INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL

CIRCUITS
Circuit Concept – R, L, C parameters - Voltage and Current
sources - Source transformation - Voltage - Current relationship
for passive elements. Kirchhoff’s laws - network reduction
techniques - Series, Parallel, Series parallel, Star-to-Delta or
Delta-to-Star transformation. Nodal analysis, mesh analysis,
super node and super mesh analysis for DC Excitation,
Numerical problems with independent sources only.
 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
The system in which electric current can flow from source to load through one path and
after delivering energy at load, the current can return to the other terminal of source
through another path is referred as electric circuit.
Electrical Sources (for delivering electricity to the circuit and these are mainly electric
generators and batteries)
Controlling Devices (for controlling electricity and these are mainly switches, circuit
breakers, MCBs etc.)
Protection Devices (for protecting the circuit from abnormal conditions and these are
mainly electric fuses, MCB Switchgear systems)
Conducting Path (to carry current one point to other in the circuit and these are mainly
wires or conductors)
 Electric Potential
When a body is charged, work is done in charging it. This work done is stored in the body in the form of
potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving other charges either by attraction
or repulsion. The ability of the charged body to do work is called electric potential.
The capacity of a charged body to do work is called its electric potential.
The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its electric potential. Obviously, the
work done to charge a body to 1 coulomb will be a measure of its electric potential i.e.
Electric potential, V = Work done/charge=W/Q in volts

Electric CURRENT
The directed flow of free electrons (or charge) is called electric current

The actual direction of current (i.e. flow of electrons) is from negative terminal to the
positive terminal through that part of the circuit external to the cell. However, prior to
Electron theory, it was assumed that current flowed from positive terminal to the negative
terminal of the cell
I=Charge/Time=Q/T in Amps
Electric Power
The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called its electric power i.e.
Electric power = Work done in electric circuit/Time=W/T=VI in WATTS

Electrical Energy
The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy i.e.
Electrical energy = Electrical power × Time
= = V I t = I2R t = V2/R in watt hour or kilo watt hour
BASIC PROPERTIES OF AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
A circuit is always a closed path.
A circuit always contain an energy source which acts as source of
electrons.
The electric elements include uncontrolled and controlled source of
energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.
In an electric circuit flow of electrons takes place from negative
terminal to positive terminal.
Direction of flow of conventional current is from positive to negative
terminal.
Flow of current leads to potential drop across the various elements.
TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
Open Circuit-If due to disconnection of any part of an electric circuit if
there is no flow of current the circuit is said to be open circuited.
Closed Circuit-If there is no
discontinuity in the circuit and
current can flow from one part to
another part of the circuit then
the circuit is said to be closed
circuit.
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Voltage and Current are the two basic features of an Electric Element
which supply energy to the circuit.
Examples: Voltage and Current Sources.

Passive Components
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and the either
converts it into heat or stored it in an electric or magnetic field called
Passive Element.
Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor etc
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Component Symbol Basic Measure (Unit)
Resistance
The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called its
resistance.
Since current is the flow of free electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by the
substance to the flow of free electrons. This opposition occurs because atoms and
molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of these electrons.
Certain substances (e.g. metals such as silver, copper, aluminium etc.) offer very little
opposition to the flow of electric current and are called conductors.
On the other hand, those substances which offer high opposition to the flow of electric
current (i.e. flow of free electrons) are called insulators e.g. glass, rubber, mica, dry
wood etc.
Resistance in Series & Parallel
Circuits
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Electric circuits can be classified into two categories:

l Series Circuits
l Parallel Circuits
RESISTORS AND RESISTANCE
l Resistors can be connected either in:

Series Parallel
RESISTORS IN SERIES

The total resistance (effective resistance or resultant

resistance) is equal to the sum of the individual
resistance.

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

The reciprocal of the total resistance (effective resistance or

resultant resistance) is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of
individual resistance.

1 1 1 1
= + +
R total R1 R2 R3
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
If two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallel,
the total/effective resistance is smaller than the R1 & R2.

I1
R1

I2
R2

1 1 1 R 1R 2
Then = + , Hence R total =
R total R1 R2 R1 + R2
SUMMARY (RESISTANCE)
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

The combined resistance, R, l The combined

of resistors in series is found resistance, R, of
by adding up all the resistors connected in
individual resistance parallel is less than
that of any one of the
resistors
R = R1 + R2 + R3 +…..
1 1 1 1
= + + + ....
R R1 R2 R3
 CURRENT IN SERIES
& PARALLEL CIRCUITS
CURRENT IN SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit has only one path in which charge can flow.

Battery
Switch

I
I1 I2 I3
R R R

The current is same everywhere. ( I = I1 = I2 = I3 )

 CURRENT IN SERIES CIRCUITS
What will happen if one of the lamp is being removed?

Answer: The rest of the lamps will not light up.

CURRENT IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A parallel circuit has more than one path for the current to
flow.
Switch

I1
I R1 I
I2
R2
I3
R3

The main current is equal to the sum of the sub-currents. ( I = I1+I2+I3 )

CURRENT IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT
What will happen if one of
the lamp is being removed?

Answer:
Apart from the lamp that
was being removed, the
rest of the lamp will
continue to light up.
 SHORT CIRCUIT A B

In the fig. shown, AB is a copper wire which connects two point A

and B in the circuit.

Since the copper wire has very little resistance, therefore a large
amount of current will flow through it.

The lamp then go off. (Why?)

Therefore we say this circuit is now a short circuit.

SUMMARY
A series circuit has only one path for the current to
flow.
The current is the same throughout the circuit in a
series circuit.

A parallel circuit has more than one path for the current to
flow.
The current, in general is different at different points for a
parallel circuit.
P.D/VOLTAGE IN SERIES
& PARALLEL CIRCUITS
P.D. IN SERIES CIRCUITS
V1
Switch

I V2 V3 V4

L1 L2 L3

V1 = V2 + V3 + V4
P.D. IN SERIES CIRCUITS
The sum of the p.d across individual components in a
series circuit, is equal to the p.d across the whole
circuit.

The component with the largest resistance has the

highest potential difference across it (i.e. V = I x R)
P.D. IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT
V1
Switch

V 1 = V2 = V3 I V2
I1

V3
I2
SUMMARY
The p.d. across all the components in a parallel
circuit is the same.

The sum of the p.d. across individual components in

a series circuit, is equal to the p.d. across the whole
circuit.
SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
l A series circuit has A parallel circuit has more
only one path for the than one path for the current
current to flow. to flow.
l I = I1 = I2 = I3 I = I 1+ I 2 + I 3
l The sum of the p.d. The p.d. across all the
across individual components in a parallel
components in a circuit is the same.
series circuit, is equal
to the p.d. across the
whole circuit.
WORKED EXAMPLE
A voltage of 4V is supplied to two resistors of (6 W and 2 W )
connected in series. Calculate
(a) the combined resistance,
(b) the current flowing,
I
(c) the p.d. across the 6 W resistor.
6W 2W
4V
WORKED EXAMPLE
A voltage of 4V is supplied to two resistors of (6 W and 2 W )
connected in series. Calculate
(a) the combined resistance,
(b) the current flowing,
I
(c) the p.d. across the 6 W resistor.

Solution 6W 2W
(a) combined resistor = 6 + 2 = 8 W 4V
(b) since V= RI,
4 = 8 x I, I = 0.5 A
(c) V6W = 6 x 0.5 = 3 V
 WORKED EXAMPLE
A voltage of 12 V is supplied to two resistors of (3 W and 6 W )
connected in parallel. Calculate
3W
(a) the combined resistance,
(b) the current flowing in the main circuit, 6W
(c) the current in the 3 W resistor.

12 V
 WORKED EXAMPLE
A voltage of 12 V is supplied to two resistors of (3 W and 6 W )
connected in parallel. Calculate
3W
(a) the combined resistance,
(b) the current flowing in the main circuit, 6W
(c) the current in the 3 W resistor.
Solution
(a) combined resistor = (R1R2) / (R1+R2)
12 V
= (3 x 6) / (3+6)
=2W
(b) since V= RI,
12 = 2 x I, I = 6 A

(c) current through 3 W = 12 / 3 = 4 A

 WORKED EXAMPLE
The battery in the circuit illustrated has an e.m.f. of 16 V and negligible internal
resistance. Calculate
(a) the combined resistance, 16V
(b) the current flowing through the
8 W resistor. 36W
8W
R1
R3
R2
18W
 WORKED EXAMPLE
The battery in the circuit illustrated has an e.m.f. of 16 V and negligible internal
resistance. Calculate
(a) the combined resistance, 16V
(b) the current flowing through the
8 W resistor. 36W
8W
R1
R3
R2
Solution
18W
(a) combined resistor = [(R1R2) / (R1+R2)] + R3
= [(36x18) / (36+18)] + 8 = 20 W

(b) since V= RI,

16 = 20 x I, I = 0.8 A
hence, current through 8 W resistor is 0.8 A
 A 100 watt, 250 V lamp is connected in series with a 100 watt, 200 V lamp across 250 V supply.
Calculate (i) circuit current and (ii) voltage across each lamp. Assume the lamp
resistances to remain unaltered. 2
V
Solution. (i) Resistance, R =
P
Resistance of 100 watt, 250 V lamp, R1 = ( 250 )2/100 = 625 Ω
Resistance of 100 watt, 200 V lamp, R2 = ( 200 )2/100 = 400 Ω
When the lamps are connected in series, total resistance is
RS = 625 + 400 = 1025 Ω
\ Circuit current, I = V/RS = 250/1025 = 0.244 A
(ii) Voltage across 100 W, 250 V lamp = I R1 = 0.244 × 625 = 152.5 V
Voltage across 100 W, 200 V lamp = I R2 = 0.244 × 400 = 97.6 V
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff gave two laws to solve complex circuits, namely ;
1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law ( KCL )2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
1. KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)
This law relates to the currents at the *junctions of an electric circuit and may be stated
as under :
The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in an
electrical circuit is zero.
If we take the signs of currents flowing towards point O as positive, then currents flowing
away from point O will be assigned negative sign. Thus, applying Kirchhoff’s current law
to the junction O in Fig. 2.60, we have,
(I1) + (I4) + (− I2) + (− I3) = 0 or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3
i.e., Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents Hence, Kirchhoff’s current law
may also be stated as under :
The sum of currents flowing towards any junction in an electrical circuit is equal to the sum
of currents flowing away from that junction. Kirchhoff ’s current law is also called junction
rule.
2. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW ( KVL )
This law relates to e.m.fs and voltage drops in a closed circuit or loop and may be
stated as under :
In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the electromotive forces
(e.m.fs) and voltage drops in resistors is equal to zero, i.e.,
In any closed circuit or mesh,
Algebraic sum of e.m.fs + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0
The validity of Kirchhoff’s voltage law can be easily established by referring to the
closed loop ABCDA shown in Fig. 2.61. If we start from any point (say point A) in
this closed circuit and go back to this point (i.e., point A) after going around the circuit,
then there is no increase or decrease in potential. This means that algebraic sum of the
e.m.fs of all the sources (here only one e.m.f. source is considered) met on the way plus
the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in the resistances must be zero
2.18. Sign Convention
While applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a closed circuit, algebraic sums are
considered. Therefore, it is very important to assign proper signs to e.m.fs and voltage
drops in the closed circuit. The following convention may be followed :
A **rise in potential should be considered positive and fall in potential should be
(i)Thus if we go from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal, there
is fall of potential and the e.m.f. should be assigned negative sign. Thus in Fig, as we
go from A to B, there is a fall in potential and the e.m.f. of the cell will be assigned
negative sign.
On the other hand, if we go from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the
battery or source, there is a rise in potential and the e.m.f should be assigned positive
sign. Thus in Fig. as we go from A to B, there is a rise in potential and the e.m.f. of the
cell will be assigned positive sign. It may be noted that the sign of e.m.f. is independent
of the direction of current through the branch under consideration.
(ii)When current flows through a resistor, there is a voltage drop across it. If we go
through the resistor in the same direction as the current, there is a fall in potential
because current flows from higher potential to lower potential. Hence this voltage drop
should be assigned negative sign. In Fig. as we go from A to B, there is a fall in
potential and the voltage drop across the resistor will be assigned negative sign.
On the other hand, if we go through the resistor against the current flow, there is a rise
in potential and the voltage drop should be given positive sign. Thus referring to Fig ,
as we go from A to B, there is a rise in potential and this voltage drop will be given
positive sign. It may be noted that sign of voltage drop depends on the direction of
current and is independent of the polarity of the e.m.f. of source in the circuit under
consideration.
 Method to Solve Circuits by Kirchhoff’s Laws
(i) Assume unknown currents in the given circuit and show their direction by arrows.
(ii) Choose any closed circuit and find the algebraic sum of voltage drops plus the
algebraic sum of e.m.fs in that loop.
(iii) Put the algebraic sum of voltage drops plus the algebraic sum of e.m.fs equal
to zero.
(iv) Write equations for as many closed circuits as the number of unknown
quantities. Solve equations to find unknown currents.
(v) If the value of the assumed current comes out to be negative, it means that
actual direction of current is opposite to that of assumed direction.
Note. It may be noted that Kirchhoff’s laws are also applicable to a.c. circuits. The only
thing to be done
is that I, V and Z are substituted for I, V and R. Here I, V and Z are phasor quantities.
CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
In electrical circuits, the classification of circuit elements can be
classified as
1. Linear and non-linear elements.
2. Active and Passive elements.
3. Unilateral and bilateral elements.
4. Time-variant and Time invariant elements.
5. Lumped and Distributed Elements
SOURCES
(i) Independent voltage source. An independent voltage source is a two-
terminal element that maintains a specified voltage between its terminals.
e.g: a battery, a generator etc.

(ii) Independent current source. An independent current source is a two-

terminal element through
which a specified current flows.
SOURCES
Dependent Voltage and Current Sources:
A dependent source provides a voltage or current between its output
terminals which depends upon another variable such as voltage or current.

A dependent source is represented by a diamond-shaped symbol as shown in

the figures below.

There are four possible dependent sources :

(i) Voltage-dependent voltage source
(ii)Current-dependent voltage source
(iii)Voltage-dependent current source
(iv)Current-dependent current source
VOLTAGE DIVISION
Consider two resistors in series with a voltage v(t) across them:

+ +

R1 v1
–
v +

R2 v2
– –

46
CURRENT DIVISION RULE
+
I1 I2
I R1 R2 V
–

How do we find I1 and I2

47
TUTORIAL
Find the equivalent Resistance between terminal A & B
TUTORIAL
DELTA-STAR & STAR-DELTA CONVERSIONS
• There are some networks in which the resistances are neither in series
nor in parallel.

• A familiar case is a three terminal network

e.g. delta network or star network.

• In such situations, it is not possible to simplify the network by series

and parallel circuit rules.
DELTA-STAR CONVERSION
• Consider three resistors RAB, RBC and RCA connected in delta to three
terminals A, B and C as shown in Fig.

• Let the equivalent star-connected network have resistances RA, RB

and RC
• Since the two arrangements are electrically equivalent, the
resistance between any two terminals of one network is equal to the
resistance between the corresponding terminals of the other
network.
DELTA-STAR CONVERSION
• Let us consider the terminals A and B of the two networks.
• Resistance between A and B for star = Resistance between A and B for delta
HOW TO REMEMBER???
STAR-DELTA CONVERSION
• Consider how to replace the star-connected network of Fig. (ii) by the
equivalent delta-connected network of Fig (i).

• Let the equivalent star-connected network have resistances RA, RB

and RC
• Since the two arrangements are electrically equivalent, the
resistance between any two terminals of one network is equal to the
resistance between the corresponding terminals of the other
network.
HOW TO REMEMBER???
• There is an easy way to remember these relations.
Referring to Fig., star-connected resistances RA, RB and RC are
electrically equivalent to
• delta-connected resistances RAB, RBC and RCA.
• We have seen that

Resistance between two = Sum of star resistances connected to those terminals

plus product of terminals of delta same two resistances
divided by the third star resistance
WAYS OF CONNECTIONS
TUTORIAL
Find the Equivalent Resistance using Star Delta Conversion
Find the Equivalent Resistance using Star Delta Conversion
Mesh Analysis
 PROCEDURE
Steps in Mesh Analysis
1. Identify all of the meshes in the circuit
2. Label the currents flowing in each mesh
3. Label the voltage across each component in the circuit
4. Write the voltage loop equations using Kirchoff’s Voltage Law.
5. Use Ohm’s Law to relate the voltage drops across each component to the
sum of the currents flowing through them.
6. Solve for the mesh currents
7. Once the mesh currents are known, calculate the voltage across all of the
components.
 Mesh Analysis: Basic Concepts:

R In formulating mesh analysis we assign a mesh

current to each mesh.

R Mesh currents are sort of fictitious in that a particular

mesh current does not define the current in each branch
of the mesh to which it is assigned.

I1 I2 I3
 Mesh Analysis: Basic Concepts:
R1 R2
_ + _
+ V1 V2
+
+ +
VA VL1 Rx VB
_ I1 _
I2 _

Figure 7.2: A circuit for illustrating mesh analysis.

Around mesh 1:
V1 + VL1 = V A
where V1 = I1 R1 ; VL1 = ( I1 - I 2 )RX
so, ( R1 + RX ) I1 - RX I 2 = V A Eq 1
 Mesh Analysis: Basic Concepts:
R1 R2
_ + _
+ V1 V2
+
+ +
VA VL1 Rx VB
_ I1 _
I2 _

Around mesh 2 we have

V L1 - V2 = V B Eq 2
with; V L1 = - ( I 2 - I 1 ) R X ; V2 = I 2 R2 Eq 3

Substituti ng Eq 7.3 in 7.2 gives,

R X I 1 - ( R X + R2 ) I 2 = V B
or - R X I 1 + ( R X + R2 ) I 2 = - V B Eq 4
 Mesh Analysis: Basic Concepts:

We are left with 2 equations: From (1) and (4)

we have,

( R1 + RX ) I1 - RX I 2 = V A Eq 5

- RX I1 + ( RX + R2 ) I 2 = -VB Eq 6

We can easily solve these equations for I1 and I2.

 Mesh Analysis: Basic Concepts:
The previous equations can be written in matrix form as:

é( R1 + RX ) - R X ù é I1 ù é V A ù
ê -R ú ê ú =ê ú Eq (7)
ë X ( RX + R2 û ë I 2 û ë- VB û
or
-1
é I1 ù é( R1 + RX ) - RX ù é V A ù
êI ú = ê - R ú ê ú
( RX + R2 û ë- VB û
Eq (8)
ë 2û ë X
Mesh Analysis: Example 1.
Write the mesh equations and solve for the currents I1, and I2.

4W 2W

7W
6W
10V + I1 I2
_
2V +_ _
20V
+

Figure 2: Circuit for Example 1.

Mesh 1 Eq (9)

Mesh 2 Eq 10)
Mesh Analysis: Example 1.
Write the mesh equations and solve for the currents I1, and I2.

4W 2W

7W
6W
10V + I1 I2
_
2V +_ _
20V
+

Figure 2: Circuit for Example 1.

Mesh 1 4I1 + 6(I1 – I2) = 10 - 2 Eq (9)

Mesh 2 Eq 10)
6(I2 – I1) + 2I2 + 7I2 = 2 + 20
 Mesh Analysis: Example 1, continued.
Simplifying Eq (9) and (10) gives,
10I1 – 6I2 = 8 Eq (11)

-6I1 + 15I2 = 22 Eq (12)

» % A MATLAB Solution
»
» R = [10 -6;-6 15];
»
» V = [8;22]; I1 = 2.2105
»
» I = inv(R)*V
I2 = 2.3509
I=

2.2105
2.3509
 Mesh Analysis: Example 2
Solve for the mesh currents in the circuit below.
12V
9W
_
_+

+
I3 8V
10 W 11 W
+ _

6W 4W
3W
I1 _ I2
20V + 10V
__ +

Figure 3: Circuit for Example 2.

The plan: Write KVL, clockwise, for each mesh. Look for a
pattern in the final equations.
Mesh Analysis: Example 2
12V
9W
_
_+

+
I3 8V
10 W 11 W
+ _

6W 4W
3W
I1 _ I2
20V + 10V
__ +

Mesh 1: 6I1 + 10(I1 – I3) + 4(I1 – I2) = 20 + 10 Eq (13)

Mesh 2: 4(I2 – I1) + 11(I2 – I3) + 3I2 = - 10 - 8 Eq (14)

Mesh 3: 9I3 + 11(I3 – I2) + 10(I3 – I1) = 12 + 8 Eq (15)

 Mesh Analysis: Example 2
Clearing Equations (13), (14) and (15) gives,

Standard Equation form In matrix form:

20I1 – 4I2 – 10I3 = 30

-4I1 + 18I2 – 11I3 = -18
-10I1 – 11I2 + 30I3 = 20
é 20 - 4 - 10ù é I 1 ù é 30 ù
ê - 4 18 - 11ú ê I ú = ê - 18ú
ê úê 2 ú ê ú
êë - 10 - 11 30 úû êë I 3 úû êë 20 úû

WE NOW MAKE AN IMPORTANT

OBSERVATION!!
 Mesh Analysis: Standard form for mesh equations
Consider the following:

é R11 R12 R13 ù é I 1 ù é å emfs (1) ù

êR R22 R23 úú êê I 2 úú = êê å emfs ( 2) úú
ê 21
êë R31 R32 R33 úû êë I 3 úû êë å emfs ( 3) úû

R11 = å of resistance around mesh 1, common to mesh 1 current I1.

R22 = å of resistance around mesh 2, common to mesh 2 current I2.

R33 = å of resistance around mesh 3, common to mesh 3 current I3.

Mesh Analysis: Example 3 - Direct method.
Use the direct method to write the mesh equations for the following.

20 W 30 W 12 W

_ 8W
10 W
15V
20V +_ I1 I2 + I3
+ _
_ 10V 10 W + 30V

Figure 4: Circuit diagram for Example 3.

é 30 - 10 0 ù é I 1 ù é10 ù
ê - 10 50 - 10ú ê I ú = ê 25ú Eq (13)
ê úê 2 ú ê ú
êë 0 - 10 30 úû êë I 3 úû êë15 úû
I1 =0.371A ; I2 = 0.228 A
I1 =3.75A ; I2 = 0 ; I3 = 1.25 A
I1 =2.95 A ; I2 = 1.275 A
 NODE ANALYSIS
One of the systematic ways to determine every
voltage and current in a circuit

The variables used to describe the circuit will be “Node Voltages”

-- The voltages of each node with respect to a pre-selected
reference node
STEPS IN NODAL
ANALYSIS

1. Pick one node as a reference node

2. Label the voltage at the other nodes
3. Label the currents flowing through each of the
components in the circuit
4. Use Kirchoff’s Current Law
5. Use Ohm’s Law to relate the voltages at each node to
the currents flowing in and out of them.
6. Solve for the node voltage
7. Once the node voltages are known, calculate the
currents.
LEARNING EXAMPLE

V1 V1 - V2
@ V1 : - 4mA + + =0 USING KCL
6k 12k
V2 V2 - V1
@ V2 : 2mA + + =0
6k 12k
BY “INSPECTION”

æ 1 1 ö 1
ç + V
÷ 1 - V2 = 4mA
è 6k 12k ø 12k
1 æ1 1 ö
- V1 + ç + ÷ V2 = -2mA
12k è 6k 12k ø
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit
using Nodal analysis.
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit
using Nodal analysis.
V1 =20 V ; V2 = 40 V
LEARNING EXAMPLE
SUPERNODE

V1 = 6V SOURCES CONNECTED TO THE

REFERENCE
V4 = -4V
CONSTRAINT EQUATION V3 - V2 = 12V
KCL @ SUPERNODE
V2 - 6 V2 V3 V3 - (-4)
+ + + =0
2k 1k 2k 2k
V2 IS NOT NEEDED FOR I O 3V2 + 2V3 = 2V
- V2 + V3 = 12V * / 3 and add
5V3 = 38V
V
OHM' S LAW I O = 3 = 3.8mA
2k