5.

2a Heating Effect of Electric Current:

Circuits, Resistance and Power

Effects of electric Current
• Name 3 Effects of an electric current.
 Heating Effect
 Chemical Effect
 Magnetic Effect
Learning objectives
• Define electromotive force
• Draw circuit diagrams
• Describe the use of ideal ammeters and ideal
voltmeters
• Apply the equations for resistors in series and
parallel
• Describe a potential divider
• Explain the use of sensors in potential divider
circuits.
• Solve problems involving electric circuits
Learning outcomes
• Define resistance.
• Apply the equation for resistance in the form of
R = ρl/A where ρ is the resistivity of the material
of the resistor.
• State Ohm’s law.
• Compare ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour.
• Derive and apply expressions for electrical
power dissipation in resistors.
• Solve problems involving potential difference,
current and resistance.
Electric Circuits
Electromotive force, e.m.f.

• The electromotive force, e.m.f of a source is defined as

the energy per unit charge converted from non-electrical
to electrical form when the charge is driven through the
source round a complete circuit.
• SI unit, V
• E = W/Q
▫ where E is electromotive force
W is work done / energy converted
Q is charge
Circuit Elements and Symbols
 Circuit Symbols

Which of these symbolises a thermistor?

Which of these symbolises a potentiometer?
By turning By changing
the knob temperature

Variable resistor thermistor

By sliding By changing
jockey on wire light intensity

potentiometer Light dependent resistor

What do the other two symbolise?

All four can be used to vary resistance!

Typical Circuit Diagram
Polarity Colour Code

Positive (+) Red

Negative (-) Black

+ _
_
+

+ _
Ideal Ammeters, Voltmeters and Cells
Ammeter
• The ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance
so that when inserted in series into a circuit, it
does not increase the total resistance of the
circuit.
Voltmeter
• The ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so
that when inserted in parallel into a circuit, it
does not draw any current from the circuit.
Cell
• The ideal cell has zero internal resistance so
that when inserted in series into a circuit, it
delivers the full emf E to power the circuit.
Series or Parallel?
Series and Parallel Circuits
Simple circuits
• Electric circuits can be classified into two
categories – series and parallel circuits
Series Circuits
• Same current
▫ In a series circuit, the flow of charge has
only one path to follow. The flow of charge
passes through each component in turn.
▫ Thus in a series circuit, the current at every
point is the same.
• Different potential difference, p.d.
▫ Potential difference between two points in a
circuit is caused by the energy dissipation in
the circuit components connected between
those two points.
▫ In a series circuit, the sum of the p.d.s
across the components is equal to the sum of
the emf across the sources.
Parallel Circuits
• Different currents
▫ Parallel connection offers different paths for the
flow of charge but the total flow of charge from
the source remains the same.
▫ In a parallel circuit, the current from the source
is the sum of the currents in the separate
branches.
▫ At a junction in a circuit, the total current
entering a junction is equal to the total current
leaving the junction.
• Same p.d.
▫ In a parallel circuit, two or more components
are connected between two points of the circuit.
The p.d. across a component is the p.d. between
the two points and is equal to the p.d. of any
other components connected in between.
▫ Thus the potential difference across separate
branches of a parallel circuit is the same.
▫ There is no potential drop along the connecting
wires.
Series vs Parallel
SERIES PARALLEL

I I
R1
I I1 I1
I
R1 R2 R3 I2
I2 R2

V1 V2 V3 I3 I3
R3
V
V

Current is the same in Total current is shared

every component between the components
I = constant I = I1 + I2 + I3
Series vs Parallel
SERIES PARALLEL

I I
I R1
I
R1 R2 R3 I1 I1

I2 R2 I2
V1 V2 V3
I3 I3
V R3

Total V is distributed P.d. is same across each

among each component component
V = V1 + V2 + V3 V = constant
How many volts??

V=IR
12 0V 4V
0V
V 12 V 12 V 12 V 4V
+ − B + − C
A A
− R2 +
I I I I
+ R1 − + R2 − + R1 − R2

0V 12 V 4V
12 V ?? 4 V 4 V 16 V ??
8V 8V
Note: current flow from high to low potential in
resistors, but from low to high potential in
battery source!
Resistance
• Resistance of a component is the ratio of the potential difference
across it to the current passing through it.
• R = V/I
• Unit is ohm (Ω)
• One ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of
one ampere flows when a potential difference of one volt is
maintained.

• Think:
▫ What is meant by one volt?
▫ Is V = IR a definition for V, I or R?
▫ Is R the gradient of a V-I graph?

• One volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in

a circuit in which one joule of energy is converted from one form to
another, when one coulomb of charge passes between the points.
I-V Characteristic graphs
This graph shows the experimental results
obtained from the demonstration shown.
At which point will the wire experience the
biggest resistance?

I/A


B

C
A

V/V
Effective Resistance of Resistors
R1 R2 R3

• Resistors in Series
▫ Effective Resistance, R for n resistors R

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …+ Rn
▫ In a series connection, the effective resistance R is
always larger than the largest of the individual
resistances.
R1

• Resistors in Parallel R2
▫ Effective Resistance, R for n resistors R3
1 1 1 1
1/R = + + + …+ R
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
▫ In a parallel connection, the effective resistance R is
always smaller than the smallest of the individual
resistances.
Practice

1. What is the equivalent

resistance across AD?
10 Ω
A. 0.20 Ω A B

B. 5.0 Ω
10 Ω
C. 8.0 Ω 10 Ω 10 Ω

D. 10 Ω
10 Ω
2. What is the equivalent C D
resistance across AB?

A. 4.3 Ω
B. 5.0 Ω
C. 6.3 Ω
D. 6.7 Ω
Solution

1. What is the equivalent

resistance across AD? 10 Ω
A B
1 1 1 1
  
R AD 10  10 10 10  10 10 Ω
10 Ω 10 Ω

Req = 5.0 Ω
10 Ω
2. What is the C D
equivalent resistance
across AB?
1 1 1
 
RAD 10  10 10
RAD  6.7 
Solution

1. What is the equivalent

resistance across AD? 10 Ω
A B
1 1 1 1
  
R AD 10  10 10 10  10 6.67 Ω
10 Ω
Req
5.0
= 5.0
Ω Ω

2. What is the D
equivalent resistance
across AB?
1 1 1
1 1 1  
  R AB 10  6.67 10
R AD 10  10 10
R AD  6.67  Req = 6.25 Ω
Work out the value of a resistor
Determine their resistance values
1000   2.2  
5% 1%

2200   4.7   1% 1.0   1%

5% (50 ppm)
Christmas Light-up!
• Can the bulbs be
connected in series?
What is the p.d. across the broken bulb?

https://www.energy.gov/articles/how-do-holiday-lights-work
Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a
metallic conductor is proportional to the potential
difference across its ends, provided that all other physical
conditions, such as temperature and stress, are kept
constant.

• Materials which obey ohm’s law are called ohmic

conductors.
I-V Characteristic graphs
• Metallic conductor
▫ Obeys ohm’s law at I/A
Low resistance wire
constant temperature
▫ The I-V graph is a straight
High resistance wire
line passing through the
origin with a constant
gradient.
▫ Resistance of conductor is V/V
constant.
I-V Characteristic Graph
• Filament Lamp
▫ Does not obey ohm’s law at
high temperatures.
▫ I-V graph has a constant
gradient for low current, I
and p.d., V.
▫ Gradient of I-V graph
decreases indicating that the
resistance increases with
increasing p.d. Why is this
so?
I-V Characteristic Graph
Thermistor
As temperature increases:
• the number of charge carriers per
unit volume increases;
• the amplitude of vibration of the
atomic cores also increases.
The increase in charge carrier
concentration increases the
conductivity much more than the
decrease in conductivity due to
thermal vibration.
The net effect is reduction in
resistance and increased
conductivity.
I-V Characteristic Graph

Semiconductor diode This I-V graph shows a current

flowing when the potential
difference is applied, but is
almost zero when the p.d. is
applied in the opposite
direction.
The resistance is not constant.
It is small in one direction but
very large when the p.d. is
reversed.
Factors affecting Resistance, R
• Besides temperature, resistance, R of a given
conductor also depends on its composition and
size.
• Resistance , R is :
▫ Directly proportional to its length
▫ Inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, A
▫ Dependent on the type of material, 
 ρ𝐿
•𝑅 =
𝐴
▫ where R is resistance
 is resistivity
L is length of conductor
A is cross-sectional area of conductor

• Thinner wires have higher resistance than thicker

wires of the same length and material.
• Longer wires have higher resistance than shorter
wires of the thickness and material.
• A low resistivity indicates a material that readily
allows the movement of electrons.
Practice
• A copper rod has a resistance of 5.0 Ω. If it is
stretched into a longer cylindrical rod thrice its
original length, what is its new resistance?
• 45 Ω
 Practice
The resistivity of the human body is low
compared with the resistivity of skin, which is
about 3.0 × 104 Ω m for dry skin.

(i) For a layer of dry skin 1.0 mm thick, calculate

the resistance of a 1.0 cm2 area of skin.
3.0 x 105 Ω

(ii) A person, who is well earthed, accidentally

grabs a wire of diameter 0.40 cm at a
potential of 50 V. His hand makes contact 1.9 mA
with the whole circumference of the wire over
the distance of 9.0 cm. The average thickness
of the skin of his hand is 1.0 mm. Estimate
the current through the person.
 𝜌𝑙 (3.0 𝑥 104 )(1.0 ×10−3 )
(i) R= = = 3.0 × 105 Ω
𝐴 1.0×10−4
 𝜌𝑙 𝜌(𝑤) (3.0 × 104 )(1.0 ×10−3 )
(ii) 𝑅 = = 𝑑 = 0.4×10−2
𝐴 (2𝜋)( 2 )(𝑙) (2𝜋)( )(9.0 ×10−2 )
2

𝑉 50
𝐼= = 3.0 𝑥 104 1.0 ×10−3
= 1.88 𝑚𝐴 = 1.9 mA
𝑅 [ ]
0.4×10−2
2𝜋 9.0 ×10−2
2
How much resistance does you have?
Experiment 5.2
Relationship between the resistance of a LDR and
the intensity of the incident light
In this practical, you will design and construct
simple electrical circuits to identify the
mathematical relationship between the resistance
of the LDR and the intensity of light which falls on
it.
Potential Divider
• A potential divider is any circuit where we
have more than one resistor arranged in
series.
• If there are only 2 resistors in the circuit,
what is the output voltage Vout ?

 R2 
Vout     V
 R1  R2 
Use of a rheostat in a potential divider
• Instead of using fixed resistors, we can use variable resistors
in a potential divider.
• This allows us to vary the p.d across the resistors.
Case 1: Case 2:

V2

 R1   R2 
V1     V V2     V
 R1  R2   R1  R2 
• Using a long linear-varying resistor, (R l) and a sliding
contact, C, the resistances between R1 and R2 can be adjusted.

L l
Vout    V
l L
Example
A variable resistor of resistance 400 and length 0.60m is
used to supply different potential difference across a circuit as
shown.
a) Determine the potential difference across the circuit when
the slider
(i) is at point A. 8.0 V, 0 V
(ii) is at point B.
b) Given that the resistance of the circuit is 300, find the
potential difference across the circuit when the slider is at
0.15m away from point B.
1.6 V
A

8.0V 400
B Circuit
Use of a thermistor in a potential divider
• Instead of using rheostats, we can use thermistors in a
potential divider.
• A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure
temperature changes replying on the change in its
resistance with temperature.
• Thermistors can be classified into two types :
▫ Positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
▫ Negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
• Many NTC thermistors are made from a thin coil of
semiconducting material such as a sintered metal oxide.
They work because increasing the temperature of a
semiconductor increases the concentration of charge
carriers.
• Using a NTC thermistor, Rt, it can be used in potential
dividers to provide p.d. that is dependent on temperature.

Rt

 R 
Vout     V
 Rt  R 
R

• At a low temperature, Rt will be high and the p.d. Vout will be

low.
• As temperature increases, the resistance Rt decreases and the
p.d. Vout increases.
• One possible real-life application is to use this circuit for
switching on an air conditioner at its output voltage whenever
the surrounding air is hot.
Use of a light-dependent resistor, LDR in a potential divider

• A light dependent resistor, LDR or photo conductor is a

photoconductor whose resistance decreases with increasing
incident light intensity.
• A LDR is made of a high resistance semi-conductor. If light
falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons
absorbed by the semi-conductor give bound electrons enough
energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electrons and its hole partner conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.
• Using a LDR, RL, it can be used in potential dividers to
provide p.d. that is dependent on light intensity.

RL

 R 
Vout     V
 RL  R 
R

• At low illumination, Rl will be high and the p.d. Vout will be low.
• As light intensity increases, the resistance RL decreases and the
p.d. Vout increases.
• One possible real-life application is to use this circuit for
sounding off a burglar alarm. When the safe door is forced open,
the ambient light increases the intensity received by the LDR and
causes the output voltage to be high enough to trigger off the
alarm.
Where should you connect a buzzer in the potential divider
circuit so that it will be triggered when the person touches
the laser shown?

RL

R
Use of a strain gauge in a potential divider
• A strain gauge can be used to detect whether parts of a
building are stretching.
• For example, a strain gauge stuck to the underside of a
bridge will be stretched if the bridge bends when a
heavy truck crosses it.
• If the strain gauge is connected in a potential divider
circuit, the Vout can be used to measure how much the
bridge stretches.
• How does it work?
Activity: Determine the Resistance of
the LDR
• Identify a possible relationship
between the resistance of a
LDR and the intensity of light
which falls on it.

• The following lab items are RL

available:
▫ LDR
▫ Resistor (4.7 )
▫ Power Source
▫ Voltmeter R
▫ Light sensor
▫ Connecting wires
Heating Effect of Electric Currents
• Electric field within a metallic conductor causes the
electrons to accelerate within it.
• Electrons gain KE through acceleration but lose energy
through inelastic collision with the metal atoms.
• The electric field continues to accelerate these electrons
and the process repeats.
• Atoms vibrate more vigorously after receiving the KE
from the electrons.
• This is manifested in the form of higher temperature
within the conductor.
Electric Power
• Electric power is the rate of work done by an
electric current.
• P = W/ t
• Derive the relationship between power, potential
difference and current.
• Since W = QV,
P = QV/t = IV
▫ where P is power
I is current
V is potential difference
Derive expressions for power
dissipation in resistors given that P=IV.

Using V=IR,

P = I(IR) = I2R (quantification of heating effect)

P=(V/R) (V) = V2/R

How can we determine the efficiency
of a light bulb?
Discuss
• 2 bulbs are connected in series with a battery. A 3rd
bulb is added in series to the circuit.

a. Discuss what happens to the intensity of each

bulb due to the addition.

b. Discuss what happens to the power delivered by

the battery due to the addition.

c. If the bulbs have been arranged in parallel, how

would the answers to a and b change?
Example

Four identical bulbs are connected as shown.

1) Discuss the relative brightness of the bulbs.
2) Discuss how the brightness of each bulb
changes when Bulb A is blown.

A B
D
C


 Example
60 60

60
A B
D
C

60

30 V

Four light bulbs, A, B, C and D each of constant resistance 60 

are connected as shown.
a. Determine the power in each light bulb.
b. If light bulb A burns out,
i. state the potential difference across bulb D.
ii. calculate the power in each remaining light bulb.
 60 60
Example 60
A B
D
C

60

30 V

a. PA=PB=0.60 W;
Pc=2.4W; PD=5.4W
b. i. PA=PB=0W;
PC=PD=3.75W
ii. VA =VC = 15V
 E

60 60
60
A B
C D

60

30 V

An extension:
Another bulb E is connected parallel to Bulb A and
B. Discuss qualitatively,
• how the brightness of bulbs A, B, C and D changes.
• what happens to the power drawn from the cell.
Example 2.0   4.0 

S
    4.0  
A B

12.0 V

Determine the current in the 2.0  resistor when the

switch is open and when the switch is closed.
Calculate the potential difference across the two
marked points, A and B when the switch is open and
when the switch is closed. Explain your answer.

Open: I = 3.0 A; VAB = 6.0 V

Closed: I = 0 A; VAB = 0 V
Can the circuits be more challenging?
Multi-Loop Circuits

• In electric circuits with only one battery and multiple

resistors in parallel and series combinations, you can
usually calculate an equivalent resistance for the entire
circuit and then use the result to find the current in the
circuit.
• However, if you have a circuit with multiple batteries in
different branches of the circuit, the situation becomes
more complicated.
• This type of circuit is known as a multi-loop circuit.
You can find the current in each branch of the circuit
using two important rules known as Kirchhoff's circuit
rules.
Kirchhoff’s First Law
• The sum of the currents into
a junction equals the sum of
currents away from a
junction, σ 𝐼 = 0
OR
• Total charge flowing into a
junction equals total charge
flowing away from the
junction. (Conservation of
charge)
Kirchhoff’s Second Law
• In a complete circuit loop, the
sum of the emfs in the loop is
equal to the sum of the potential
𝜀 differences in the loop.
OR
• The sum of all variations of
potentials in a closed loop
equals zero.
• σ𝜀 = σ𝑉
Kirchhoff’s Second Law
• Kirchhoff’s second law is also a conservation law
of energy.
• In any electric circuit, there are sources of emf
and sinks of pds.
• In any electric circuits, the energy being
converted into electrical energy in the sources of
emf must be equal to the energy being
transferred from electrical to internal by the
sinks of pds.
Applying Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law.
• Draw a loop through a closed
circuit to indicate direction of
analysis.
• Determine the sum of emf of each
cell (+ve when moving across cell
from –ve to +ve terminal).
• Determine the sum of pd across
each resistor (+ve if direction of
analysis is the same as
conventional current).
• σ𝜀 = σ𝑉
• 12 V = 24I
I = 0.50 A
Example
Determine the values of I1, I2 and I3 assuming all resistors
are identical with 2.0  resistance.

I1
6V

I2
J  

6V
I3

I1 = 0.60 A, I2 = 1.8 A, I3 = 1.2 A

Balanced Potential
In the potentiometer shown, wire AB is uniform and has a
length of 1.00m. When contact is made at C with BC = 54.0 cm,
the galvanometer G shows zero current. Determine the emf of
the secondary cell.
𝑉𝐵𝐶 54.0
=
12.0 100

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 6.48 V

Since no current flows through

secondary cell, 𝜀 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 6.48 V
Note: Point C is the balance point and length BC is balanced length.

Mark on the figure with an arrow the direction of the current through the second
cell when the contact is moved along the wire AB.
Example

In the circuit shown, given that

the resistance of the 1.20m wire
is 1.5 kΩ, determine the
potential difference 𝑉𝑋𝑌 across
the potentiometer wire.
Another battery of unknown emf
is added to the circuit as shown.
At point Z on the potentiometer
wire, the ammeter reading
registers zero reading.
a) Calculate the new 𝑉𝑋𝑌 across
the potentiometer wire.
b) Given that the balance length
of the potentiometer wire 𝑙𝑋𝑍
is 0.45 m, find the unknown
emf E.
c) State and explain the
changes if any, to the balance
length if the resistivity of the
potentiometer wire increases
for the same emf used.
Homework
Cambridge Text (pg 225)
Q15, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29