout = 0.5 V/2.7 Ω
AVOL = 75,000
iout = 185 mArms
Rout = 50 Ω
B = 0.013 (from Prob. 17-5) PL = (iout)2RL
PL = (185 mA)2(1 Ω)
Solution:
PL = 34.2 mW
zout(CL) = Rout/(1 + AVOLB) (Eq. 17-10)
zout(CL) = 50 Ω/[1 + (75,000)(0.013)] Answer: The output current is 185 mArms, and the load
zout(CL) = 0.051 Ω power is 34.2 mW.
Answer: The closed-loop output impedance is 17-12. Given:
0.051 Ω. R1 = 2.7 Ω
RL = 3 Ω
17-7. Given:
vin = 0.5 Vrms
AVOL = 200,000
B = 0.013 (from Prob. 17-5) Solution:
THDOL = 10% iout = vin/R1 (Eq. 17-19)
iout = 0.5 Vrms/2.7 Ω
Solution:
iout = 185 mArms
THDCL = THDVOL/(1 + AVOLB) (Eq. 17-12)
THDCL = 10%/[1 + 200,000(0.013)] PL = (iout)2RL
THDCL = 0.0038% PL = (185 mArms)2(3 Ω)
PL = 277 mW
Answer: The closed-loop total harmonic distortion is
0.0038%. Answer: The output current is 185 mArms, and the load
power is 277 mW.
17-8. Given:
17-13. Given:
iin = 20 mApeak
Rf = 51 kΩ R1 = 4.7 Ω
f = 1 kHz RL = 1 Ω
vin = 0.5 Vrms
Solution:
Solution:
vout = –(iinR2) (Eq. 17-14)
vout = –(20 μApeak)(51 kΩ) iout = vin/R1 (Eq. 17-19)
vout = –1.02 Vpeak at 1 kHz iout = 0.5 V/4.7 Ω
iout = 106 mArms
Answer: The output voltage is –1.02 Vpeak at 1 kHz.
PL = (iout)2RL
17-9. Given: PL = (106 mA)2(1 Ω)
iin = 20 μApeak PL = 11.2 mW
Rf = 33 kΩ Answer: The output current is 106 mArms, and the load
f = 1 kHz power is 11.2 mW.
vout = –(iinRf) R1 = 1.8 Ω
vout = (–20 μApeak)(33 kΩ) R2 = 1.5 kΩ
vout = –0.660 Vpeak RL = 1 Ω
Answer: The output voltage is –0.660 Vpeak. iin = 1 mAp-p
iin = –10 μArms Ai = R2/R1 + 1 (Eq. 17-23)
Rf = 51 kΩ Ai = 1.5 kΩ/1.8 Ω + 1
f = 1 kHz Ai = 834
Solution: iout = Aiiin
vout = –(iinRf) iout = 834(1 mAp-p)
vout = (–10 μA)(51 kΩ) iout = 834 mAp-p
vout = –510 Vrms irms = ip-p /2.828
Vp-p = –1.44 Vp-p irms = 834 mAp-p/2.828
Answer: The peak-to-peak output voltage is –1.44 V at irms = 295 mArms
1 kHz. PL = (iout)2RL
17-11. Given: PL = (295 mA)2(1 Ω)
PL = 87 mW
R1 = 2.7 Ω
RL = 1 Ω Answer: The current gain is 834, and the load power is
vin = 0.5 Vrms 87 mW.
1-92
17-15. Given: 17-19. Given:
R1 = 1.8 Ω AVOL = 20,000
R2 = 1.5 kΩ f2(OL) = 750 Hz
RL = 2 Ω
Solution:
iin = 1 mAp-p
Ai = 834 (from Prob. 17-14) f2(CL) = (1 + AVOL)f2(OL) (from Table 17-2)
f2(CL) = (1 + 20,000)(750 Hz)
Solution: f2(CL) = 15 MHz
iout = Aiiin
Answer: The closed-loop bandwidth is 15 MHz.
iout = 834(1 mAp-p)
iout = 834 mAp-p 17-20. Given:
irms = ip-p /2.828 (1 + AVOLB) = 5000
irms = 834 mAp-p/2.828 f2(OL) = 120 Hz
irms = 295 mArms Solution:
PL = (iout)2RL f2(CL) = (1 + AVOLB) f2(OL) (from Table 17-2)
PL = (295 mA)2(2 Ω) f2(CL) = 5000(120 Hz)
PL = 174 mW f2(CL) = 600 kHz
Answer: The output current is 834 mAp-p, and the load Answer : The closed-loop bandwidth is 600 kHz.
power is 174 mW.
17-21. Given:
17-16. Given: funity = 1 MHz
R1 = 7.5 Ω SR = 0.5 V/µs
R2 = 1.5 kΩ Av(CL) = 10
RL = 1 Ω
iin = 1 mAp-p Solution:
Solution: f2(CL) = 1 MHz/10
Ai = R2/R1 + 1 (Eq. 17-23) f2(CL) = 100 kHz
Ai = (1.5 kΩ/7.5 Ω) + 1
Ai = 201 VP(max) = SR/(2πf2(CL)) (Eq. 17-31)
VP(max) = 0.5 V/μs/(2π100 kHz)
iout = AiIin VP(max) = 796 mVp
iout = (201)(1 mAp-p)
iout = 201 mAp-p Answer: The closed-loop bandwidth is 100 kHz, and the
maximum peak voltage is 796 mV.
irms = ip-p/(2.828)
irms = 201 mAp-p/(2.828)
CRITICAL THINKING
irms = 71.1 mArms
PL = (iout)2RL 17-22. Given:
PL = (71.1 mArms)2(1 Ω) Rf = 150 kΩ
PL = 5 mW iin = 4 μA
Answer: The current gain is 201, and the load power is Solution:
5 mW.
vout = iinRf
17-17. Given: vout = 4 μA(150 kΩ)
(1 + AVOLB) = 1,000 vout = 600 mV
f2(OL) = 2 Hz Answer: The output voltmeter reads 600 mV.
f2(CL) = (1 + AVOLB)f2(OL) Rf1 = 10 kΩ
f2(CL) = (1000)(2 Hz) iin = 1 μA
f2(CL) = 2 kHz R1 = 1 kΩ
Answer: The closed-loop bandwidth is 2 kHz. Rf2 = 99 kΩ

AVOL = 316,000 vout(1) = iinRf (from Table 17-2)
f2(OL) = 4.5 Hz vout(1) = 1 μA(10 kΩ)
Av(CL) = 75 vout(1) = 10 mV
Solution: Av(2) = Rf2/R1 + 1

Av(2) = 99 kΩ/1 kΩ + 1
funity = AVOLf2(OL) = 316,000(4.5 Hz) = 1.42 MHz Av(2) = 100
f2(CL) = 1.42 MHz/75 vout(2) = Av(vin(2))
f2(CL) = 18.9 kHz vout(2) = 100(10 mV)
vout(2) = 1 V
Answer: The closed-loop bandwidth is 18.9 kHz.
1-93
17-24. Given: B(2) = R2/(R2 + Rf) (Eq. 17-6)
Rf = 50 kΩ B(2) = 25 kΩ/(25 kΩ + 50 kΩ)
R1 = 1 kΩ B(2) = 0.333
R2 = 25 kΩ zin 2(CL) = (1 + AVOLB(2))Rin (Eq. 17-8)
R3 = 100 kΩ zin 2(CL) = (1 + (100,000)(0.333))2 MΩ
Solution: zin 2(CL) = 66,669 MΩ
Av1(CL) = Rf/R1 + 1 zout 2(CL) = Rout/(1 + AVOLB(2)) (Eq. 17-10)
Av1(CL) = 50 kΩ/1 kΩ + 1 zout 2(CL) = 75 Ω/(1 + (100,000)(0.333))
Av1(CL) = 51 zout 2(CL) = 2.5 mΩ
Av2(CL) = Rf/R2 + 1 B(3) = R3/(R3 + Rf) (Eq. 17-6)
Av2(CL) = 50 kΩ/25 kΩ + 1 B(3) = 100 kΩ/(100 kΩ + 50 kΩ)
Av2(CL) = 3 B(3) = 0.667
Av3(CL) = Rf/R3 + 1 zin 3(CL) = (1 + AVOLB(3))Rin (Eq. 17-8)
Av3(CL) = 50 kΩ/100 kΩ + 1 zin 3(CL) = (1 + (100,000)(0.667))2 MΩ
Av3(CL) = 1.5 zin 3(CL) = 133,335 MΩ
Answer: The voltage gains are 51 at the 1-kΩ position, zout3(CL) = Rout/(1 + AVOLB(3)) (Eq. 17-10)
3 at the 25-kΩ position, and 1.5 at the 100-kΩ position. zout3(CL) = 75 Ω/(1 + (100,000)(0.667))
zout3(CL) = 1.25 mΩ
17-25. Given:
Rf = 50 kΩ Answer: At the 1-kΩ position the input impedance is
R1 = 1 kΩ 3,924 MΩ and the output impedance is 38 mΩ. At the
R2 = 25 kΩ 25-kΩ position the input impedance is 66,669 MΩ
R3 = 100 kΩ and the output impedance is 2.5 mΩ. At the 100-kΩ
Av1(CL) = 51 (from Prob. 17-24) position the input impedance is 133,335 MΩ and the
Av2(CL) = 3 (from Prob. 17-24) output impedance is 1.25 mΩ. Note: The RCM of the
Av3(CL) = 1.5 (from Prob. 17-24) op amp is not included in the calculations for input
vin = 10 mV impedance. See Example 17-2.

vout(1) = Av1(CL)(vin) Iin(bias) = 80 nA
vout(1) = 51(10 mV) Iin(off) = 20 nA
vout(1) = 510 mV Vin(off) = 1 mV
AVOL = 100,000
vout(2) = Av2(CL)(vin) Rf = 100 kΩ
vout(2) = 3(10 mV) R1= 1 kΩ
vout(2) = 30 mV R2 = 25 kΩ
vout(3) = Av3(CL)(vin) R3 = 100 kΩ
vout(3) = 1.5(10 mV) Av1(CL) = 101
vout(3) = 15 mV Av2(CL) = 5
Av3(CL) = 2
Answer: The output voltages are 510 mV at the 1-kΩ
position, 30 mV at the 25-kΩ position, and 15 mV at the Solution:
100-kΩ position. RB2(1) = R1 || Rf (Eq. 16-11)
17-26. Given: RB2(1) = 1 kΩ || 100 kΩ
RB2(1) = 990 Ω
Rf = 50 kΩ
R1 = 1 kΩ V1 err(1) = (RB1 – RB2(1))Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8)
R2 = 25 kΩ V1 err(1) = (0 – 990 Ω)(80 nA)
R3 = 100 kΩ V1 err(1) = – 79.2 µV
Av1(CL) = 51 (from Prob. 17-24) V2 err(2) = (RB1 + RB2(1))(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9)
Av2(CL) = 3 (from Prob. 17-24) V2 err(2) = (0 + 990 Ω)(20 nA/2)
Av3(CL) = 1.5 (from Prob. 17-24) V2 err(2) = 9.9 µV
AVOL = 100,000
Rin = 2 MΩ V3 err(1) = Vin(off) = 1 mV
Rout = 75 Ω Verror(1) = ±Av(CL)(±V1 err(1) ± V2 err(1) ± V3 err(1))
Solution: Verror(1) = 101(79.2 µV + 9.9 µV + 1 mV)
Verror(1) = 110 mV
B(1) = R1/(R1 + Rf) (Eq. 17-6)
B(1) = 1 kΩ/(1 kΩ + 50 kΩ) RB2(2) = R2 || Rf (Eq. 16-11)
B(1) = 0.0196 RB2(2) = 25 kΩ || 100 kΩ
zin 1(CL) = (1 + AVOLB(1))Rin (Eq. 17-8) RB2(2) = 20 kΩ
z in 1(CL) = (1 + (100,000)(0.0196))2 MΩ V1 err(2) = (RB1 – RB2(2))Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8)
z in 1(CL) = 3924 MΩ V1 err(2) = (0 – 20 kΩ)(80 nA)
zout 1(CL) = Rout/(1 + AVOLB(1)) (Eq. 17-10) V1 err(2) = –1.6 µV
zout 1(CL) = 75 Ω/(1 + (100,000)(0.0196))
zout 1(CL) = 38 mΩ
1-94
V2 err(2) = (RB1 + RB2(2))(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9) 17-31. Given:
V2 err(2) = (0 + 20 kΩ)(20 nA/2) vout = 2 V
V2 err(2) = 200 µV iin = 1 mA
V3 err(2) = Vin(off) = 1 mV Solution:
Verror(2) = ±Av(CL) (±V1 err(2) ± V2 err(2) ± V3 err(2)) vout = iinRf (from Table 17-2)
Verror(2) = 5(1.6 mV + 200 µV + 1 mV) Rf = vout/iin
Verror(2) = 14 mV Rf = 2 V/1 mA
RB2(3) = R3 || Rf (Eq. 16-11) Rf = 2 kΩ
RB2(3) = 100 kΩ || 100 kΩ Answer: The unknown resistor is 2 kΩ.
RB2(3) = 50 kΩ
17-32. Given:
V1 err(3) = (RB1 – RB2(3))Iin(bias) (Eq. 16-8) R = 100 kΩ
V1 err(3) = (0 – 50 kΩ)(80 nA) V = 10 V
V1 err(3) = – 4 mV Rf (max) = 11 kΩ
V2 err(3) = (RB1 + RB2(3))(Iin(off)/2) (Eq. 16-9) Rf (min) = 9 kΩ
V2 err(3) = (0 + 50 kΩ)(20 nA/2) Solution:
V2 err(3) = 500 µV
iin = V/R
V3 err(3) = Vin(off) = 1 mV iin = 10 V/100 kΩ
Verror(3) = ±Av(CL) (±V1 err(3) ± V2 err(3) ± V3 err(3)) iin = 0.1 mA
Verror(3) = 2(4 mV + 500 µV + 1 mV) vout(max) = iinRf (max) (from Table 17-2)
Verror(3) = 11 mV vout(max) = 0.1 mA(11 kΩ)
Answer: The output offset voltage is 110 mV at the 1-kΩ vout(max) = 1.1 V
position, 14 mV at the 25-kΩ position, and 11 mV at the vout(min) = iin Rf (min) (from Table 17-2)
100-kΩ position. vout(min) = 0.1 mA(9 kΩ)
17-28. Given: vout(min) = 0.9 V
Rf(1) = 100 Ω Answer: The output voltage varies between 0.9 V and
Rf(2) = 1 kΩ 1.1 V.
Rf(3) = 10 kΩ 17-33. Given:
iin = 1 mA
R = 100 kΩ
Solution: V = 10 V
vout(1) = iinRf (1) (from Table 17-2) Rf (max) = 10 kΩ
vout(1) = 1 mA(100 Ω) Rf (min) = 1 kΩ
vout(1) = 100 mV Solution:
vout(2) = iinRf (2) (from Table 17-2) iin = V/R
vout(2) = 1 mA(1 kΩ) iin = 10 V/100 kΩ
vout(2) = 1 V iin = 0.1 mA
vout(3) = iinRf (1) (from Table 17-2) vout(max) = iinRf(max) (from Table 17-2)
vout(3) = 1 mA(10 kΩ) vout(max) = 0.1 mA(10 kΩ)
vout(3) = 10 V vout(max) = 1 V
Answer: The output offset voltage is 110 mV at vout(min) = iinRf(min) (from Table 17-2)
position A, 1 V at position B, and 10 V at position C. vout(min) = 0.1 mA(1 kΩ)
17-29. Given: vout(min) = 0.1 V
Rf = 100 kΩ Answer: The output voltage varies between 0.1 V and
iin = 2 µA 1 V.
vout = iinRf (from Table 17-2) R1 = 10 Ω
vout = 2 µA(100 kΩ) R2 = 100 Ω
vout = 200 mV R3 = 1 kΩ
R4 = 10 kΩ
Answer: The output voltage is 200 mV. R5 = 100 kΩ
17-30. Given: iout = 100 µA full scale
Rf = 3.3 kΩ Solution:
iin = 1 mA iout = vinR1
Solution: vin = ioutR1
vout = iinRf (from Table 17-2) vin(1) = ioutR1
vout = 1 mA(3.3 kΩ) vin(1) = 100 µA(10 Ω)
vout = 3.3 V vin(1) = 1 mV
1-95
vin(2) = ioutR2 5. The problem is that the output is drawing too much cur-
vin(2) = 100 µA(100 Ω) rent from the op amp. The circuit can be redesigned using a
vin(2) = 10 mV higher-power op amp or a current booster.
8. The output is weighted, that is, proportional to the weighted
vin(3) = ioutR3
sum of the inputs.
vin(3) = 100 µA(1 kΩ)
9. Refer to Fig. 18-35. To modify the circuit for a dc response,
vin(3) = 100 mV
accept a dc offset and correct it later, or use two batteries as a
vin(4) = ioutR4 split supply.
vin(4) = 100 µA(10 kΩ) 10. Use an emitter follower on the output or employ a Class-B
vin(4) = 1 V stage for bidirectional amplification.
11. Because of the high open-loop voltage gain of the op amp,
vin(5) = ioutR5
the slightest input voltage immediately biases one of the
vin(5) = 100 µA(100 kΩ)
output transistors. In effect, the knee voltage is divided by the
vin(5) = 10 V
open-loop gain.
Answer: The input voltages are 1 mV at the 10-Ω posi-
tion, 10 mV at the 100-Ω position, 100 mV at the 1-kΩ PROBLEMS
position, 1 V at the 10-kΩ position, and 10 V at the
100-kΩ position. 18-1. Given:
17-35. Answer: R1 = 10 MΩ
Trouble 1: Since there is voltage at C and not at D, the R2 = 20 MΩ
trouble is an open between C and D. R3 = 15 kΩ
R4 = 15 kΩ
Trouble 2: Since all the voltages are zero, the trouble is R5 = 75 kΩ
a shorted R2.
Solution:
Trouble 3: The trouble is a shorted R4.
First stage:
17-36. Answer:
Av = –R2/R1
Trouble 4: Since the output of the first stage is very high,
Av = –20 MΩ/10 MΩ
the trouble is an open R2.
Av = –2
Trouble 5: Since there is voltage at F and not at G, the
Second stage:
trouble is an open between F and G.
Av = –R4/R3
Trouble 6: Since there is voltage at F and not at E, the Av = –15 kΩ/15 kΩ
trouble is an open R3. Av = –1
17-37. Answer: Av = –R5/R3
Trouble 7: Since there is voltage at A and not at B, the Av = –75 kΩ/15 kΩ
trouble is an open between A and B. Av = –5
Trouble 8: Since the second stage has no gain, the trouble Total:
is a shorted R3. Av = (–2)(–1)
Trouble 9: The trouble is R4 open. Av = 2 for the switch position pointing to R4
17-38. R1 is shorted Av = (–5)(–2)
Av = 10 for the switch position pointing to R5
17-39. R2 is actually 500 Ω, not 1 kΩ
Answer: The gain is 2 in the switch position pointing to
17-40. R3 is actually 51 kΩ, not 100 kΩ R4, and the gain is 10 for the switch position pointing
to R5.
17-41. R2 is actually 10 kΩ, not 1 kΩ
18-2. Given:
17-42. The op amp U2 has failed R1 = 1.5 kΩ
Rf = 75 kΩ
RL = 15 kΩ
Chapter 18 Linear Op-Amp Circuit C1 = 1 µF
Applications C2 = 4.7 µF
funity = 1 MHz
SELF-TEST
Solution:
1. b 7. b 13. d 19. b
2. b 8. d 14. c 20. a Av = –Rf /R1
3. a 9. d 15. b 21. d Av = –75 kΩ/1.5 kΩ
4. c 10. a 16. c 22. b Av = –50
5. c 11. b 17. d 23. c fC1 = 1/(2πR1C1)
6. b 12. c 18. d 24. a fC1 = 1/[2π (1.5 kΩ)(1 µF)]
fC1 = 106 Hz
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS fC2 = 1/(2π RLC2)
4. The first stage provides a high input impedance and voltage fC2 = 1/[2π (15 kΩ)(4.7 µF)]
gain, and the second stage produces a high CMRR. fC2 = 2.26 Hz
1-96
Answer: The gain is 50 (inverted), and the cutoff frequen- Solution:
cies are 2.26 Hz and 106 Hz. Av = (Rf/R1) + 1
Av = (82 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1
18-3. Given:
Av = 42
R1 = 10 kΩ
Rf = 180 kΩ f2 = funity/Av
Rmin = 130 Ω f2 = 3 MHz/42
Rmax = 25.13 kΩ f2 = 71.4 kHz
funity = 1 MHz fC1 = 1/(2πR3C1)
Solution: fC1 = 1/[2π(100 kΩ)(2.2 µF)]
fC1 = 0.72 Hz
Bmin = (10 kΩ || 130 Ω)/(10 kΩ || 130 Ω + 180 kΩ)
Bmin = 0.000712 fC2 = 1/(2πRLC2)
fC2 = 1/[2π(25 kΩ)(4.7 µF)]
Bmax = (10 kΩ || 25.13 kΩ)/(10 kΩ || 25.13 kΩ + 180 kΩ)
fC2 = 1.35 Hz
Bmax = 0.0382
f2(min) = Bfunity fC3 = 1/(2πR1C3)
f2(min) = 0.000712(1 MHz) fC3 = 1/[2π(2 kΩ)(1 µF)]
f2(min) = 712 Hz fC3 = 79.6 Hz
f2(max) = Bfunity Answer: The midband voltage gain is 42, the upper cutoff
f2(max) = 0.0382(1 MHz) frequency is 71.4 kHz, and the lower cutoff frequency is
f2(max) = 38.2 kHz 79.6 Hz.
–Rf –180 kΩ 18-6. Given:
Av = ____ = ________ = –18
R1 10 kΩ
R1 = 3.3 kΩ
Answer: The voltage gain is 18 with an inverted output. Rf = 150 kΩ
The minimum bandwidth is 712 Hz and the maximum R2 = 100 kΩ
bandwidth is 38.2 kHz. RL = 10 kΩ
C1 = 1 µF
18-4. Given:
C2 = 10 µF
R1 = 1.5 kΩ C3 = 4.7 µF
Rf = 100 kΩ funity = 1 MHz
Rmin = 100 Ω
Rmax = 5.1 kΩ Solution:
funity = 1 MHz Av = (Rf/R1) + 1
Av = (150 kΩ/3.3 kΩ) + 1
Solution:
Av = 46.5
Bmin = (R1 || Rmin)/(R1 || Rmin + Rf)
Bmin = (1.5 kΩ || 100 Ω)/(1.5 kΩ || 100 Ω + 100 kΩ) f2 = funity/Av
Bmin = 0.000937 f2 = 1 MHz/46.5
f2 = 21.5 kHz
Bmax = (R1 || Rmax)/(R1 || Rmax + Rf)
fC1 = 1/(2πR2C1)
Bmax = (1.5 kΩ || 5.1 kΩ)/(1.5 kΩ || 5.1 kΩ + 100 kΩ)
fC1 = 1/[2π(100 kΩ)(1 µF)]
Bmax = 0.01146
fC1 = 1.59 Hz
f2(min) = Bminfunity fC2 = 1/(2πRLC2)
f2(min) = 0.000937(1 MHz) fC2 = 1/[2π(10 kΩ)(10 µF)]
f2(min) = 937 Hz fC2 = 1.59 Hz
f2(max) = Bmaxfunity fC3 = 1/(2πR1C3)
f2(max) = 0.01146(1 MHz) fC3 = 1/[2π(3.3 kΩ)(4.7 µF)]
f2(max) = 11.5 kHz fC3 = 10.3 Hz
Av = –Rf/R1 Answer: The midband voltage gain is 46.5, the upper cut-
Av = –100 kΩ/1.5 kΩ off frequency is 21.5 kHz, and the lower cutoff frequency
Av = –66.7 is 10.3 Hz.
vout = Avvin 18-7. Given:
vout = –66.7(4 mV)
vout = –266.8 mV R1 = 2 kΩ
Rf = 100 kΩ
Answer: The minimum bandwidth is 937 Hz and the vin = 10 mV
maximum bandwidth is 11.5 kHz. The output voltage is
–266.8 mV. Solution:
Av = (Rf/R1) + 1
18-5. Given: Av = (100 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1
R1 = 2 kΩ Av = 51
Rf = 82 kΩ
RL = 25 kΩ vout = Avvin
C1 = 2.2 µF vout = 51(10 mV)
C2 = 4.7 µF vout = 510 mV
funity = 3 MHz Answer: The output voltage at A, B, and C is 510 mV.
1-97
18-8. Given: 18-11. Given:
R1 = 91 kΩ R1 = 1 kΩ
Rf = 12 kΩ R2 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 1 kΩ
Solution:
vin = 2 mV
–R2/R1 < Av < 0
Solution: –10 kΩ/1 kΩ < Av < 0
Low gate: –10 < Av < 0
Av = (Rf/R1) + 1
Answer: The maximum inverting gain is –10, and the
Av = (12 kΩ/91 kΩ) + 1
maximum positive gain is 0.
Av = 1.13
18-12. Given: R1 = R2
vout = Avvin
vout = 1.13(2 mV) Solution: At ground the circuit is an inverting amplifier.
vout = 2.26 mV Av = –Rf/R1
High gate: Av = –1
Av = [Rf/(R1 || R2)] + 1 When the wiper is 10% away from ground, so that the
Av = [12 kΩ/(91 kΩ || 1 kΩ)] + 1 noninverting gain will be 10% of its maximum of 2.
Av = 13.1
Av(non) = 10% (2) = 0.2
vout = Avvin Av = Av(in) + Av(non)
vout = 13.1(2 mV) Av = –1 + 0.2
vout = 26.2 mV Av = –0.8
Answer: When the gate is low, the output is 2.26 mV; Answer: The gain with the wiper at ground is –1, and
when the gate is high, the output is 26.2 mV. 10% away is –0.8.
18-9. Given: 18-13. Given:
R1 = 20 kΩ R = 5 kΩ
Rf = 68 kΩ nR = 75 kΩ
R2 = 1 kΩ nR/(n – 1)R = 5.36 kΩ
vin = 1 mV
Solution:
Solution: Av = –nR/R
Low gate: Av = –75 kΩ/5 kΩ
Av = (Rf/R1) + 1 Av = –15
Av = (68 kΩ/20 kΩ) + 1
Av = 4.4 Answer: The maximum positive gain is 15, and the maxi-
mum negative gain is –15.
vout = Avvin
vout = 4.41(1 mV) 18-14. Given:
vout = 4.4 mV R' = 10 kΩ
R = 22 kΩ
High gate: C = 0.02 µF
Av = [Rf/(R1 || R2)] + 1 fin = 100 Hz, 1 kHz, 10 kHz
Av = [68 kΩ/(20 kΩ || 1 kΩ)] + 1
Av = 72.4 Solution:
vout = Avvin fC = 1/(2π RC)
vout = 72.4(1 mV) fC = 1/[(2π22 kΩ)(0.02 µF)]
vout = 72.4 mV fC = 362 Hz
Answer: When the gate is low, the output is 4.4 mV, and ϕ = –2 arctan (f/fC)
when the gate is high, the output is 72.4 mV. ϕ = –2 arctan (100 Hz/362 Hz)
ϕ = –30.9°
18-10. Given:
ϕ = –2 arctan (f/fC)
R1 = 10 kΩ ϕ = –2 arctan (1 kHz/362 Hz)
Rf = 10 kΩ ϕ = –140°
Vin = 2.5 V
ϕ = –2 arctan (f/fC)
Solution: ϕ = –2 arctan (10 kHz/362 Hz)
Av = (Rf/R1) + 1 ϕ = –176°
Av = (10 kΩ/10 kΩ) + 1
Av = 2 Answer: The phase shift is –30.9° at 100 Hz, –140° at
1 kHz, and –176° at 10 kHz.
Vout = Av(vin)
Vout = 2(2.5 V) 18-15. Given:
Vout = 5 V R1 = 1.5 kΩ
R2 = 30 kΩ
Answer: The new output reference voltage is 5 V.
1-98
Solution: vout = Avvin
Av(inv) = –R2/R1 (Eq. 18-6) vout = 100(2 mV)
Av(inv) = –30 kΩ/1.5 kΩ vout = 200 mV at preamp output and –200 mV at diff amp
Av(inv) = –20 output.
Av(non) = [(R2/R1) + 1][R'2/(R'1 + R'2)] (Eq. 18-7) Av(CM) = ±2(ΔR/R)

Av(non) = [(30 kΩ/1.5 kΩ) + 1][30 kΩ/(1.5 kΩ + 30 kΩ)] Av(CM) = ±2(0.005)
Av(non) = 20 Av(CM) = ±0.01
Av(CM) = ±4(0.1%) = ±4(0.001) = ±0.004 CMRR = |Av|/|Av(CM)|

CMRR = 100/0.01
Answer: The differential voltage gain is –20, and the CMRR = 10,000
common mode gain is ±0.004.
Answer: The output voltage is –200 mV, and the CMRR
18-16. Given: is 10,000.
R1 = 1 kΩ 18-20. Given: vin(CM) = 5 V
R2 = 20 kΩ
Solution: Since the first stage has a common-mode gain
Solution: of 1, both sides have the same voltage of 5 V. The guard
Av(inv) = –R2/R1 (Eq. 18-6) voltage is 5 V.
Av(inv) = –20 kΩ/1 kΩ Answer: The guard voltage is 5 V.
Aiv(inv) = –20
18-21. Given:
Av(CM) = ±4 ΔR/R (Eq. 18-5)
Av(CM) = ±4 (1%) = ±4(0.01) RG = 1008 Ω
Av(CM) = ±0.04 vin = 20 mV
Answer: The differential voltage gain is –20, and the Solution:

common-mode gain is ±0.04. Av = (49.4 kΩ/RG) + 1 (Eq. 18-17)
Av = (49.4 kΩ/1008 Ω) + 1
18-17. Given:
Av = 50
R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 20 kΩ vout = Av(vin)
R3 = 20 kΩ vout = 50(20 mV)
R4 = 10 kΩ vout = 1 V
Solution: Answer: The output voltage is 1 V.

V2 = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC 18-22. Given:
V2 = [20 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 20 kΩ)]15 V R = 10 kΩ
V2 = 10 V v1 = –50 mV
V4 = [R4/(R3 + R4)]VCC v2 = –30 mV
V4 = [10 kΩ/(20 kΩ + 10 kΩ)]15 V Solution:
V4 = 5
vout = v1 – v2
Answer: No, the bridge is not balanced. vout = (–50 mV) – (–30 mV)
vout = –20 mV
18-18. Given:
R1 = 1 kΩ Answer: The output voltage is –20 mV.
ΔR = 15 Ω 18-23. Given:
Av = –100
R1 = 10 kΩ
Solution: R2 = 20 kΩ
vin = (ΔR/4R)VCC R3 = 15 kΩ
vin = (15 Ω/4 (1 kΩ))15 V R4 = 15 kΩ
vin = 56.3 mV R5 = 30 kΩ
Rf = 75 kΩ
vout = Av(vin) v1 = 1 mV
vout = (–100)(56.3 mV) v2 = 2 mV
vout = –5.63 V v3 = 3 mV
Answer: The output voltage is –5.63 V. v4 = 4 mV

R1 = 1 kΩ Av(1) = –Rf/R1
R2 = 99 kΩ Av(1) = –75 kΩ/10 kΩ
R = 10 kΩ ± 0.5% Av(1) = –7.5
vin = 2 mV Av(2) = –Rf/R2
Solution: Av(2) = –75 kΩ/20 kΩ
Av(2) = –3.75
Av = (R2/R1) + 1
Av = (99 kΩ/1 kΩ) + 1 Av(3) = {[Rf/(R1 || R2)] + 1}{(R4 || R5)/[R3 + (R4 || R5)]}
Av = 100 Av(3) = {[75 kΩ/(10 kΩ || 20 kΩ)] + 1}{(15 kΩ || 30 kΩ)/
[15 kΩ + (15 kΩ || 30 kΩ)]}
1-99
Av(3) = (12.25)(0.455) 18-28. Given:
Av(3) = 5.57 D3 – D0 = 0001
Av(4) = {[Rf/(R1 || R2)] + 1}{(R3 || R5)/[R4 + (R3 || R5)]} Solution:
Av(4) = {[75 kΩ/(10 kΩ || 20 kΩ)] + 1}{(15 kΩ || 30 kΩ)/
[15 kΩ + (15 kΩ || 30 kΩ)]} BIN = (D0 × 20) + (D1 × 21) + (D2 × 22) + (D3 × 23)
Av(4) = (12.25)(0.4) BIN = (1 × 20) + (0 × 21) + (0 × 22) + (0 × 23) + (0 × 24)
Av(4) = 4.9 BIN = 1
vout = Av(1)v1 + Av(2)v2 + Av(3)v3 + Av(4)v4 ( BIN × V

Vout = – ____
2N
ref)
vout = –7.5(1 mV) + –3.75(2 mV) + 4.9(3 mV) + 4.9
(4 mV) ( 1 × (2.5 V)
Vout = – __
24 ) (Eq. 18-19)
vout = 19.3 mV Vout = –312.5 mV
Answer: The output voltage is 19.3 mV. Answer: The smallest output voltage is –312.5 mV.
18-24. Given: 18-29. Given:
R = 10 kΩ R1 = 2 kΩ
v1 = 1.5 V R2 = 47 kΩ
v2 = 2.5 V β = 100
v3 = 4 V ISC = 25 mA
Solution: Solution:
vout = –(v1 + v2 + v3)/3 Av = (R2/R1) + 1
vout = –(1.5 V + 2.5 V + 4 V)/3 Av = (47 kΩ/2 kΩ) + 1
vout = –2.67 V Av = 24.5
Answer: The output voltage is –2.67 V. Imax = βISC
18-25. Given: Imax = (100) 25 mA
Imax = 2.5 A
v0 = 5 V
v1 = 0 V Answer: The voltage gain is 24.5, and the maximum
v2 = 5 V current is 2.5 A (assumes 25 mA output maximum
v3 = 0 V of IC).
vout = –(v3 + 0.5v2 + 0.25v1 + 0.125v0) R1 = 1 kΩ
vout = –(0 + 0.5(5 V) + 0 + 0.125(5 V)) R2 = 10 kΩ
vout = –3.125 V β = 125
ISC = 25 mA
Answer: The output voltage is –3.125 V.
Solution:
18-26. Given:
Av = –(R2/R1)
D7 – D0 = 10100101 Av = –(10 kΩ/1 kΩ)
Solution: Av = –10
BIN = (D0 × 20) + (D1 × 21) + (D2 × 22) + (D3 × 23) Imax = βIsc
+ (D4 × 24) + (D5 × 25) + (D6 × 26) + (D7 × 27) Imax = 125 (25 mA)
BIN = (1 × 20) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 23) + (0 × 24) Imax = 3.125 A
+ (1 × 25) + (0 × 26) + (1 × 27)
Answer: The voltage gain is –10, and the maximum
BIN = 165
current is 3.125 A.
Answer: The decimal equivalent value is 165.
18-31. Given:
18-27. Given: R = 2 kΩ
D7 – D0 = 01100110 RL = 75 Ω
Vref = +5 V vin = 1 V
VCC = 15 V
Solution:
BIN = (D0 × 20) + (D1 × 21) + (D2 × 22) + (D3 × 23) Solution:
+ (D4 × 24) + (D5 × 25) + (D6 × 26) + (D7 × 27) iout = vin/R
BIN = (0 × 20) + (1 × 21) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 23) + (0 × 24) iout = 1 V/2 kΩ
+ (1 × 25) + (1 × 26) + (0 × 27) iout = 0.5 mA
BIN = 102
RL(max) = R[(VCC/vin) – 1]
( BIN × V
Vout = – ____
2N )
ref RL(max) = 2 kΩ[(15 V/1 V) – 1]
RL(max) = 28 kΩ
(102 × 2 (5 V)
Vout = – ____
28 ) (Eq. 18-19)
Answer: The output current is 0.5 mA, and the maximum
Vout = –3.98 V load resistance is 28 kΩ.
Answer: The output voltage is –3.98 V.
1-100
18-32. Given: 18-36. Given:
R = 3.3 kΩ R1 = 5.1 kΩ
RL = 150 Ω R2 = 51 kΩ
vin = 5 V R5 = 68 kΩ
VCC = 15 V R6 = 1 kΩ
rds(min) = 120 Ω
Solution:
rds(max) = 5 MΩ
iout = (VCC – vin)/R
iout = (15 V – 5 V)/3.3 kΩ Solution:
iout = 3.03 mA Av(min) = [–(R2/R1)][(R6 + rds(min))/(R5 + R6 + rds(min))]
Av(min) = [–(51 kΩ/5.1 kΩ)][(1 kΩ + 120 Ω)/
RL(max) = R/[(VCC/vin) – 1]
(68 kΩ + 1 kΩ + 120 Ω)]
RL(max) = 3.3 kΩ/[(15 V/5 V) – 1]
Av(min) = –0.16
RL(max) = 1.65 kΩ
Av(max) = [–(R2/R1)][(R6 + rds(max))/(R5 + R6 + rds(max))]
Answer: The output current is 3.03 mA, and the maxi-
Av(max) = [–(51 kΩ/5.1 kΩ)][(1 kΩ + 5 MΩ)/
mum load resistance is 1.65 kΩ.
(68 kΩ + 1 kΩ + 5 MΩ)]
18-33. Given: Av(max) = –9.87
R = 10 kΩ Answer: The maximum voltage gain is –9.87, and the
vin = 3 V minimum voltage gain is –0.16.
VCC = 15 V
18-37. Given:
Solution:
R1 = 10 kΩ
iout = vin/R R2 = 10 kΩ
iout = 3 V/10 kΩ R5 = 75 kΩ
iout = 0.3 mA R6 = 1.2 kΩ
RL(max) = R[(VCC/vin) – 1] R7(min) = 180 Ω
RL(max) = 10 kΩ[(15 V/3 V) – 1] R7(max) = 10 MΩ
RL(max) = 40 kΩ Solution:
Answer: The output current is 0.3 mA, and the maximum Av(min) = [–(R2/R1)][(R6 + R7(min))/(R5 + R6 + R7 (min))]
load resistance is 40 kΩ. Av(min) = [–(10 kΩ/10 kΩ)][(1.2 kΩ + 180 Ω)/(75 kΩ
+ 1.2 kΩ + 180 Ω)]
18-34. Given:
Av(min) = –0.018
R = 2 kΩ Av(max) = [–( R2/R1 )][(R6 + R7(max))/(R5 + R6 + R7(max))]
RL = 500 Ω Av(max) = [–(10 kΩ/10 kΩ)][(1.2 kΩ + 10 MΩ)/(75 kΩ
vin = 6 V + 1.2 kΩ + 10 MΩ)]
vin(max) = 7.5 V Av(max) = –0.99
Solution: Answer: The maximum voltage gain is –0.99, and the
iout = –vin/R minimum voltage gain is –0.018.
iout = 6 V/2 kΩ 18-38. Given:
iout = 3 mA
R1 = 3.3 kΩ
RL(max) = (R/2)[(VCC/vin) – 1] R2 = 82 kΩ
RL(max) = (2 kΩ/2)[(15 V/7.5 V) – 1] RL = 10 kΩ
RL(max) = 1 kΩ R = 91 kΩ
Answer: The output current is 3 mA, and the maximum C1 = 4.7 µF
load resistance is 1 kΩ. C2 = 10 µF
C3 = 4.7 µF
18-35. Given:
Solution:
R1 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 100 kΩ Av = –R2/R1
R3 = 100 kΩ Av = –82 kΩ/3.3 kΩ
R4 = 10 kΩ Av = –24.8
rds(min) = 200 Ω f1 = 1/(2π R1C1)
rds(max) = 1 MΩ f1 = 1/[2π (3.3 kΩ)(4.7 µF)]
Solution: f1 = 10.26 Hz
Av(min) = [(R2/R1) + 1][rds(min)/(rds(min) + R3)] f2 = 1/(2π RLC2)
Av(min) = [(100 kΩ/10 kΩ) + 1][200/(200 + 100 kΩ)] f2 = 1/[2π (10 kΩ)(10 µF)]
Av(min) = 0.02 f2 = 1.59 Hz
Av(max) = [(R2/R1) + 1][(rds(max)/rds(max) + R3)] f3 = 1/[2π (R/2)C3]
Av(max) = [(100 kΩ/10 kΩ) + 1][1 MΩ/(1 MΩ + 100 kΩ)] f3 = 1/[2π (91 kΩ/2)(4.7 µF)]
Av(max) = 10 f3 = 0.74 Hz
Answer: The maximum voltage gain is 10, and the mini- Answer: The gain is –24.8, and the cutoff frequencies are
mum voltage gain is 0.02. f1 = 10.26 Hz, f2 = 1.59 Hz, and f3 = 0.74 Hz.
1-101
18-39. Given: VE = VBB – VBE
R1 = 1.5 kΩ VE = 4.54 V – 0.7 V
R2 = 15 kΩ VE = 3.84 V
RL = 15 kΩ IE = VE/RE
R = 68 kΩ IE = 3.84 V/5.6 kΩ
C1 = 1 µF IE = 0.685 mA
C2 = 2.2 µF
C3 = 3.3 µF r'e = 25 mV/IE
r'e = 25 mV/0.685 mA
Solution: r'e = 36.5 Ω
Av = (R2/R1) + 1 rc = Rc
Av = (15 kΩ/1.5 kΩ) + 1 rc = 6.8 kΩ
Av = 11
Av = rc/r'e
f1 = 1/[2π(R/2)C1]
Av = 6.8 kΩ/36.5 Ω
f1 = 1/[2π(68 kΩ/2)(1 µF)]
Av = 186
f1 = 4.68 Hz
f2 = 1/(2πRLC2) Op amp:
f2 = 1/[2π(15 kΩ)(2.2 µF)] Av = (Rf/R3) + 1
f2 = 4.82 Hz Av = (47 kΩ/1 kΩ) + 1
Av = 48
f3 = 1/(2πR1C3)
Av = (186)(48)
f3 = 1/[2π(1 kΩ)(3.3 µF)]
Av = 9114
f3 = 32.2 Hz
Answer: The gain is 11, and the cutoff frequencies are
f1 = 4.68 Hz, f2 = 4.82 Hz, and f3 = 32.2 Hz. 18-43. Given:
R1 = 1 kΩ
CRITICAL THINKING R2 = 10 kΩ
RL = 100 Ω
18-40. Answer: Since the terminal is floating, the output would β = 50
be saturated or VCC. To fix this problem, a large-value vin = 0.5 V
resistor could be connected to the noninverting terminal.
Solution:
This would keep it at ground potential during the transi-
tion and prevents a spike. Av = –R2/R1
Av = –10 kΩ/1 kΩ
18-41. Given: Av = –10
R1(min) = 990 Ω vout = Av(vin)
R1(max) = 1010 Ω vout = –10(0.5 V)
Rf(min) = 99 kΩ vout = –5 V
Rf(max) = 101 kΩ
Iout = vout/RL
Solution: Iout = –5 V/100 Ω
Av(min) = –Rf(min)/R1(max) Iout = 50 mA
Av(min) = –99 kΩ/1010 Ω
IB = Iout/β
Av(min) = –98
IB = 50 mA/50
Av(max) = –Rf(max)/R1(min) IB = 1 mA
Av(max) = –101 kΩ/990 Ω
Av(max) = –102 Answer: The base current is 1 mA.
Answer: The minimum gain is 98, and the maximum gain 18-44. Answer:
is 102. Trouble 1: Since there is voltage at E and not at F, there
is an open between E and F.
18-42. Given:
Transistor: Trouble 2: Since the output is only 200 mV, which is the
R1 = 22 kΩ amplified output of A, R2 is open.
R2 = 10 kΩ Trouble 3: Since the input is 2 mV and the output is maxi-
RS = 1 kΩ mum, R1 is shorted.
RE = 5.6 kΩ
RC = 6.8 kΩ 18-45. Answer:
VCC = 15 V Trouble 4: Since there is no voltage at B, there is an open
between K and B.
Op amp
R3 = 1 kΩ Trouble 5: Since the voltage at C is 3 mV and the voltage
Rf = 47 kΩ at D is zero, there is an open between C and D.
Solution: Trouble 6: Since the voltage at A is zero, there is an open
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2 + RS)]VCC between J and A.
VBB = [10 kΩ/(22 kΩ + 10 kΩ + 1 kΩ)]15 V
VBB = 4.54 V
1-102
18-46. Answer: Q = f0/BW (Eq. 19-3)
Trouble 7: Since the input voltage is 3 mV and the output Q = 1.86 kHz/7.36 kHz
is maximum, R3 is open. Q = 0.25
Trouble 8: Since the output is only 250 mV, which is the Since Q < 1, it is wideband.
amplified output of B, R1 is open.
Answer: The bandwidth is 7.36 kHz, the center frequency
Trouble 9: Since there is input voltage and no voltage is 1.86 kHz, the Q is 0.25, and it is wideband.
reading a points C and D, the op amp is shorted at the
input. 19-2. Given:
f1 = 20 kHz
Trouble 10: Since the input is 5 mV and the output is f2 = 22.5 kHz
maximum, R2 is shorted.
Solution:
18-47. R1 is actually 10 kΩ not 1 kΩ
BW = f2 – f1 (Eq. 19-1)
18-48. Rf is 10 kΩ not 100 kΩ BW = 22.5 kHz – 20 kHz
BW = 2.5 kHz
18-49. Rf is open ____
f0 = √f1 f2
_________________
18-50. Rf is shorted f0 = √ (20 kHz)(22.5 kHz) (Eq. 19-2)
18-51. The closed loop feedback for the op amp U2 has opened f0 = 21.2 kHz
Q = f0/BW (Eq. 19-3)
18-52. Noninverting voltage amplifier Q = 21.2 kHz/2.5 kHz
Q = 8.48
18-53. Adjusts the op amp output to zero volts when the input
signal is zero. Since Q > 1, it is narrowband.
18-54. Vout = (Av)(Vin) = (11)(0.5 Vp-p) = 5.5 Vp-p Answer: The bandwidth is 2.5 kHz, the center frequency
is 21.2 kHz, the Q is 8.48, and it is narrowband.
18-55. Av = AVOL; The output would be clipped at (+) and (–)
12 V 19-3a. Given:
f1 = 2.3 kHz
18-56. 0 Hz to 1.36 MHz f2 = 4.5 kHz
Solution:
Chapter 19 Active Filters BW = f2 – f1 (Eq. 19-1)
BW = 4.5 kHz – 2.3 kHz
SELF TEST BW = 2.2 kHz
____
1. c 9. d 17. a 25. b f0 = √f1 f2
2. b 10. d 18. b 26. c ________________
3. d 11. d 19. d 27. b f0 = √ (2.3 kHz)(4.5 kHz) (Eq. 19-2)
4. c 12. b 20. d 28. d f0 = 3.2 kHz
5. c 13. c 21. a 29. a
Q = f0/BW (Eq. 19-3)
6. b 14. d 22. d 30. d
Q = 3.2 kHz/2.2 kHz
7. c 15. a 23. b 31. b
Q = 1.45
8. d 16. b 24. b
Since Q > 1, it is narrowband.
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Answer: Narrowband.
6. Low attenuation and the edge frequency. High attenuation 19-3b. Given:
and the edge frequency. f1 = 47 kHz
7. A filter designed to control the phase of a signal rather than f2 = 75 kHz
its amplitude.
8. It compares the voltage gain to the frequency. Solution:
BW = f2 – f1 (Eq. 19-1)
PROBLEMS BW = 75 kHz – 47 kHz
BW = 28 kHz
19-1. Given: ____
f0 = √_______________
f1 f2
f1 = 445 Hz f0 = √(75 kHz)(47 kHz) (Eq. 19-2)
f2 = 7800 Hz f0 = 59.4 kHz
Solution: Q = f0/BW (Eq. 19-3)
BW = f2 – f1 (Eq. 19-1) Q = 59.4 kHz/28 kHz
BW = 7800 Hz – 445 Hz Q = 2.12
BW = 7355
____ Since Q > 1, it is narrowband.
f0 = √ f1 f2
________________ Answer: Narrowband.
f0 = √ (445 Hz)(7800 Hz) (Eq. 19-2)
f0 = 1.86 kHz
1-103
19-3c. Given: 19-7. Given:
f1 = 2 Hz L = 20 mH
f2 = 5 Hz C = 5 μF
R = 600 Ω
Solution:
BW = f2 – f1 (Eq. 19-1) Solution:
___
BW = 5 Hz – 2 Hz f0 = 1/(2π√LC ) (Eq. 19-6)
_____________
BW = 3 Hz f0 = 1/[2π√(20 mH)(5 μF) ]
____
f0 = √f1 f2 f0 = 503 Hz
___________
f0 = √ (2 Hz)(5 Hz) (Eq. 19-2) XL = 2πf0L
f0 = 3.16 Hz XL = 2π(503 Hz)(20 mH)
XL = 63.2 Ω
Q = f0 /BW (Eq. 19-3)
Q = 3.16 Hz/3 Hz Q = R/XL (Eq. 19-7)
Q = 1.05 Q = 600/63.2
Q = 9.5
Since Q > 1, it is narrowband.
Answer: The resonant frequency is 503 Hz, and the Q
Answer: Narrowband. is 9.5.
19-3d. Given: 19-8. Given:
f1 = 80 Hz L = 10 mH
f2 = 160 Hz C = 5 μF
Solution: R = 600 Ω
BW = f2 – f1 (Eq. 19-1) Solution:
BW = 160 Hz – 80 Hz ___
f0 = 1/(2π√LC ) (Eq. 19-6)
BW = 80 Hz ____________
____ f0 = 1/[2π√(10 mH)(5 µF) ]
f0 = √f1 f2
______________ f0 = 712 Hz
f0 = √(160 Hz)(80 Hz) (Eq. 19-2)
XL = 2πf0L
f0 = 113 Hz XL = 2π(712 Hz)(10 mH)
Q = f0/BW (Eq. 19-3) XL = 44.7 Ω
Q = 113 Hz/80 Hz Q = R/XL (Eq. 19-7)
Q = 1.4 Q = 600/44.7
Since Q > 1, it is narrowband. Q = 13.4
Answer: Narrowband. Answer: The resonant frequency is 712 Hz, and the Q is
13.4.
19-4. Given: Seven capacitors
Answer: Seventh order 19-9. Given:
R1 = 15 kΩ
19-5. Given: 10 capacitors C = 270 nF
Solution:
Solution:
n = number of capacitors (Eq. 19-4)
n = 10 fC = 1/(2πR1C1) (Eq. 19-9)
fC = 1/[2π(15 kΩ)(270 nF)]
Roll-off = 20n dB/decade (Eq. 19-4a) fC = 39.3 Hz
Roll-off = 20(10) dB/decade
Roll-off = 200 dB/decade Answer: The cutoff frequency is 39.3 Hz.
Roll-off = 6n dB/octave (Eq. 19-4a) 19-10. Given:

Roll-off = 6(10) dB/octave R1 = 7.5 kΩ
Roll-off = 60 dB/octave R2 = 33 kΩ
R3 = 20 kΩ
Answer: The roll-off rate is roll-off = 200 dB/decade or C = 680 pF
roll-off = 60 dB/octave.
Solution:
19-6. Given: 14 capacitors
Av = (R2 /R1) + 1 (Eq. 19-10)
Solution: Av = (33 kΩ/7.5 kΩ) + 1
n = number of capacitors (Eq. 19-4) Av = 5.4
n = 14 fC = 1/(2πR3C1) (Eq. 19-11)
Number of ripples = n/2 (Eq. 19-5) fC = 1/[2π (20 kΩ)(680 pF)]
Number of ripples = 14/2 fC = 11.7 kHz
Number of ripples = 7 Answer: The voltage gain is 5.4, and the cutoff frequency
Answer: There are seven ripples. is 11.7 kHz.
1-104
_______
19-11. Given: Q = 0.5√_______________
(C2/C1) (Eq. 19-19)
R1 = 2.2 kΩ Q = 0.5√(200 pF)/(100 pF)
R2 = 47 kΩ Q = 0.707
C = 330 pF
Since it is a Butterworth response, the cutoff and 3-dB
Solution: frequencies are the same as the pole frequency.
Av = –R2/R1 (Eq. 19-12) Answer: The frequencies are 15 kHz, and the Q is 0.707.
Av = –47 kΩ/2.2 kΩ
Av = –21.4 19-16. Given:
fC = 1/(2πR2C1) (Eq. 19-13) R = 51 kΩ
fC = 1/[2π(47 kΩ)(330 pF)] C1 = 100 pF
fC = 10.3 kHz C2 = 680 pF
Answer: The voltage gain is –21.4, and the cutoff Solution:

_____
frequency is 10.3 kHz. fp = 1/(2πR√C1C2 ) (Eq. 19-20)
_______________
19-12. Given: fp = 1/[2π(51 kΩ) √ (100 pF)(680 pF)]
R1 = 10 kΩ fp = 12 kHz
_______
C1 = 15 nF Q = 0.5√(C2/C1) (Eq. 19-19)
_______________
Solution: Q = 0.5√(680 pF)/(100 pF)
fC = 1/(2πR1C1) (Eq. 19-14) Q = 1.3
fC = 1/[2π(10 kΩ)(15 nF)] fc = Kc fp (Eq. 19-23)
fC = 1.06 kHz fc = 1.12(12 kHz)
Answer: The cutoff frequency is 1.06 kHz. fc = 13.44 kHz
19-13. Given: f3dB = K3 fp (Eq. 19-24)

f3dB = 1.36 (12 kHz)
R1 = 12 kΩ f3dB = 16.32 kHz
R2 = 24 kΩ
R3 = 20 kΩ Answer: The pole frequency is 12 kHz, the cutoff fre-
C = 220 pF quency is 13.44 kHz, the 3-dB frequency is 16.32 kHz,
and the Q is 1.3
Solution:
Av = (R2/R1) + 1 (Eq. 19-15) 19-17. Given:
Av = (24 kΩ/12 kΩ) + 1 R1 = 51 kΩ
Av = 3 R2 = 30 kΩ
R = 33 kΩ
fC = 1/(2πR3C1) (Eq. 19-16) C = 220 pF
fC = 1/[2π(20 kΩ)(220 pF)]
fC = 36.2 kHz Solution:
Answer: The voltage gain is 3, and the cutoff frequency Av = (R2/R1) + 1 (Eq. 19-29)
is 36.2 kHz. Av = (30 kΩ/51 kΩ) + 1
Av = 1.58
19-14. Given:
Q = 1/(3 – Av) (Eq. 19-30)
R1 = 8.2 kΩ Q = 1/(3 – 1.58)
C1 = 560 pF Q = 0.707
C2 = 680 pF
fp = 1/(2πRC)
Solution: fp = 1/[2π(33 kΩ) (220 pF)]
Av = –C1/C2 (Eq. 19-17) fp = 21.9 kHz
Av = –560 pF/680 pF
Av = –0.824 Since it is a Butterworth response, the cutoff and 3-dB
frequencies are the same as the pole frequency.
fC = 1/(2πR1C2) (Eq. 19-18) Answer: The frequencies are 21.9 kHz, and the Q is
fC = 1/[2π(8.2 kΩ)(680 pF)] 0.707.
fC = 28.5 kHz
19-18. Given:
Answer: The voltage gain is –0.824, and the cutoff
frequency is 28.5 kHz. R1 = 33 kΩ
R2 = 33 kΩ
19-15. Given: R = 75 kΩ
R = 75 kΩ C = 100 pF
C1 = 100 pF Solution:
C2 = 200 pF
Av = (R2/R1) + 1 (Eq. 19-29)
Solution: Av = (33 kΩ/33 kΩ) + 1
______
fp = 1/(2πR√C1C2 ) (Eq. 19-20) Av = 2
_______________
fp = 1/[2π(75 kΩ)√ (100 pF)(200 pF) ] Q = 1/(3 – Av) (Eq. 19-30)
fp = 15 kHz Q = 1/(3 – 2)
Q=1
1-105
fp = 1/(2πRC) f3 = fp/K3
fp = 1/[2π(75 kΩ)(100 pF)] f3 = 9.89 kHz/1.30
fp = 21.2 kHz f3 = 7.61 kHz
Kc = 1.000 (from Table 19-3) Answer: The pole frequency is 9.89 kHz, the cutoff fre-
K3 = 1.272 (from Table 19-3) quency is 9.51 kHz, the 3-dB frequency is 7.61 kHz, and
the Q is 1.18.
fc = Kc fp (Eq. 19-23)
fc = 1.000(21.2 kHz) 19-21. Given:
fc = 21.2 kHz R1 = 91 kΩ
f3 = K3 fp (Eq. 19-24) R2 = 15 kΩ
f3 = 1.272(21.2 kHz) C = 220 pF
f3 = 27 kHz Solution:
_____
Answer: The pole frequency is 21.2 kHz, the cutoff fre- fp = 1/(2πC√R1 R2 )
quency is 21.2 kHz, the 3-dB frequency is 27 kHz, and _____________
fp = 1/[2π(220 pF)√(15 kΩ)(91 kΩ) ]
the Q is 1.
fp = 19.6 kHz
19-19. Given: ______
Q = 0.5√(R1/R2)
R1 = 75 kΩ ______________
R2 = 56 kΩ Q = 0.5 √(91 kΩ)/(15 kΩ)
R = 68 kΩ Q = 1.23
C = 120 pF Kc = 1.06 (from Fig. 19-26)
Solution: K3 = 1.32 (from Fig. 19-26)
Av = (R2/R1) + 1 (Eq. 19-29) fc = fp/Kc (Eq. 19-31)
Av = (56 kΩ/75 kΩ) + 1 fc = 19.6 kHz/1.06
Av = 1.75 fc = 18.5 kHz
Q = 1/(3 – Av) (Eq. 19-30) f3 = fp/K3
Q = 1/(3 – 1.75) f3 = 19.6 kHz/1.32
Q = 0.8 f3 = 14.8 kHz
fp = 1/(2πRC) Answer: The pole frequency is 19.6 kHz, the cutoff fre-
fp = 1/[2π (68 kΩ)(120 pF)] quency is 18.5 kHz, the 3-dB frequency is 14.8 kHz, and
fp = 19.5 kHz the Q is 1.23.
Kc = 0.661 (from Table 19-3) 19-22. Given:
K3 = 1.115 (from Table 19-3) R1 = 2 kΩ
fc = Kc fp (Eq. 19-23) R2 = 56 kΩ
fc = 0.661(19.5 kHz) C = 270 pF
fc = 12.89 kHz Solution:
f3 = K3 fp (Eq. 19-24) Av = –R2/2R1 (Eq. 19-32)
f3 = 1.115(19.5 kHz) Av = –56 kΩ/2(2 kΩ)
f3 = 21.74 kHz Av = –14
______
Answer: The pole frequency is 19.5 kHz, the cutoff fre- Q = 0.5 √_____________
(R2 /R1) (Eq. 19-33)
quency is 12.89 kHz, the 3-dB frequency is 21.74 kHz, Q = 0.5 √(56 kΩ)/(2 kΩ)
and the Q is 0.8. Q = 2.65
_____
19-20. Given: f0 = 1/[2πC √(R1R2)]_____________
(Eq. 19-36)
R1 = 56 kΩ f0 = 1/[2π(270 pF) √(2 kΩ)(56 kΩ)]
R2 = 10 kΩ f0 = 55.7 kHz
C = 680 pF
Answer: The Q is 2.65, the voltage gain is –14, and the
Solution: center frequency is 55.7 kHz.
_____
fp = 1/(2πC√R1 R2 )
______________ 19-23. Given:
fp = 1/[2π (680 pF)√(10 kΩ)(56 kΩ) ]
R1 = 3.6 kΩ
fp = 9.89 kHz R2 = 7.5 kΩ
______
Q = 0.5 √(R1/R2) R3 = 27 Ω
______________ C = 22 nF
Q = 0.5 √(56 kΩ)/(10 kΩ)
Q = 1.18 Solution:
Av = –R2/2R1 (Eq. 19-32)
Kc = 1.04 (from Fig. 19-26)
Av = –7.5 kΩ/2(3.6 kΩ)
K3 = 1.30 (from Fig. 19-26)
Av = –1.04
fc = fp/Kc (Eq. 19-31) ___________
Q = 0.5 √____________________
[R2/(R1 || R3)] (Eq. 19-37)
fc = 9.89 kHz/1.04
fc = 9.51 kHz Q = 0.5 √[7.5 kΩ/(2 kΩ || 27 Ω)]
Q = 8.39
1-106
___________
f0 = 1/[2πC√(R1 || R3) R2] (Eq. 19-38) f0 = 1/[2π(47 kΩ)(6.8 nF)]
___________________
f0 = 1/[2π(22 nF)√(2 kΩ || 27 Ω) (7.5 kΩ) ] f0 = 498 Hz
f0 = 16.2 kHz f = 0.5(498 Hz)
f = 249 Hz
Answer: The Q is 8.39, the voltage gain is –1.04, and the
center frequency is 16.2 kHz. ϕ = 2 arctan f/f0
ϕ = 2 arctan (498 Hz/249 Hz)
19-24. Given: ϕ = 127°
R1 = 28 kΩ
19-28. Given:
R3 = 1.8 kΩ
C = 1.8 nF R1 = 24 kΩ
Av = –1 R2 = 100 kΩ
R3 = 10 kΩ
_____________
Q = 0.707 √[(R1 + R3) /R3] (Eq. 19-40) C = 3.3 nF
______________________
Q = 0.707 √[(28 kΩ + 1.8 kΩ)/1.8 kΩ] Solution:
Q = 2.88
_____________ Av = –R2/R1
f0 =1/(2πC √[2R1 (R1 || R3)]) (Eq. 19-41) Av = –100 kΩ/24 kΩ
_______________________
f0 =1/{2π(1.8 nF) √[2(28 kΩ)(28 kΩ || 1.8 kΩ)]} Av = –4.17
f0 = 9.09 kHz Q = R2/R3
Answer: The Q is 2.88, the voltage gain is –1, and the Q = 100 kΩ/10 kΩ
center frequency is 9.09 kHz Q = 10
19-25. Given: f0 = 1/(2πR3C )
f0 = 1/[2π(10 kΩ)(3.3 nF)]
R1 = 20 kΩ f0 = 4.82 kHz
R2 = 10 kΩ
R = 56 kΩ BW = f0/Q (Eq. 19-34)
C = 180 nF BW = 4.82 kHz/10
BW = 482 Hz
Solution:
Av = (R2/R1) + 1 (Eq. 19-43) Answer: The voltage gain is – 4.17, the Q is 10, the center
Av = (10 kΩ/20 kΩ) + 1 frequency is 4.82 kHz, and the bandwidth is 482 Hz.
Av = 1.5 19-29. Given:
f0 = 1/(2πRC) (Eq. 19-44) R1 = 24 kΩ
f0 = 1/[2π(56 kΩ)(180 nF)] R2 = 100 kΩ
f0 = 15.8 Hz R3(min) = 2 kΩ
R3(max) = 10 kΩ
Q = 0.5/(2 – Av) (Eq. 19-45) R4 = 15 kΩ
Q = 0.5/(2 – 1.5) C = 3.3 nF
Q=1
Solution:
BW = f0/Q
BW = 15.8 Hz/1 Q(min) = R2/R3(max)
BW = 15.8 Hz Q(min) = 100 kΩ/10 kΩ
Q(min) = 10
Answer: The voltage gain is 1.5, the Q is 1, the resonant
frequency is 15.8 Hz, and the bandwidth is 15.8 Hz. f0(min) = 1/(2πR3(max)C)
f0(min) = 1/[2π(10 kΩ)(3.3 nF)]
19-26. Given: f0(min) = 4.82 kHz
R = 3.3 kΩ Q(max) = R2/R3(min)
C = 220 nF Q(max) = 100 kΩ/2 kΩ
Solution: Q(max) = 50
f0 = 1/(2πRC) f0(max) = 1/(2πR3(min)C)
f0 = 1/[2π(3.3 kΩ)(220 nF)] f0(max) = 1/[2π(2 kΩ)(3.3 nF)]
f0 = 219 Hz f0(max) = 24.1 kHz
f = 2(219 Hz) BW = ______ 1
1 = _________________ = 482 Hz
f = 438 Hz 2πR2C 2π (100 kΩ)(3.3 nF)
Answer: The maximum center frequency is 24.1 kHz, the
ϕ = –2 arctan f/f0 maximum Q is 50, the minimum bandwidth is 482 Hz,
ϕ = –2 arctan (438 Hz/219 Hz) and the maximum bandwidth 482 Hz.
ϕ = –127°
19-30. Given:
19-27. Given:
R = 6.8 kΩ
R = 47 kΩ R1 = 6.8 kΩ
C = 6.8 nF R2 = 100 kΩ
Solution: C = 5.6 nF
f0 = 1/(2πRC)
1-107
Av = 1/3[(R2/R1) + 1] n=2
Av = 1/3[(100 kΩ/6.8 kΩ) + 1] R = 10 kΩ
Av = 5.23 fc = 5 kHz
Q = Av Solution:
______
Q = 5.23 Q = 0.5 √C2 /C1 (from Fig. 19-24)
_____
f0 = 1/(2πRC) 0.707 = 0.5 √ C2/C1
_____ (Butterworth response)
f0 = 1/[2π(6.8 kΩ)(5.6 nF)] 1.414 = √C2/C1
f0 = 4.18 kHz 2 = C2/C1
Answer: The voltage gain and Q are 5.23, and the center C2 = 2C1 _______
frequency is 4.18 kHz. fp = 1/2πR √C1__(2C1)
fp = 1/2πRC1 √__2
CRITICAL THINKING C1 = 1/2πRfp√2 __
C1 = 1/2π(10 kΩ)(5 kHz) √ 2
19-31. Given: C1 = 2.25 nF
f0 = 50 kHz C2 = 4.5 nF
Q = 20 19-35. Given:
Solution: n=2
BW = f0/Q R = 25 kΩ
BW = 50 kHz/20 fc = 7.5 kHz
BW = 2.5 kHz Ap = 12 dB
f1 = f0 – ½ BW Solution:
f1 = 50 kHz – ½ (2.5 kHz) Since Ap = 12 dB, Kc = 1.391 and Q = 4 (from Table 19-3)
f1 = 48.75 kHz
fc = Kcfp (Eq. 19-23)
f2 = f0 + ½ BW fp = fc/Kc
f2 = 50 kHz + ½ (2.5 kHz) fp = 7.5 kHz/1.391
f2 = 51.25 kHz fp = 5.39 kHz
______
Q = 0.5 √______
C2/C1 (from Fig. 19-25)
Answer: The cutoff frequencies are 48.75 kHz and
51.25 kHz. 4 = 0.5 √ C
_____ 2/C1 (Chebyshev response)
8 = √C2/C1
19-32. Given: 64 = C2/C1
f2 = 84.7 kHz C2 = 64C1 _________
BW = 12.3 kHz fp = 1/2πR √C1 (64C1)
Solution: fp = 1/16πRC1
f1 = f2 – BW C1 = 1/16πRfp
f1 = 84.7 kHz – 12.3 kHz C1 = 1/16π (25 kΩ)(5.39 kHz)
f1 = 72.4 kHz C1 = 148 pF
C2 = 9.47 nF
Answer: The lower cutoff frequency is 72.4 kHz.
19-36. R3 is open
19-33. Given:
n = 10 19-37. U1 has failed
fc = 2 kHz
19-38. C4 is shorted
Solution:
19-39. C3 is open
Roll-off = 6n dB/octave (Eq. 19-4b)
Roll-off = 6(10) dB/octave 19-40. U2 has failed
Roll-off = 60 dB/octave
Roll-off = 20n dB/decade (Eq. 19-4a)
Roll-off = 20(10) dB/decade Chapter 20 Nonlinear Op-Amp
Roll-off = 200 dB/decade Circuit Applications
4 kHz is 1 octave above
Attenuation = 60 dB
SELF-TEST
1. d 9. c 17. a 25. a
8 kHz is 2 octaves above 2. a 10. b 18. c 26. a
Attenuation = 120 dB 3. c 11. c 19. b 27. d
20 kHz is 1 decade above 4. b 12. b 20. c 28. b
Attenuation = 200 dB 5. c 13. b 21. d 29. c
6. a 14. b 22. d 30. a
Answer: The attenuation is 60 dB at 4 kHz, 120 dB at 7. a 15. a 23. a
8 kHz, and 200 dB at 20 kHz. 8. b 16. b 24. b
1-108
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 20-7. Given:
5. It means using back-to-back zener diodes or other circuits to VS = ±12 V
limit the output voltage swing. R1 = 15 kΩ
8. An IC comparator does not have an internal compensating R2 = 7.5 kΩ
capacitor. C = 1 μF
Solution:
PROBLEMS vref = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VEE (Eq. 20-2)
vref = [7.5 kΩ/(15 kΩ + 7.5 kΩ)]−12 V
20-1. Given: vref = −4 V
Av(dB) = 106 dB
Vsat = ±20 V fc = 1/[2π (R1 || R2)C] (Eq. 20-3)
fc = 1/[2π (15 kΩ || 7.5 kΩ)1 μF]
Solution: fc = 31.8 Hz
AVOL = antilog(Av(dB)/20) Answer: The reference voltage is −4 V, and the cutoff
AVOL = antilog(l06 dB/20) frequency is 31.8 Hz.
AVOL = 200,000
20-8. Given:
vin(min) = ±Vsat/AVOL (Eq. 20-1)
vin(min) = ±20 V/200,000 VCC = 9 V
vin(min) = ±100 µV R1 = 22 kΩ
R2 = 4.7 kΩ
Answer: An input voltage of 100 µV will produce posi- vin(peak) = 7.5 V
tive saturation, assuming rail-to-rail output.
Solution:
20-2. Given:
vref = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 20-2)
vin = 50 V vref = [4.7 kΩ/(22 kΩ + 4.7 kΩ)]9 V
R = 10 kΩ vref = 1.58 V
Answer: vin = vin(peak)sinθ
ID = (vin – 0.7 V)/R θ = arcsin(vin/vin(peak))
ID = (50 V – 0.7 V)/10 kΩ θ = arcsin(1.58 V/7.5 V)
ID = 4.93 mA θ = 12° and 168°
Solution: The diode current is 4.93 mA. D = conduction angle/360°
D = (168° − 12°)/360°
20-3. Given: D = 43.3%
VZ = 6.8 V
VS = ±15 V Answer: The duty cycle is 43.3%.

vout = ±(VZ + VD) VCC = 15 V
vout = ±(6.8 V + 0.7 V) R1 = 33 kΩ
vout = ±7.5 V R2 = 3.3 kΩ
vin(peak) = 5 V
Answer: The output voltage will be limited to ±7.5 V.
Solution:
20-4. Given: VS = ±12 V vref = [R2/(R1= R2)]VCC (Eq. 20-2)
Answer: The output voltage would vary between 0.7 V vref = [3.3 kΩ/(33 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ)]15 V
and –12 V. vref = 1.36 V
20-5. Given: VS = ±12 V vin = vin(peak)sinθ
Answer: When the strobe is high, the output is zero. θ = arcsin(vin/vin(peak))
When the strobe is low, the output will vary between θ = arcsin(1.36 V/5 V)
0.7 V and –9 V. θ = 16° and 164°
20-6. Given: D = conduction angle/360°
D = (164° − 16°)/360°
VS = ±15 V
D = 41%
R1 = 47 kΩ
R2 = 12 kΩ Answer: The duty cycle is 41%.
CBY = 0.5 µF
20-10. Given:
Solution: Vsat = 14 V
vref = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 20-2) R1 = 2.2 kΩ
vref = [12 kΩ /(47 kΩ + 12 kΩ)]15 V R2 =18 kΩ
vref = 3.05 V
Solution:
fc = 1/[2π(R1 || R2)CBY] (Eq. 20-3) B = R1/(R1 + R2) (Eq. 20-4)
fc = 1/[2π(47 kΩ || 12 kΩ) 0.5 µF] B = 2.2 kΩ/(2.2 kΩ + 18 kΩ)
fc = 33.3 Hz B = 0.1089
Answer: The reference voltage is 3.05 V, and the cutoff
frequency is 33.3 Hz.
1-109
UTP = BVsat (Eq. 20-6) 20-14. Given:
UTP = 0.1089(14 V) R1 = 2.2 kΩ
UTP = 1.52 V R2 = 68 kΩ
LTP = −BVsat (Eq. 20-7) Vsat = 14 V
LTP = −0.1089(14 V) Solution:
LTP = −1.52V
UTP = (R1/R2)Vsat (Eq. 20-10)
H = 2BVsat (Eq. 20-9) UTP = (2.2 kΩ/68 kΩ)14 V
H = 2(0.1089)(14 V) UTP = 0.453 V
H = 3.05 V
LTP = −(R1/R2)Vsat (Eq. 20-11)
Answer: The upper trip point is 1.52 V, the lower trip LTP = −(2.2 kΩ/68 kΩ)14 V
point is −1.52 V. The hysteresis is 3.05 V. LTP = −0.453 V
20-11. Given: H = UTP − LTP (Eq. 20-8)
R1 = 1 kΩ H = 0.453 V − (−0.453 V)
R2 = 20 kΩ H = 906 mV
Vsat = 15 V Answer: The upper trip point is 0.453 V, the lower trip
Solution: point is −0.453 V, and the hysteresis is 906 mV.
UTP = (R1/R2)Vsat (Eq. 20-10) 20-15. Given:
UTP = (1 kΩ/20 kΩ)15 V LTP = 3.5 V
UTP = 0.75 V UTP = 4.75 V
LTP = −(R1/R2)Vsat (Eq. 20-11) vin(peak) = 10 V
LTP = −(1 kΩ/20 kΩ)15 V Vsat = 12 V
LTP = −0.75 V Solution: The output voltage will be low when the input
H = UTP − LTP (Eq. 20-8) voltage is between 3.5 and 4.75 V.
H = 0.75 V − (−0.75 V) 20-16. Given: VCC = 12 V
H = 1.5 V
Solution:
Answer: The maximum peak-to-peak noise allowed is
UTP = [R/(4R + R)]12 V
1.5 V.
UTP = 2.4 V
20-12. Given: LTP = [R/(6R + R)]12 V
R1 = 1 kΩ LTP = 1.71 V
R2 = 18 kΩ
C1 = 3 pF Answer: The lower trip point is 1.71 V, and the upper trip
point is 2.4 V.
Solution:
20-17. Given:
C2 = (R1/R2)C1 (Eq. 20-12)
C2 = (1 kΩ/18 kΩ)3 pF Vin = 5 V
C2 = 0.167 pF R =1 kΩ
Answer: The speed-up capacitor should be at least Solution:

0.167 pF. Iin = Vin /R
Iin = 5 V/1 kΩ
20-13. Given: Iin = 5 mA
R1 = 1.5 kΩ
R2 = 68 kΩ Answer: The charging current is 5 mA.
Vsat = 13.5 V 20-18. Given:
Solution: Vin = 5 V
B = R1/(R1 + R2) (Eq. 20-4) R = 1 kΩ
B = 1.5 kΩ/(1.5 kΩ + 68 kΩ) C = 10 μF
B = 0.0216 T = 1 ms
UTP = BVsat (Eq. 20-6) Solution:

UTP = 0.0216(13.5 V) V = [T/(RC)]Vin (Eq. 20-13)
UTP = 0.292 V V = [1 ms/(1 kΩ)(10 μF)]5 V
V = 0.5 V
LTP = −BVsat (Eq. 20-7)
LTP = −0.0216(13.5 V) Answer: The output voltage is 0.5 V.
LTP = −0.292 V 20-19. Given:
H = 2BVsat (Eq. 20-9) Vin = 0.1 V
H = 2(0.0216)(13.5 V) R = 1 kΩ
H = 0.584 V C(1) = 0.1 μF
Answer: The upper trip point is 0.292 V, the lower trip C(2) = 1 μF
point is −0.292, and the hysteresis is 0.584 V. C(3) = 10 μF
C(4) = 100 μF
T = 1 ms
1-110
Solution: Solution:
V(1) = [T/(RC(1))]Vin (Eq. 20-13) vref = [R2/(R2 +R1)]VCC
V(1) = [1 ms/(1 kΩ)(0.1 μF)](0.1 V) vref = [10 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 5 kΩ)]15 V
V(1) = 1 V vref = 10 V
V(2) = [T/(RC(2))]Vin (Eq. 20-13) Since the reference voltage is the same as the maximum
V(2) = [1 ms/(1 kΩ)(1 μF)](0.1 V) voltage, the output does not go high and the duty cycle
V(2) = 0.1 V is 0%.
V(3) = [T/(RC(3))]Vin (Eq. 20-13) With the wiper at the top, the reference voltage is zero
V(3) = [1 ms/(1 kΩ)(10 μF)](0.1 V) and the output is high half of the time. Therefore, the duty
V(3) = 10 mV cycle is 0.50.
V(4) = [T/(RC(4))]Vin (Eq. 20-13) Answer: The duty cycle is 0.5 at the top and 0 at the
V(4) = [1 ms/(1 kΩ)(100 μF)](0.1 V) bottom.
V(4) = 1 mV
20-24. Given:
Answer: The output voltages are 1 V with a 0.1-μF capac- R1 = 5 kΩ
itor, 0.1 V with a 1-μF capacitor, 10 mV with a 10-μF R2 = 5 kΩ
capacitor, and 1 mV with a 100-μF capacitor. VCC = 15 V
20-20. Given: VP = 10 V
f = 10 kHz Solution:
R = 4.7 kHz vref = [R2/(R2 + R1)]VCC
C = 6.8 μF vref = [5 kΩ/(5 kΩ + 5 kΩ)]15 V
VP = 5 V vref = 7.5 V
Solution: D = (VP − vref)/(VP − (−VP))
Vout(p-p) = VP/[2fRC] (Eq. 20-17) D =(10 V − 7.5 V)/(10 V − (−10 V))
Vout(p-p) = 5 V/[2(10 kHz)(4.7 kΩ)(6.8 ΩF)] D = 0.125
Vout(p-p) = 7.8 mV Answer: The output is high for 1/8 the cycle, therefore the
Answer: The output voltage is a triangular wave with a duty cycle is 0.125.
peak-to-peak voltage of 7.8 mV. 20-25. Given:
20-21. Given: R1 = 33 kΩ
f = 10 kHz R2 = 4.7 kΩ
R = 4.7 kHz R = 2 kΩ
C = 0.068 μF C = 0.1 μF
VP = 5 V Solution:
Solution: B = R1/(R1 + R2) (Eq. 20-4)
Vout(p-p) = VP/[2fRC] (Eq. 20-17) B = 33 kΩ/(33 kΩ + 4.7 kΩ)
Vout(p-p) = VP/[2(10 kHz)(4.7 kΩ)(0.068 μF)] B = 0.875
Vout(p-p) = 0.782 Vp-p T = 2RCln[(1 + B)/(1 − B)] (Eq. 20-18)
Answer: The output voltage is a triangular waveform T = 2(2 kΩ)(0.1 μF)ln[(1+ 0.875)/(1 − 0.875)]
with a peak-to-peak voltage of 0.782 V. T = 1.08 ms
20-22. Given: f = 1/T
f = 1/1.08 ms
f(1) = 5 kHz f = 923 Hz
f(2) = 20 kHz
R = 4.7 kHz Answer: The frequency is 923 Hz.
C = 6.8 μF 20-26. Given:
VP = 5 V
R1 = 66 kΩ
Vout(p-p)1 = VP /[2fRC] (Eq. 20-17) R = 4 kΩ
Vout(p-p)1 = 5 V/[2(5 kHz)(4.7 kΩ)(6.8 μF)] C = 0.1 μF
Vout(p-p)1 = 15.6 mV Solution:
Vout(p-p)2 = VP /[2fRC] (Eq. 20-17) B = R1/(R1 + R2) (Eq. 20-4)
Vout(p-p)2 = 5 V/[2(20 kHz)(4.7 kΩ)(6.8 μF)] B = 66 kΩ/(66 kΩ + 9.4 kΩ)
Vout(p-p)2 = 3.9 mV B = 0.875
Answer: The output voltage is 15.6 mV at 5 kHz, and T = 2RCln[(1 + B)/(1 − B)] (Eq. 20-18)
3.9 mV at 20 kHz. T = 2(4 kΩ)(0.1 μF)ln[(1 + 0.875)/(1 − 0.875)]
20-23. Given: T = 2.16 ms
R1 = 5 kΩ f = 1/T
R2 = 0 Ω (top) and 10 kΩ (bottom) f = 1/2.16 ms
VCC = 15 V f = 463 Hz
VP = 10 V Answer: The frequency is reduced by half.
1-111
20-27. Given: 20-32. Given:
R1 = 33 kΩ RL = 33 kΩ
R2 = 4.7 kΩ C = 6.8 μF
R = 2 kΩ
Solution:
C = 0.47 μF
RLC > 10T (Eq. 20-20)
Solution: RLC = 10T for the highest period or lowest frequency
B = R1/(R1 + R2) (Eq. 20-4) [(33 kΩ)(6.8 μF)]/10 = T
B = 33 kΩ/(4.7 kΩ + 33 kΩ) T = 22.4 ms
B = 0.875
f = 1/T
T = 2RCln[(1 + B)/(1 − B)] (Eq. 20-18) f = 122.4 ms
T = 2(2 kΩ)(0.47 μF)ln[(1 + 0.875)/(1 − 0.875)] f = 45 Hz
T = 5.09 ms
Answer: The lowest frequency is 45 Hz.
f =1/T
20-33. Answer: With the diode reversed, it becomes a negative
f = 1/5.09 ms
peak detector and the output voltage is –106 mV.
f = 196 Hz
Answer: The frequency is 196 Hz. 20-34. Given: vin = 150 mV peak-to-peak
20-28. Given: Answer: The output voltage is 75 mV.
R1 = 2.2 kΩ 20-35. Given: vin = 100 mV peak
Vsat = 12 V vout = vin + V peak (Eq. 20-21)
Solution: vout = 100 mV peak + 100 mV peak
UTP = (R1/R2)Vsat (Eq. 20-10) vout = 200 mV peak
UTP = (2.2 kΩ/22 kΩ)12 V
UTP = 1.2 V Answer: The output swings from 0 V to 200 mV peak.
LTP = −(R1/R2)Vsat (Eq. 20-11) 20-36. Given:

LTP = −(2.2 kΩ/22 kΩ)12 V RL = 10 kΩ
LTP = −1.2 V C = 4.7 μF
H = UTP – LTP (Eq. 20-8) Solution:
H = 1.2 V − (−1.2 V) RLC > 10T (Eq. 20-20)
H = 2.4 V RLC = 10T for the highest period or lowest frequency
Answer: The upper trip point is 1.2 V, and the lower trip [(10 kΩ)(4.7 μF)]/10 = T
point is −1.2 V. The hysteresis is 2.4 V. T = 4.7 ms
20-29. Given: f = 1/T

f = 1/4.7 ms
f = 5 kHz f = 213 Hz
R3 = 2.2 kΩ
R4 = 22 kΩ Answer: The lowest frequency is 213 Hz.
C = 4.7 μF 20-37. Given: f = 10 kHz
Vp-p = 28 V
Vp = 14 V Solution:
1 Hz = 1 cycle/second
Solution:
10 kHz = 10,000 cycles/second or 10,000 cycles in
Vout(p-p) = VP/[2fR3C] (Eq. 20-17) 1 second
Vout(p-p) = 14 V/[2(5 kHz)(2.2 kΩ)(4.7 μF)]
Vout(p-p) = 135 mVp-p Each cycle has two transitions (low to high and high to
low); thus there are 2 pulses per cycle.
Answer: The output voltage is 135 mVp-p. 10,000 cycles in 1 second × 2 pulses/cycle = 20,000
20-30. Given: vin = 100 mVP pulses in 1 second.
Answer: The output will be a half-wave signal with a Answer: There are 20,000 pulses in 1 second.
peak voltage of 100 mV. 20-38. Given: f = 1 kHz
vin = 75 mVrms Since there are 2 pulses per cycle, a pulse occurs every
f = 20 kHz T/2.
Solution: T = 1/f
vin(p) = 1.414(vin(rms)) T = 1/1 kHz
vin(p) = 1.414(75 mVrms) T = 1 ms
vin(p) = 106 mV peak Answer: A pulse occurs every T/2 or 0.5 ms.
Answer: The output voltage is 106 mV.
1-112
CRITICAL THINKING R2(max) = 68 kΩ + 5%(68 kΩ) = 71.4 kΩ
R2(min) = 68 kΩ – 5%(68 kΩ) = 64.6 kΩ
20-39. Answer: Make the 3.3-kΩ resistor a variable so that it can
be adjusted to any desired value. B(min) = R1(min)/(R1(min) + R2(max)) (Eq. 20-4)
B(min) = 1425 Ω/(1425 Ω + 71.4 kΩ)
20-40. Given: B(min) = 0.0196
R = 1 kΩ H(min) = 2B(min) Vsat (Eq. 20-9)
C = 50 pF H(min) = 2(0.0196)(13.5 V)
Solution: Risetime is from the 10% point to the 90% point H(min) = 0.529 V
(discussed in Chap. 14). Using the universal time con- Answer: The minimum hysteresis is 0.529 V.
stant chart, it takes about 3 time constants to go from 10%
to 90%. 20-44. Given:
TR ≈ 2.2(RC) (Eq. 14-28) LTP = 3.5 V
TR ≈ 2.2(1 kΩ)(50 pF) UTP = 4.75 V
TR ≈ 110 ns vin(peak) = 10 V
Vsat = 12 V
Answer: The risetime is 110 ns.
Solution:
20-41. Given:
vin = vin(peak) sinθ
R1 = 33 kΩ θ = arcsin(vin/vin(peak))
R2 = 3.3 kΩ θ = arcsin(3.5 V/10 V)
C = 47 μF θ = 21° and 159°
Vripple = 1 Vrms
vin = vin(peak) sinθ
Solution: θ = arcsin(vin/vin(peak))
fC = 1/[2π(R1 || R2)C] (from Fig. 20-11) θ = arcsin(4.75 V/10 V)
fC = 1/[2π(33 kΩ || 3.3 kΩ)47 μF] θ = 28° and 152°
fC = 1.1 Hz
The output will be high from 21° to 28° and from 152° to
The power supply ripple is 120 Hz because rectification. 159°, or a total of 14°
This is 2 decades above the cutoff frequency. Since there D = conduction angle/360°
is one capacitor, the roll-off is 20 dB/decade. The input is D = 14°/360°
attenuated by 40 dB, equivalent to 0.01. D = 3.9%
3.3 kΩ
vtb = ______________ (1V) = 0.1V Answer: The duty cycle is 0.039 or 3.9%.
33 kΩ + 3.3 kΩ
vout = (0.01)(0.1 V) = 0.001 V 20-45. Given: With Eq. (20-13), the output voltage at the end of
the pulse is
Answer: The cutoff frequency is 1.1 Hz, and the ripple
voltage at the inverting input is 0.001 Vrms. V = [(1 ms)/(1 kΩ)(10 μF)](5 V) = 0.5 V
C = (T/RV)Vin
20-42. Given: C = [(1 ms)/(1 kΩ)(10 V)](5 V) = 0.5 μF
VCC = 15 V
The foregoing is for T = 1 ms. Therefore, we need
R1 = 33 kΩ
0.05 μF for T = 0.1 ms and 5 μF for T = 10 ms.
R2 = 3.3 kΩ
Answer: Switch in different capacitors of 0.05, 0.5, and
vin(peak) = 5 V
5 μF. Also, cascade an inverter to get a positive-going
vref = 1.36 V (from Prob. 20-9)
output.
θ = 16° and 164° (from Prob. 20-9)
20-46. Given:
D = 41% (from Prob. 20-9)
f = 20 kHz
Ihigh = V/R R2 = 4.7 kΩ
Ihigh = 5 V/1 kΩ
Solution:
Ihigh = 5 mA
B = R1/(R1 + R2) (Eq. 19-6)
Since the output is high only 41% of the time, the average B = 33 kΩ/(33 kΩ + 4.7 kΩ)
current is: B = 0.875
Iave = DIhigh
T = 1/f
Iave = (0.41)(5 mA)
T = 1/20 kHz
Iave = 2.05 mA
T = 50 μs
Answer: The average current is 2.05 mA.
T = 2RCln[(1 + B)/(1 − B)] (Eq. 20-18)
20-43. Given: C = T/2Rln[(1 + B)/(1 − B)]
R1 = 1.5 kΩ ± 5% C = 50 μs/2(2 kΩ)ln[(1 + 0.875)/(1 − 0.875)]
R2 = 68 kΩ ± 5% C = 4.6 nF
Vsat = 13.5 V Answer: Change the capacitor to 4.7 nF.
Solution:
R1(max) = 1.5 kΩ + 5%(1.5 kΩ) = 1575 Ω
R1(min) = 1.5 kΩ – 5%(1.5 kΩ) = 1425 Ω
1-113
20-47. Given: 20-59. U1 has failed
R1 = 2.2 kΩ 20-60. The trip point has changed from −10 V to −7.3 V
R2 = 82 kΩ
Vsat = 14 V
Solution: Chapter 21 Oscillators
UTP = (R1/R2) Vsat (Eq. 20-10)
SELF-TEST
UTP = (2.2 kΩ/82 kΩ)14 V
UTP = 0.376 V 1. a 9. a 17. b 25. a
2. b 10. b 18. d 26. d
H = 2 UTP = 0.751 V 3. a 11. b 19. b 27. c
R1 = 1/0.751 (2.2 kΩ) = 2.93 kΩ 4. c 12. d 20. d 28. b
Use nearest standard value of 3 kΩ. 5. b 13. c 21. b 29. d
To increase hysteresis to 1 V, increase R1 by a factor of 6. a 14. b 22. a 30. d
1 V/0.751 V, to get R1 ≅ 3 kΩ. For a safety factor, use 7. c 15. a 23. d 31. a
R1 = 3.3 kΩ. 8. d 16. b 24. B 32. d
33. c
Answer: Increase R1 to 3.3 kΩ.
20-48. Answer: Use a window comparator with an upper trip JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
point of 5 V and a lower trip point of −5 V.
5. The monostable timer has pins 6 and 7 connected together
20-49. Answer: Use a comparator with hysteresis and a light- and is externally triggered, whereas the astable timer has
dependent resistor in a voltage divider as the input. a resistor between pins 6 and 7 and requires no external
20-50. Answer: Rectify the incoming signal and send it to a com- trigger.
parator. When the input drops below the reference output, 8. There must be an unwanted positive feedback path between
the alarm sounds. the output and the input of the three-stage amplifier. Low-
frequency oscillations may be caused by the high powersup-
20-51. Given: ply impedance. You can try using a large filter capacitor at
Vin = 5 V the supply point for each stage. If this docs not work, then
R = 1 MΩ a power supply with better regulation is needed. For high-
C = 10 μF frequency oscillations, you can try shielding the stages, using
V = 1.23 V a single ground point, filter capacitors on each stage supply,
and ferrite beads on each base or gate lead.
Solution:
V = [T/(RC)]Vin (Eq. 20-13)
T = (V/Vin)RC PROBLEMS
T = (1.23 V/5 V)(1 M Ω)(10 μF) 21-1. Given: Rf = 1 kΩ
T = 2.46 s Solution: The oscillator becomes stable with a lamp
(2.46 s)186,000 miles/s = 457,560 miles for a round trip. resistance of 500 Ω and from the graph a lamp voltage
Therefore, the distance is half this amount: 228,780 miles. of 3 Vrms.
Answer: The moon is 228,780 miles away. IL = 3 V/500 Ω
IL = 6 mA
20-52. Answer:
Vout = IL(Rf + RL)
Trouble 1: The positive clamper circuit is the trouble. Vout = 6 mA(1 kΩ + 500 Ω)
Trouble 2: The integrator circuit is the trouble. Vout = 9 Vrms
20-53. Answer: Answer: The output voltage is 9 Vrms.
Trouble 3: The relaxation oscillator circuit is the trouble. 21-2. Given:
Trouble 4: The peak detector circuit is the trouble. C = 200 pF
Rmin = 2 kΩ
Trouble 5: The positive clamper circuit is the trouble. Rmax = 24 kΩ
20-54. Answer: Solution:
Trouble 6: The comparator circuit is the trouble. fr(max) = 1/[2πRminC] (Eq. 21-4)
Trouble 7: The integrator circuit is the trouble. fr(max) = 1/[2π(2 kΩ)(200 pF)]
fr(max) = 398 kHz
20-55. Answer:
Trouble 8: The peak detector circuit is the trouble. fr(min) = 1/[2πRmaxC] (Eq. 21-4)
fr(min) = 1/[2π(24 kΩ)(200 pF)]
Trouble 9: The integrator circuit is the trouble. fr(min) = 33.2 kHz
Trouble 10: The comparator circuit is the trouble. Answer: The maximum frequency is 398 kHz, and the
20-56. C4 is open minimum frequency is 33.2 kHz.
20-57. D1 is shorted 21-3a. Given:

C = 0.2 μF
20-58. D2 is open Rmin = 2 kΩ
Rmax = 24 kΩ
1-114
Solution: 21-5. Given: Maximum frequency is 398 kHz, from Prob. 21-3.
fr(max) = 1/[2πRminC] (Eq. 21-4) Solution: 1 decade above 398 kHz is 3.98 MHz.
fr(max) = 1/[2π(2 kΩ)(0.2 μF)] Answer: The cutoff frequency is 3.98 MHz.
fr(max) = 398 Hz
21-6. Given:
fr(min) = 1/[2πRmaxC] (Eq. 21-4)
fr(min) = 1/[2π(24 kΩ)(0.2 μF)] R = 10 kΩ
fr(min) = 33.2 Hz C = 0.01 μF
Answer: The maximum frequency is 398 Hz, and the Solution:

minimum frequency is 33.2 Hz. fr = 1/[2πRC] (Eq. 21-4)
fr = 1/[2π(10 kΩ)(0.01 μF)]
21-3b. Given: fr = 1.59 kHz
C = 0.02 μF
Rmin = 2 kΩ Answer: The resonant frequency is 1.59 kHz.
Rmax = 24 kΩ 21-7. Given:
Solution: R = 20 kΩ
fr(max) = 1/[2πRminC] (Eq. 21-4) C = 0.02 μF
fr(max) = 1/[2π (2 kΩ)(0.02 μF)] Solution:
fr(max) = 3.98 kHz fr = 1/[2πRC] (Eq. 21-4)
fr(min) = 1/[2πRmaxC] (Eq. 21-4) fr = 1/[2π(20 kΩ)(0.02 μF)]
fr(min) = 1/[2π (24 kΩ)(0.02 μF)] fr = 398 Hz
fr(min) = 332 Hz Answer: The resonant frequency is 398 Hz.
Answer: The maximum frequency is 3.98 kHz, and the 21-8. Given:
minimum frequency is 332 kHz.
R1 = 10 kΩ
21-3c. Given: R2 = 5 kΩ
C = 0.002 μF RE = 1 kΩ
Rmin = 2 kΩ VBE = 0.7 V
Rmax = 24 kΩ VCC = 12 V
Solution: Solution:
fr(max) = 1/[2πRminC] (Eq. 21-4) VB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC
fr(max) = 1/[2π(2 kΩ)(0.002 μF)] VB = [5 kΩ/(10 kΩ + 5 kΩ)]12 V
fr(max) = 39.8 kHz VB = 4 V
fr(min) = 1/[2πRmaxC] (Eq. 21-4) VE = VB − VBE
fr(min) = 1/[2π(24 kΩ)(0.002 μF)] VE = 4 V – 0.7 V
fr(min) = 3.32 kHz VE = 3.3 V
Answer: The maximum frequency is 39.8 kHz, and the IE = VE/RE
minimum frequency is 3.32 kHz. IE = 3.3 V/1 kΩ
IE = 3.3 mA
21-3d. Given:
C = 200 pF Since the RF choke is a short to direct current, the
Rmin = 2 kΩ collector voltage is 12 V.
Rmax = 24 kΩ VCE = VC – VE
VCE = 12 V – 3.3 V
Solution: VCE = 8.7 V
fr(max) = 1/[2πRminC] (Eq. 21-4)
fr(max) = 1/[2π(2 kΩ)(200 pF)] Answer: The emitter current is 3.3 mA, and the collector-
fr(max) = 398 kHz to-emitter voltage is 8.7 V.
fr(min) = 1/[2πRmaxC] (Eq. 21-4) 21-9. Given:

fr(min) = 1/[2π(24 kΩ)(200 pF)] C1 = 0.001 μF
fr(min) = 33.2 kHz C2 = 0.01 μF
L = 10 μH
Answer: The maximum frequency is 398 kHz, and the
minimum frequency is 33.2 kHz. Solution:
21-4. Given: C = C1C2/(C1 + C2) (Eq. 21-6)
C = (0.001 μF)(0.01 μF)/(0.001 μF + 0.01 μF)
Vout = 6 Vrms C = 909 pF
Rf = 2Rlamp ___
fr = 1/(2π√______________
LC ) (Eq.21-5)
Solution: Since the lamp resistance is one-third of the fr = 1/(2π√ (10 μH)(909 pF) )
total resistance, its voltage will be one-third of the total fr = 1.67 MHz
voltage, or 2 Vrms. According to the graph, the lamp resis-
tance would be 350 Ω, so the feedback resistor would B = C1/C2 (Eq. 21-7)
need to be twice that, or 700 Ω. B = 0.001 μF/0.01 μF
B = 0.10
Answer: Change the feedback resistor to 700 Ω.
1-115
Av(min) = C2/C1 (Eq. 21-8) 21-15. Given:
Av(min) = 0.01 μF/0.001 μF M = 0.1 μH
Av(min) = 10 L = 3.3 μH
Answer: The frequency is 1.67 MHz, the feedback Solution:
fraction is 0.10, and the minimum gain is 10.
B = M/L (Eq. 21-14)
21-10. Given: B = 0.1 μH/3.3 μH
C1 = 0.001 μF B = 0.030
C2 = 0.01 μF Av(min) = L/M
Solution: Av(min) = 3.3 μH/0.1 μH
Av(min) = 33
B = C1/(C1 + C2)
B = 0.001 μF/(0.001 μF + 0.01 μF) Answer: The feedback fraction is 0.03, and the minimum
B = 0.091 gain is 33.
Answer: The feedback fraction is 0.091. 21-16. Given: f = 5 MHz
21-11. Given: Answer: The first overtone is 10 MHz, the second over-
tone is 15 MHz, and the third overtone is 20 MHz.
C1 = 0.001 μF
C2 = 0.01 μF 21-17. Answer: Since the frequency is inversely proportional to
L = 20 μH thickness, if thickness is reduced by 1% the frequency
will increase by 1%.
Solution:
C = C1C2/(C1 + C2) (Eq. 21-6) 21-18. Given:
C = (0.001 μF)(0.01 μF)/(0.001 μF + 0.01 μF) L=1H
C = 909 pF Cs = 0.01 pF
___
fr = 1/(2π√ LC ) (Eq.21-5) R = 1 kΩ
______________ Cm = 20 pF
fr = 1/(2π√ (20 μH)(909 pF) )
fr = 1.18 MHz Solution:
____
Answer: The frequency is 1.18 MHz. fs = 1/[2π√____________
LCs ] (Eq.21-20)
21-12. Answer: Reduce the inductance by a factor of 4 (since fs = 1/[2π√ (1 H)(0.01 pF) ]
there is a square root in the denominator). fs = 1.5915 MHz
21-13. Given: Cp = CmCs/(Cm + Cs) (Eq. 21-21)

Cp = (20 pF)(0.01 pF)/(20 pF + 0.01 pF)
C1 = 0.001 μF Cp = 0.009995 pF
C2 = 0.01 μF ____
C3 = 47 pF fp = 1/[2π√LCp ] (Eq.21-22)
________________
L = 10 μH fp = 1/[2π√(1 H)(0.009995 pF) ]
Solution: fp = 1.5919 MHz
____
fr = 1/(2π√_____________
LC3 ) (Eq.21-18) XL = 2πfL
fr = 1/(2π√ (10 μH)(47 pF) ) XL = 2π (1.5915 MHz)(1 H)
fr = 7.34 MHz XL = 10 MΩ
Answer: The frequency is 7.34 MHz. Q = XL/R
Q = 10 MΩ/1 kΩ
21-14. Given:
Q = 10,000
L1 = 1 μH
L2 = 0.2 μH Answer: The series frequency is 1.5915 MHz, the parallel
C = 1000 pF frequency is 1.5919 MHz, and the Q is 10,000.

B = L2/L1 (Eq. 21-16) R = 10 kΩ
B = 0.2 μH/1 μH C = 0.047 μF
B = 0.2 Solution:
L = L1 + L2 W = 1.1RC (Eq. 21-25)
L = 1 μH + 0.2 μH W = 1.1(10 kΩ)(0.047 μF)
L = 1.2 μH W = 517 μs
___
fr = 1/[2π√_______________
LC ] (Eq. 21-5) Answer: The pulse width is 517 μs.
fr = 1/[2π√ (1.2 μH)(1000 pF) ]
21-20. Given:
fr = 4.59 MHz
VCC = 10 V
Av(min) = L1/L2 R = 2.2 kΩ
Av(min) = 1 μH/0.2 μH C = 0.2 μF
Av(min) = 5
Answer: The frequency is 4.59 MHz, the feedback frac-
tion is 0.2, and the minimum gain is 5.
1-116
Solution: Wmax = −RCln(1 − UTPmax/VCC) (Eq. 21-34)
LTP = VCC/3 (Eq. 21-24) Wmax = −(5.1 kΩ)(1 nF)ln[1 − (8.17 V/10 V)]
LTP = 10 V/3 Wmax = 8.66 μs
LTP = 3.33 V Wmin = −RCln(1 − UTPmin/VCC) (Eq. 21-34)
UTP = 2VCC/3 (Eq. 21-23) Wmin = −(5.1 kΩ)(1 nF)ln[1 − (5.17 V/10 V)]
UTP = 2(10 V)/3 Wmin = 3.71 μs
UTP = 6.67 V Dmax = Wmax/T
W = 1.1RC (Eq. 21-25) Dmax = 8.66 μs/100 μs
W = 1.1(2.2 kΩ)(0.2 μF) Dmax = 0.0866
W = 484 μs Dmin = Wmin/T
Answer: The minimum trigger voltage is 3.33 V, the Dmin = 3.71 μs/100 μs
maximum capacitor voltage is 6.67V, and the pulse width Dmin = 0.0371
is 484 μs. Answer: The period is 100 μs, the quiescent pulse width
21-21. Given: is 5.61 μs, the maximum pulse width is 8.66 μs, the mini-
mum pulse width is 3.71 μs, the maximum duty cycle is
R1 = 10 kΩ 0.0866, and the minimum duty cycle is 0.0371.
R2 = 2 kΩ
C = 0.0022 μF 21-24. Given:
Solution: VCC = 10 V
R1 = 1.2 kΩ
1.44
f = __________ (Eq. 21-28)
(R1 + 2R2)C R2 = 1.5 kΩ
f= 1.44
_________________________ C = 4.7 nF
[10 kΩ + 2(2 kΩ)](0.0022 μF) vmod = 1.5 V
f = 46.8 kHz
Solution:
Answer: The frequency is 46.8 kHz. W = 0.693(R1 + R2)C (Eq. 21-26)
21-22. Given: W = 0.693(1.2 kΩ + 1.5 kΩ)(4.7 nF)
W = 8.79 μs
R1 = 20 kΩ
R2 = 10 kΩ T = 0.693(R1 + 2R2)C (Eq. 21-27)
C = 0.047 μF T = 0.693[1.2 kΩ + 2(1.5 kΩ)](4.7 nF)
T = 13.68 μs
Solution:
1.44 UTPmax = 2VCC/3 + vmod (Eq. 21-35)
f = __________ (Eq.21-18)
(R1 + 2R2)C UTPmax = 2(10 V)/3 + 1.5 V
f= 1.44
_________________________ UTPmax = 8.17 V
[20 kΩ + 2(10 kΩ)](0.047 μF)
f = 766 Hz UTPmin = 2VCC/3 − vmod (Eq. 21-35)
UTPmin = 2(10 V)/3 – 1.5 V
D = (R1 + R2)/(R1 + 2R2) (Eq. 21-29) UTPmin = 5.17 V
D = (20 kΩ + 10 kΩ)/[20 kΩ + 2(10 kΩ)]
D = 0.75 Wmax = – (R1 + R2)C1n[(VCC − UTPmax)/(VCC – 0.5 UTPmax)]
(Eq. 21-36)
Answer: The frequency is 766 Hz, and the duty cycle is Wmax = – {[(1.2 kΩ + 1.5 kΩ)(4.7 nF)]ln[(10 – 8.17 V)/
0.750. (10 V) – 0.5(8.17 V)]}
21-23. Given: Wmax = 14.89 μs
Wmin = – (R1 + R2)C1n[(VCC – UTPmin)/(VCC – 0.5 UTPmin)]
VCC = 10 V
(Eq. 21-36)
R = 5.1 kΩ
Wmin = –{[(1.2 kΩ + 1.5 kΩ)(4.7 nF)]ln[(10 – 5.17 V)/
C = 1 nF
(10 V) – 0.5(5.17 V)]}
f = 10 kHz
Wmin = 5.44 μs
vmod = 1.5 V
Space = 0.693R2C
Solution:
Space = 0.693(1.5 kΩ)(4.7 nF)
T = 1/f Space = 4.89 μs
T = 1/10 kHz
T = 100 μs Answer: The quiescent pulse width is 8.79 μs, the qui-
escent period is 13.68 μs, the maximum pulse width is
W = 1.1RC (Eq. 21-25) 14.89 μs, the minimum pulse width is 5.44 μs, and the
W = 1.1(5.1 kΩ)(1 nF) space between pulses is 4.89 μs.
W = 5.61 μs
21-25. Given:
UTPmax = 2VCC /3 + vmod (Eq. 21-35)
IC = 0.5 mA
UTPmax = 2(10 V)/3 + 1.5 V
VCC = 10 V
UTPmax = 8.17 V
C = 47 nF
UTPmin = 2VCC /3 − vmod (Eq. 21-35)
Solution:
UTPmin = 2(10 V)/3 − 1.5 V
UTPmin = 5.17 V S = IC/C (Eq. 21-40)
S = 0.5 mA/47 nF
S = 10.6 V/ms
1-117
V = 2VCC/3 (Eq. 21-41) 21-29c. Same. The upper potentiometer affects frequency, not
V = 2(10 V)/3 output voltage.
V = 6.67 V
21-29d. Same. Unless the supply falls low enough for clipping.
T = 2VCC/3S (Eq. 21-42)
23-29e. Same. Only a very small change at the output.
T = 2(10 V)/3(10.6 V/ms)
T = 0.629 ms 21-30. Answer:
Answer: The slope is 10.6 V/ms, the peak value is 6.67 V, 1. Shorted inductor
and the duration is 0.629 ms. 2. Open inductor
3. Shorted capacitors
21-26. Given: 4. Open capacitors
S1 = Closed 5. Open in the feedback path
R = 20 kΩ 6. Loss of the power supply
R3 = 40 kΩ
21-31. Answer: The fuzz is probably oscillations. To correct this,
C = 0.1 μF
make sure that the leads are short and are not running
Solution: really close to each other. Also, a ferrite bead in the feed-
The waveform is a sine wave. back path may dampen them out.
f0 = 1/RC (Eq. 21-31)
f0 = 1/(20 kΩ)(0.1 μF) CRITICAL THINKING
f0 = 500 Hz
21-32. Given:
Amplitude = 2.4 Vp (from Fig. 21-53c)
Amplitude = 4.8 Vp-p f = 20 Hz to 20 kHz
Vout = 5 Vrms
Answer: The output is a sine wave at a frequency of Rmin = 2.2 kΩ
500 Hz and a peak voltage of 2.4 V.
Solution: One of many possible designs is C = 0.22 μF,
21-27. Given: 0.022 μF, and 0.0022 μF. Change 2 kΩ in Fig. 21-53a to
S1 = Open 3.3 kΩ and use a 50-kΩ potentiometer. Use a 1-kΩ poten-
R = 10 kΩ tiometer in the place of the 1 kΩ in series with the lamp.
R3 = 40 kΩ Adjust 1 kΩ to get an output of 5 V.
C = 0.01 μF
21-33. Given:
Solution: f = 2.5 MHz
The waveform is a triangle wave. C1 = 0.001 μF
f0 = 1/RC (Eq. 21-31) C2 = 0.01 μF
f0 = 1/(10 kΩ)(0.01 μF) C = 909 pF (from Prob. 21-9)
f0 = 10 kHz
Solution:
Amplitude = 5 Vp (from Fig. 21-53c) ___
fr = 1/(2π√ LC ) (Eq. 21-5)
Amplitude = 10 Vp-p L = [1/(2πfr)]2/C
Answer: The output is a triangle wave at a frequency of L = {1/[2π (2.5 MHz)]2/(909 pF)}
10 kHz and a peak voltage of 5 V. L = 4.46 μH
21-28. Given: Answer: The inductor would have to be 4.46 μH.
R1 = 2 kΩ 21-34. Given:
R2 = 10 kΩ C = 0.001 μF
C = 0.1 μF R1 = 10 kΩ
R3 = 5 kΩ
f = __
(
2 _______
1
C R1 + R2 ) f2(CL) = 15.9 kHz
2
f = ______ ( 1
____________
0.1 μF 2 kΩ + 10 kΩ ) Solution:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
f = 1.67 kHz
XC = 1/[2π (15.9 kHz)(0.001 μF)]
D = R1/(R1 + R2) XC = 10 kΩ
D = 2 kΩ/(2 kΩ + 10 kΩ)
ϕ = −arctan(R/XC)
D = 0.167
ϕ = −arctan(10 kΩ/10 kΩ)
Answer: The frequency is 1.67 kHz, and the duty cycle ϕ = −45°
is 0.167.
Below its critical frequency, the op amp has 180° of
21-29a. Decrease. With the lamp open, there is no path for feed- phase shift. At 15.9 kHz, the op amp has an additional
back current. Thus the voltage at the inverting terminal phase shift of 90° because it is well above its critical fre-
will equal the output voltage and it should be driven quency. This means that the op amp has approximately
to 0 V. 270° of phase shift at 15.9 kHz. Each lag circuit has a
21-29b. Increase. With the inverting input grounded, there is no phase shift of 45° at 15.9 kHz. Therefore, the total or
feedback and the gain is open-loop gain and the output loop phase shift is 270° plus 45° plus 45°, or 360°.
will be saturation.
1-118
21-35. Given: PROBLEMS
f = 1 kHz 22-1. Given:
D = 0.75
VNL = 15 V
Solution: VFL = 14.5 V
Pick a value for R1 = 10 kΩ. Solution:
D = (R1 + R2)/(R1 + 2R2) (Eq. 21-29)
Load regulation = (VNL − VFL)/VFL × 100%
D(R1 + 2R2) = (R1 + R2)
Load regulation = (15 V − 14.5 V)/14.5 V × 100%
DR1 + 2DR2 = R1 + R2 Load regulation = 3.45%
2DR2 − R2 = R1 − DR1
R2(2D − 1) = (R1 − DR1) Answer: The load regulation is 3.45%.
R2 = (R1 − DR1)/(2D − 1) 22-2. Given:
R2 = [10 kΩ − 0.75(10 kΩ)]/[2(0.75) − 1]
R2 = 5 kΩ VHL = 20 V
VLL = 19 V
f = 1.44/[(R1 + 2R2)C] (Eq. 21-28)
C = 1.44/[(R1 + 2R2)f] Solution:
C = 1.44/{[(10 kΩ + (2)(5 kΩ)(1 kHz)]} Line regulation = (VHL − VLL)/VLL × 100%
C = 72 nF Line regulation = (20 V − 19 V)/19 V × 100%
Line regulation = 5.26%
Answer: R1 is 10 kΩ , R2 is 5 kΩ , and the capacitor is
72 nF. Answer: The line regulation is 5.26%.
21-36. C1 is shorted 22-3. Given:
21-37. VCC has failed VHL = 12.3 V
VLL = 12 V
21-38. U1 has failed
Solution:
21-39. R2 is shorted
Line regulation = (VHL − VLL)/VLL × 100%
21-40. R1 is 1 kΩ instead of 75 kΩ (Eq. 22-2)
21-41. Sinewave Line regulation = (12.3 V − 12 V)/12 V × 100%
Line regulation = 2.5%
21-42. 10 Hz
Answer: The line regulation is 2.5%.
21-43. VR7 = 1.8 kΩ
22-4. Given:
21-44. VR5 and VR8 RTH = 2 Ω
21-45. Output of pin 11 to Q3 RL(min) = 50 Ω
Solution:
Load regulation = RTH/RL(min) × 100%
Chapter 22 Regulated Power Load regulation = (2 Ω/50 Ω) × 100%
Supplies Load regulation = 4%
Answer: The load regulation is 4%.
SELF-TEST 22-5. Given:
1. a 11. c 21. c 30. d Vin = 25 V
2. b 12. b 22. b 31. c RS = 22 Ω
3. b 13. b 23. a 32. a VZ = 18 V
4. b 14. b 24. a 33. a VBE = 0.75 V
5. c 15. a 25. b 34. c RL = 100 Ω
6. a 16. c 26. a 35. a
7. c 17. b 27. c 36. c Solution:
8. c 18. d 28. d 37. b Vout = VZ + VBE (Eq. 22-5)
9. b 19. c 29. b 38. d Vout = 18 V + 0.75 V
10. a 20. a Vout = 18.75 V
IS = (Vin − Vout)/RS (Fig. 22-4)
JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IS = (25 V − 18.75 V)/22 Ω
6. The first is a member of the LM78XX family and is a pos- IS = 484 mA
itive voltage regulator with an output voltage of 6 V. The sec- IL = Vout/RL
ond is a member of the LM79XX family and is a negative IL = 18.75 V/100 Ω
voltage regulator with an output voltage of −12 V. IL = 187.5 mA
10. Thermal shutdown means that the chip automatically shuts
IC = IS − IL
itself off when it overheats.
IC = 284 mA − 187.5 mA
IC = 96.5 mA
Answer: The output voltage is 18.75 V, the input current
is 484 mA, the load current is 187.5 mA, and the collector
current is 96.5 mA.
1-119
22-6. Given: IL = Vout/RL
Vin = 25 V IL = 16.9 V/50 Ω
RS = 15 Ω IL = 339 mA
VZ = 5.6 V PD = (Vin − Vout)IL (Fig. 22-8)
VBE = 0.77 V PD = (20 V − 16.9 V) 336 mA
RL = 80 Ω PD = 1.05 W
R1 = 330 Ω
R2 = 680 Ω Answer: The output voltage is 16.9 V, and the power dis-
sipation is 1.05 W.
Solution:
22-9. Given:
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1](VZ + VBE) (Eq. 22-6)
Vout = [(330 Ω + 680 Ω)/330 Ω](5.6 V + 0.77 V) Vin = 20 V
Vout = 19.5 V Vout = 16.9 V (from Prob. 22-8)
IS = (Vin − Vout)/RS (Fig. 22-4) Solution:
IS = (25 V – 19.5 V)/15 Ω Efficiency = Vout /Vin × 100% (Eq. 22-13)
IS = 367 mA Efficiency = 16.9 V/20 V × 100%
IL = Vout/RL Efficiency = 84.5%
IL = 19.5 V/80 Ω Answer: The efficiency is 84.5%.
IL = 244 mA
22-10. Given:
IC = IS − IL
IC = 367 mA − 244 mA VZ = 6.2 V
IC = 123 mA RL = 4 Ω
R1 = 2.7 kΩ
Answer: The output voltage is 19.5 V, the input current R2 = 2.2 kΩ
is 367 mA, the load current is 244 mA, and the collector
current is 123 mA. Solution:
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1](VZ) (Eq. 22-14)
22-7. Given: Vout = [(2.7 kΩ + 2.2 kΩ)/2.7 kΩ](6.2 V)
Vin = 25 V Vout = 11.25 V≈ 11.3 V
RS = 8.2 Ω
VZ = 5.6 V Answer: The output voltage is 11.25 V≈ 11.3 V.
RL = 50 Ω 22-11. Given:
R1 = 2.7 kΩ VZ = 4.7 V
R2 = 6.2 kΩ Vin(max) = 30 V
Solution: R3 = 820 Ω
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1]VZ (Eq. 22-7) Solution:
Vout = [(2.7 kΩ + 6.2 kΩ)/2.7 kΩ]5.6 V IZ(max) = (Vin(max) − VZ)/R3
Vout = 18.46 V IZ(max) = (30 V − 4.7 V)820 Ω
IS = (Vin − Vout)/RS (Fig. 22-6) IZ(max) = 30.9 mA
IS = (25 V − 18.46 V)/8.2 Ω Answer: The maximum zener current is 30.9 mA.
IS = 798 mA
22-12. Given:
IL = Vout/RL (Fig. 22-6)
IL = 18.46 V/50 Ω VZ = 4.7 V
IL = 369 mA Radj = 1.5 kΩ
R1(min) = 750 Ω
IC = IS − IL (Fig. 22-6) R1(max) = 2.25 kΩ
IC = 798 mA − 369 mA R2(min) = 750 Ω
IC = 429 mA R2(max) = 2.25 kΩ
Answer: The output voltage is 18.46 V, the input current Solution:
is 798 mA, the load current is 369 mA, and the collector
Vout(max) = [(R1(min) + R2(max))/R1(min)]VZ (Eq. 22-14)
current is 429 mA.
Vout(max) = [(750 Ω + 2.25 kΩ)/750 Ω](4.7 V)
22-8. Given: Vout(max) =18.8 V
Vin = 20 V Vout(min) = [(R1(max) + R2(min))/R1(max)]VZ (Eq. 22-14)
VZ = 4.7 V Vout(min) = [(2.2 kΩ + 750 Ω)/2.25 k Ω](4.7 V)
VBE = 0.77 V Vout(min) = 6.27 V
RL = 50 Ω
R1 = 2.2 kΩ Answer: The maximum output voltage is 18.8 V, and the
R2 = 4.7 kΩ minimum is 6.27 V.
R3 = 1.5 kΩ 22-13. Given:
R4 = 2.7 kΩ
Vout(reg) = 10 V
Solution: R4 = 3 Ω
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1](VZ + VBE) (Fig. 22-8)
Vout = [(2.2 kΩ + 4.7 kΩ)/2.2 kΩ](4.7 V + 0.7 V)
Vout = 16.9 V
1-120
Solution: Solution:
The current limiting starts at a VBE of 0.6 V. Maximum efficiency = (Vout/Vin(min)) × 100%
IL = 0.6 V/R4 (Eq. 22-13)
IL = 0.6 V/3 Ω Maximum efficiency = (15 V/18 V) × 100%
IL = 200 mA Maximum efficiency = 83.3%
RL = Vout(reg)/IL Minimum efficiency = (Vout/Vin(max)) × 100%
RL = 10 V/200 mA (Eq. 22-13)
RL = 50 Ω Minimum efficiency = (15 V/25 V) × 100%
Minimum efficiency = 60%
ISL = 0.7 V/R4
ISL = 0.7 V/3 Ω Answer: The maximum efficiency is 83.3%, and the min-
ISL = 233 mA imum efficiency is 60%.
Answer: Current limiting starts at a load resistance of 22-18. Given:
50 Ω and the short-circuit current is 233 mA. Vout = 12 V
22-14. Given: Vin = 5 V
Iout = 0.25 A
Vout = 15 V
Iin = 1 A
Vin = 20 V
RL = 20 Ω Solution:
Solution: Pout = VoutIout
Pout = (12 V)(0.25 A)
IL = Vout/RL
Pout = 3 W
IL = 15 V/20 Ω
IL = 750 mA Pin = VinIin
Pin = (5 V)(1 A)
Headroom voltage = Vin − Vout (Eq. 22-11)
Pin = 5 W
Headroom voltage = 20 V − 15 V
Headroom voltage = 5 V Efficiency = Pout/Pin × 100%
Efficiency = 3 W/5 W × 100%
PD = (Headroom voltage)(IL) (Eq. 22-12)
Efficiency = 60%
PD = (5 V)(750 mA)
PD = 3.75 W Answer: The efficiency is 60%.
Answer: The load current is 750 mA, the headroom volt- 22-19. Given:
age is 5 V, and the power dissipation is 3.75 W. Vout = 5 V
22-15. Given: Vin = 12 V
Iin = 2 A
f = 120 Hz
Efficiency is 80%
C = 4700 μF
IL = 750 mA (from Prob. 22-14) Solution:
RRdB = 70 dB (from Table 22-1) Pin = VinIin
Solution: Pin = 12 V(2 A)
Pin = 24 W
VR(in) = IL/fC (Eq. 4-10)
VR(in) = 750 mA/[(120 Hz)(4700 μF)] Efficiency = Pout/Pin × 100%
VR(in) = 1.33 V (Efficiency/100%)Pin = Pout
Pout = (80%/100%)24 W
RR = antilog(RRdB/20)
Pout = 19.2 W
RR = antilog(70 dB/20)
Pout = VoutIout
RR = 3162
Iout = Pout/Vout
VR(out) = VR(in)/RR
Iout = 19.2 W/5 V
VR(out) = 1.33 V/3162
Iout = 3.84 A
VR(out) = 421 μV
Answer: The output current is 3.84 A.
Answer: The output ripple voltage is 421 μV.
22-20. Given:
22-16. Given:
R1 = 1.5 kΩ
R1 = 2.7 kΩ
R2 = 10 kΩ
R2 = 20 kΩ
Vref = 2.5 V
Solution:
Solution:
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1](1.25 V) (Eq. 22-19)
Vout = [(R1 +R2)/R1](Vref) (Eq. 22-22)
Vout = [(2.7 kΩ + 20 kΩ)/2.7 kΩ](1.25 V)
Vout = [(1.5 kΩ + 10 kΩ)/1.5 kΩ](2.5 V)
Vout = 10.5 V
Vout = 19.2 V
22-17. Given:
22-21. Given:
Vout = 15 V
D = 30%
Vin(min) = 18 V
Vin = 20 V
Vin(min) = 25 V
1-121
Solution: 22-26. Answer: Since the output current and voltage are essen-
Vout = DVin (Eq. 22-21) tially constant, it is logical to assume (since the input
Vout = (0.3)(20 V) voltage is essentially constant) that the input current is
Vout = 6 V essentially constant. If the capacitor is supplying a con-
stant current, it should discharge at a linear rate.
22-27. Given:
22-22. Given:
Load regulation is 5%
R1 = 1.2 kΩ
VNL = 12.5 V
R2 = 15 kΩ
Vref = 1.25 V Solution:
Solution: Load regulation = (VNL − VFL)/VFL × 100% (Eq. 22-1)
Load regulation/100% = (VNL − VFL)/VFL
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1](Vref) (Eq. 22-22)
VFL(load regulation/100%) = VNL − VFL
Vout = [(1.2 kΩ + 15 kΩ)/1.2 kΩ](1.25 V)
VFL(load regulation/100%) + VFL = VNL
Vout = 16.9 V
VFL[(load regulation/100%) + 1] = VNL
Answer: The output voltage is 16.9 V. VFL = VNL/[(load regulation/100%) + 1]
VFL = 12.5 V/[(5%/100%) + 1]
22-23. Given:
VFL = 11.9 V
R1 = 2.1 kΩ
R2 = 12 kΩ Answer: The full load voltage is 11.9 V.
Vref = 2.1 V 22-28. Given:
Solution: Line regulation is 3%
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1](Vref) (Eq. 22-22) VLL = 16 V
Vout = [(2.1 kΩ + 12 kΩ)/2.1 kΩ](2.1 V) Solution:
Vout = 14.1 V
Line regulation = (VHL − VLL)/VLL × 100% (Eq. 22-2)
Answer: The output voltage is 14.1 V. Line regulation/100% = (VHL − VLL)/VLL
VLL(line regulation/100%) = VHL − VLL
CRITICAL THINKING VLL(line regulation/100%) + VLL = VHL
VLL[(line regulation/100%) + 1] = VHL
22-24. Given: VHL = 16 V/[(3%/100%) + 1]
R1 = 240 Ω VHL = 16.48 V
R2 = 0 to 5 kΩ Answer: The high line voltage is 16.48 V.
Vin = 30 V
22-29. Given:
Solution:
Load regulation = 1%
Vout(min) = [(R1 + R2)/R1]1.25 (Eq. 22-19) RL(min) = 10 Ω
Vout(min) = [(240 Ω + 5 kΩ)/240 Ω]1.25 V
Vout(min) = 27.3 V Solution:
As R2 approaches 0 Ω, the voltage approaches 1.25 V. Load regulation = RTH/RL(min) × 100%
Since the LM317 has a dropout of 2 V, the highest regu- Load regulation/100% = RTH/RL(min)
lated output is 28 V with an input of 30 V. With the tran- RTH = RL(min)[load regulation/100%]
sistor saturated, the output is 1.25 V. RTH = 10 Ω[1%/100%]
Answer: The output voltage range with the shutdown RTH = 0.1 Ω
signal low is 1.25 to 27.3 V and is 1.25 V when the shut- Answer: The power supply output resistance is 0.1 Ω.
down signal is high.
22-30. Given:
22-25. Given:
Vin = 35 V
R1 = 240 Ω IC = 60 mA
R2 = 0 to 5 kΩ IL = 140 mA
Vin = 30 V RS = 100 Ω
Vout = 18 V
Solution:
Solution:
IC = IS − IL
Using “Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1]1.25” solve for R2 IS = IC + IL
Vout = [(R1 + R2)/R1]1.25 IS = 60 mA + 140 mA
Vout/1.25 V = [(R1 + R2)/R1] IS = 200 mA
R1(Vout/1.25 V) = R1 + R2 Vout = Vin − ISRS
R1(Vout/1.25 V) − R1 = R2 Vout = 35 V − (200 mA)(100 Ω)
R1(Vout/1.25 V) − 1] = R2 Vout = 15 V
R2 = R1 [(Vout/1.25 V) − 1] RL = Vout/IL
R2 = 240 Ω[(18 V/1.25 V) − 1] RL = 15 V/140 mA
R2 = 3.22 kΩ RL =107 Ω
Answer: The adjustable resistor needs to be 3.22 kΩ. Answer: The load resistance is 107 Ω.
1-122
Start current limiting at 250 mA Vout(mid) = [(R1(mid) + R2(mid))/R1(mid)]VZ (Eq. 22-14)
VBE where current limiting starts is 0.6 V Vout(mid) = [(1250 Ω + 1250 Ω)/1250 Ω]4.7 V
Vout(mid) = 9.2 V
Solution:
R4 = VBE/I Answer: The output voltage is 9.2 V.
R4 = 0.6 V/250 mA 22-35. Answer: Since the voltage at D is stuck low, the trouble is
R4 = 2.4 Ω the triangle-to-pulse converter.
Answer: R4 needs to be 2.4 Ω. 22-36. Answer: Since the voltage at A is stuck low, the trouble is
22-32. Given: the relaxation oscillator.
Vout = 10 V 22-37. Answer: Since the voltage at D is high, the voltage at E
VBE = 0.7 V should be 12.8 V, but since it is 0 V, the trouble is Q1.
R4 = 1 Ω 22-38. Answer: Since the voltage at C is stuck low, the trouble is
K = 0.70 the integrator.
Solution: 22-39. Answer: Since the voltage at A is stuck high, the trouble
ISL = VBE/KR4 is the relaxation oscillator.
ISL = 0.7 V/0.70 (1 Ω)
ISL = 1 A 22-40. Answer: Since the voltage at E is higher than the desired
output of 5 V, the transistor should be off more of the
Imax = ISL + [(1 − K)Vout]/KR4 time. Thus the output of the comparator should be high.
Imax = 1 A + [(1 − 0.70)10 V]/0.70(1 Ω) But because it is low, the problem is the comparator.
Imax = 5.29 A
22-41. Answer: Since the voltage at D is stuck at 0 V, the trouble
Answer: The shorted load current is 1 A, and the maxi- is the triangle-to-pulse converter.
mum current is 5.29 A.
22-42. Answer: Since the voltage at E is low, the output of the
22-33. Given: comparator should be low. But because it is high, the
R5 = 7.5 kΩ trouble is the comparator.
R6 = 1 kΩ 22-43. Answer: The voltage at D is stuck high, since the output
R7 = 9 kΩ of the comparator is high, as it should be, given the volt-
C3 = 0.001 μF age at E. The trouble is the triangle-to-pulse converter.
Solution: 22-44. Q1 is open
B = R7/(R6 + R7)
22-45. R4 is open
B = 9 kΩ/(1 kΩ + 9 kΩ)
B = 0.9 22-46. R2 is open
T = 2RCln[(1 + B)/(1 − B)] (Eq. 20-18) 22-47. D1 is shorted
T = 2(7.5 kΩ)(0.001 μF)ln[(1 + 0.9)/(1 − 0.9)]
22-48. U1 has failed
T = 44.16 μs
22-49. U1 0 to 20 V; U2 +12 V; U3 +5 V; U4 −12 V; U5 0 to −20 V
f = 1/T
f = 1/44.16 μs 22-50. 417 mVp-p
f = 22.6 kHz
22-51. Vin = 14−15 V
Answer: The switching frequency is 22.6 kHz.
22-52. 20 μVp-p
22-34. Given:
22-53. VR1 = 840 Ω
VZ = 4.7 V
R1(mid) = 1250 Ω
R2(mid) = 1250 Ω
1-123

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Part 1

Answer: The internal resistance of the source is greater

RL = 0.01RS (Eq. 1-4)

1N1185: Answer: rB = 600 mΩ

3-35. D1 is open 4-2. Given: Vin = 15 V ac

4-5. Given: 4-9. Given:

4-40. Answer: The output will be 2VP or Vp-p, which is 40 V. If

5-19. Given: VZ = 15 V ± 5%. The tolerance is determined from 5-25. Given:

5-20. Given: Answer: The diode current is 5.91 mA.

Answer: The minimum load voltage would be 15.06 V VZ = 5.1 V ± 5%

IB(max) = (VBB(max) – VBE)/RB(min) (Eq. 6-13) 6-31. Given:

IC = βdcIB (Eq. 6-3) 6-38. Given:

Solution: 7-55. Answer:

Av(2) = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16) vout(2) = Av(vin)

vin(min) = [1.09 kΩ/(1.09 kΩ + 50 Ω)]1 V re = RE || RL (Eq. 9-3)

VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4) 10-5. Given:

VE = VBB – VBE 10-10. Given:

Answer: The maximum power output is 1.13 W. 10-32. Given:

10-36. Given: Solution:

10-39. Given: Solution:

11-3. Given: 11-7. Given:

11-4. Given: 11-8. Given:

11-28. Given: Answer: The output voltage is 7.09 mV.

Solution: Answer: The voltage across the E-MOSFET is 0.1 V.

Solution: Answer: The power is 30.5 W when it is dark.

vout = VinAv P = VDDID

Answer: The voltage gain is 5.85, the voltage out is P = VDDIave

12-40. Given: 0.17(1.69) = 0.29 Ω

JOB INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

simulation. It is used to build, test, and analyze simulated Av = 19.9

Pout = APPin 14-21. Given:

Answer: The output voltage is 5.6 mV. 6 dB

Answer: See figure below. 12 dB

15.9 kHz Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 14-25.

Ideal Bode plot for Prob. 14-24.

Solution: 14-33. Given:

Solution: VC = VCC – (27.8 μA)(180 kΩ)

14-44. Given: Solution:

Answer: The power bandwidth is 79.6 kHz. 20 dB/decade

SELF-TEST Av = 1/B (Eq. 17-4)

17-18. Given: Solution:

Solution: Av(2) = Rf2/R1 + 1

Solution: 17-27. Given:

Av(non) = [(R2/R1) + 1][R'2/(R'1 + R'2)] (Eq. 18-7) Av(CM) = ±2(ΔR/R)

Av(CM) = ±4(0.1%) = ±4(0.001) = ±0.004 CMRR = |Av|/|Av(CM)|

Answer: The differential voltage gain is –20, and the Solution:

Solution: Answer: The output voltage is 1 V.

18-19. Given: Solution:

vout = Av(1)v1 + Av(2)v2 + Av(3)v3 + Av(4)v4 ( BIN × V

Roll-off = 6n dB/octave (Eq. 19-4a) 19-10. Given:

Answer: The voltage gain is –21.4, and the cutoff Solution:

19-13. Given: f3dB = K3 fp (Eq. 19-24)

Solution: 20-9. Given:

Answer: The speed-up capacitor should be at least Solution:

UTP = BVsat (Eq. 20-6) Solution:

LTP = −(R1/R2)Vsat (Eq. 20-11) 20-36. Given:

20-29. Given: f = 1/T

20-57. D1 is shorted 21-3a. Given:

Answer: The maximum frequency is 398 Hz, and the Solution:

fr(min) = 1/[2πRmaxC] (Eq. 21-4) 21-9. Given:

21-13. Given: Cp = CmCs/(Cm + Cs) (Eq. 21-21)

Solution: 21-19. Given:

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