INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

RAMESH KUMAR A
 Basics
V, I, and R

Voltage is the amount of energy per charge available to

move electrons from one point to another in a circuit
and is measured in volts.
Current is the rate of charge flow and is measured in
amperes.

Resistance is the opposition to current and is measured

in ohms.

2
 Basics
Ohm’s law
The most important fundamental law in electronics is
Ohm’s law, which relates voltage, current, and resistance.
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) formulated the equation
that bears his name:
V
I
R

at constant temperature

3
 Basics
Energy and Power
Power is the rate of doing work. Because it is a rate, a
time unit is required. The unit is the joule per second
(J/s), which defines a watt (W).
W
P
t
In electrical work, the rate energy is dissipated can be
determined from any of three forms of the power
formula.
V2
P  I 2R P  VI P
R

Together, the three forms are called Watt’s law.

4
 Basics
Watt The unit of power. One watt is the power
when 1 J of energy is used in 1 s.

Kilowatt-hour A common unit of energy used mainly by

utility companies.

Ampere-hour A number determined by multiplying the

rating current (A) times the length of time (h) that a
battery can deliver that current to a load.

Efficiency The ratio of output power to input power of a

circuit, usually expressed as a percent.
5
 Summary
Series circuits

All circuits have three common attributes.

These are:
R1
1. A source of voltage.
VS + R2
2. A load.
3. A complete path. R3

6
 Summary
Series circuits

A series circuit is one that has only one current path.

R1 R1

R2
VS R2 VS R1 R2 R3 VS
R3 R3

7
 R
Summary
1

680 
V S R2
12 V 1 .5 k 
Series circuit R 3

2 .2 k 
Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is a
useful way to summarize parameters in a series circuit.
Continuing with the previous example, complete the
parameters listed in the Table.
I1= 2.74 mA R1= 0.68 k V1= 1.86 V P1= 5.1 mW
I2= 2.74 mA R2= 1.50 k V2= 4.11 V P2= 11.3 mW
I3= 2.74 mA R3= 2.20 k V3= 6.03 V P3= 16.5 mW
IT= 2.74 mA RT= 4.38 k VS= 12 V PT= 32.9 mW
8
 Summary
Voltage sources in series
Voltage sources in series add algebraically. +
For example, the total voltage of the sources 9V
shown is 27 V
+
9V

+
9V

9
 Summary
Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) is generally stated as:

The sum of all the voltage drops around a single closed

path in a circuit is equal to the total source voltage in
that closed path.

KVL applies to all circuits, but you must apply it to only

one closed path. In a series circuit, this is (of course) the
entire circuit.

10
 R
Summary
1

680 
V S R2
12 V 1 .5 k 
Kirchhoff’s voltage law R 3

2 .2 k 

Notice in the series example given earlier that the sum

of the resistor voltages is equal to the source voltage.

I1= 2.74 mA R1= 0.68 k V1= 1.86 V P1= 5.1 mW

I2= 2.74 mA R2= 1.50 k V2= 4.11 V P2= 11.3 mW
I3= 2.74 mA R3= 2.20 k V3= 6.03 V P3= 16.5 mW
IT= 2.74 mA RT= 4.38 k VS= 12 V PT= 32.9 mW

11
 Summary
Voltage divider rule

The voltage drop across any given resistor in a series

circuit is equal to the ratio of that resistor to the total
resistance, multiplied by source voltage.

V S
R 1
Assume R1 is twice the size of 12 V
R2. What is the voltage across
R
R1? 8 V
2

12
 Summary
Resistors in parallel

Resistors that are connected to the same two points

are said to be in parallel.

A
R1 R2 R3 R4

13
 Summary
Parallel circuits

A parallel circuit is identified by the fact that it has

more than one current path (branch) connected to a
common voltage source.

+ R1 R2 R3 R4
VS

14
 Summary
Special case for resistance R1 R2
of two parallel resistors

The resistance of two parallel resistors can be found by

1 R1 R2
R 
either: T 1 1 or RT 
 R1  R2
R1 R2

15
 Summary
Parallel circuit + R1 R2 R3
VS
680 W 1.5 kW 2.2 kW

Tabulating current, resistance, voltage and power is a

useful way to summarize parameters in a parallel circuit.
Continuing with the previous example, complete the
parameters listed in the Table.

I1= 7.4 mA R1= 0.68 k V1= 5.0 V P1= 36.8 mW

I2= 3.3 mA R2= 1.50 k V2= 5.0 V P2= 16.7 mW
I3= 2.3 mA R3= 2.20 k V3= 5.0 V P3= 11.4 mW
IT= 13.0 mA RT= 386  VS= 5.0 V PT= 64.8 mW
16
 Summary
Kirchhoff’s current law

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) is generally stated as:

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving the node.
Notice in the previous example that the current from
the source is equal to the sum of the branch currents.

I1= 7.4 mA R1= 0.68 k V1= 5.0 V P1= 36.8 mW

I2= 3.3 mA R2= 1.50 k V2= 5.0 V P2= 16.7 mW
I3= 2.3 mA R3= 2.20 k V3= 5.0 V P3= 11.4 mW
IT= 13.0 mA RT= 386  VS= 5.0 V PT= 64.8 mW
17
 Summary

Current divider
When current enters a node (junction) it divides into
currents with values that are inversely proportional to the
resistance values.
The most widely used formula for the current divider
is the two-resistor equation. For resistors R1 and R2,
 R2   R1 
I1    I T and I 2    IT
 R1  R2   R1  R2 
Notice the subscripts. The resistor in the numerator is
not the same as the one for which current is found.
18
19
Nodal Method

20
 Nodal Method
• Step 2
– Mark the nodes

21
 Nodal Method
• Step 3
– Make one node as
reference

22
 Nodal Method

• Step 4
– Assign current flow
and polarities

23
Nodal Method-Equation

24
Nodal Method-Equation

25
Mesh method

26
 Mesh method
• Step 2 (Identify the mesh)

27
 Mesh method
• Step 3 (assign mesh current and label it)

28
Mesh method Equation

29
Mesh method

30
 Summary
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal,
resistive circuit can be replaced with a simple
equivalent circuit when viewed from two output
terminals. The equivalent circuit is:

R T H

V T H

31
 Summary
Thevenin’s theorem
VTH is defined as the open circuit voltage between the two
output terminals of a circuit.
RTH is defined as the total resistance appearing between
the two output terminals when all sources have been
replaced by their internal resistances.
R T H

V T H

32
 Summary
Thevenin’s theorem

What is the Thevenin voltage for the circuit? 8.76 V

What is the Thevenin resistance for the circuit? 7.30 k

Output terminals
R 1
Remember, the
V S
10 k load resistor
12 V R 2
R L has no affect on
27 k 68 k the Thevenin
parameters.

33
 Summary
Maximum power transfer
The maximum power is transferred from a source to a
load when the load resistance is equal to the internal
source resistance.
RS

VS +
RL

The maximum power transfer theorem assumes the

source voltage and resistance are fixed.
34
 Summary
Maximum power transfer

What is the power delivered to the matching load?

RS
The voltage to the 50 W
VS +
load is 5.0 V. The RL
10 V
power delivered is 50 W
V 2  5.0 V 
2

PL   = 0.5 W
RL 50 

35
 Summary
Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem is a way to determine currents
and voltages in a linear circuit that has multiple sources by
taking one source at a time and algebraically summing the
results.
R 1 R 3

What does the 2 .7 k  6 .8 k 

I2
ammeter read for V S1 +
- V S2
+

I2? (See next slide 12 V -

+
18 V -
R2
for the method and 6 .8 k 
the answer).

36
 Summary
What does the ammeter
RR111
R RR333
R
read for I2?
2 . 7 kkk W
2.7  III222 66.8
6.8 W
. 8 kkkW
VVSS11 +
+
--- V
V S2S 2 ++
112
2 VV ++1.56 mA
+
18 V
18 V
Set up a table of
-- --
RR222
R
pertinent information . 8 kkkW
66.8
6.8 
and solve for each
quantity listed:
Source 1: RT(S1)= 6.10 k I1= 1.97 mA I2= 0.98 mA
Source 2: RT(S2)= 8.73 k I3= 2.06 mA I2= 0.58 mA
Both sources I2= 1.56 mA
The total current is the algebraic sum.
37
 Summary
Sine waves
The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage
waveform.

Electrical sine waves are

named from the
mathematical function
with the same shape.

38
 Summary
Period and frequency
The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.

1 1
f  and T
T f

Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the other.
(The 1/x key on your calculator is handy for converting between f and T.)

If the period is 50 s, the frequency is 0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.

39
Angular measurement
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or
radians. The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when
the arc is equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360o or
2 radians in one complete revolution.
1 .0
0 .8
R 0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0   
R 0 3  5  3  7  2 
- 0 .2 4 2 4 4 2 4

- 0 .4
- 0 .6
- 0 .8
- 1 .0

40
Angular measurement
Because there are 2 radians in one complete revolution
and 360o in a revolution, the conversion between radians
and degrees is easy to write. To find the number of
radians, given the number of degrees:
2 rad
rad   degrees
360

To find the number of degrees, given the radians:

360
deg   rad
2 rad

41
Sine wave equation
Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as v or i. The
equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a sine
wave is
v  V p sin 
where
Vp = Peak voltage
= Angle in rad or degrees

If the peak voltage is 25 V, the instantaneous

voltage at 50 degrees is 19.2 V
42
Phase shift
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement
that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a
reference. To show that a sine wave is shifted to the
left or right of this reference, a term is added to the
equation given previously.
v  VP sin    
where
 = Phase shift

43
 Phase shift Example of a wave that lags the
reference …and the equation
R e f e re n c e has a negative phase
40 shift
30 P e a k v o lt a g e
20 v = 30 V sin (  45o)
V o lt a g e ( V )

10
0
0 45 90 135 180 2 2 5 270 315 360 405

-2 0
-3 0 Notice that a lagging sine
-40 wave is below the axis at 0o
A n g le ( )
44
 Summary
The Basic Capacitor
Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive
components. In its most basic form, it is composed of
two conductive plates separated by an insulating
dielectric.
The ability to store charge is the definition of
capacitance.

Conductors Dielectric

45
 Summary
The Basic Capacitor
VV SS D ie le c t ric

The charging ++
+ ++


Le a d s
process… ++ + + +
+ ++  P la t e s
++ 
++ + +
 +
Initially
Source
Fully
Charging
charged
removed
uncharged   + +
+


 
 ++ + 
+ +  E le c t r o n s
+ + 
+ 
+ + +  B 
 AA A + BB
   +    

A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.

46
Capacitance
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage
Q
C
V
Rearranging, the amount of charge on a
capacitor is determined by the size of the
capacitor (C) and the voltage (V).
Q  CV

If a 22 F capacitor is connected to
a 10 V source, the charge is 220 C

47
 Summary
Series capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total
capacitance is smaller than the smallest one. The
general equation for capacitors in series is
1
CT 
1 1 1 1
   ... 
C1 C2 C3 CT
The total capacitance of two capacitors is
1
CT 
1 1

C1 C2
…or you can use the product-over-sum rule
48
 Summary
Parallel capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total
capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitors.
The general equation for capacitors in parallel is
CT  C1  C2  C3  ...Cn

If a 0.001 F capacitor is
C C
connected in parallel with 1 2

an 800 pF capacitor, the 0 .0 0 1 µ F 800 pF

total capacitance is 1800 pF

49
 Summary
V f in a l

The RC time constant

When a capacitor is charged
through a series resistor and 0 t
dc source, the charging curve ( a ) C a p a c it o r c h a rg in g v o lt a g e
is exponential.
R I in it ia l

0 t
( b ) C h a rg in g c u r re n t

50
 Summary
V in it ia l
The RC time constant
When a capacitor is discharged
through a resistor, the
0 t
discharge curve is also an ( a ) C a p a c it o r d is c h a r g in g v o lt a g e
exponential. (Note that the
current is negative.)
 I in it ia l
R

0 t

( b ) D is c h a rg in g c u rre n t

51
 Summary
Universal exponential curves
Specific values for 100%
98%
99%
95%
current and voltage 86%
80%
can be read from a Rising exponential

Percent of final value

universal curve. For 63%
60%
an RC circuit, the
time constant is
40%
37%
τ  RC Falling exponential
20%
14%
5%
2% 1%
0
0 1t 2t 3t 4t 5t
Number of time constants

52
 Summary
Universal exponential curves
The universal curves can be applied to general formulas for
the voltage (or current) curves for RC circuits. The general
voltage formula is
v =VF + (Vi VF)et/RC
VF = final value of voltage
Vi = initial value of voltage
v = instantaneous value of voltage
The final capacitor voltage is greater than the initial
voltage when the capacitor is charging, or less that the
initial voltage when it is discharging.
53
 Summary
Capacitive reactance

Capacitive reactance is the opposition to ac

by a capacitor. The equation for capacitive
reactance is
1
XC 
2πfC

The reactance of a 0.047 F capacitor when a

frequency of 15 kHz is applied is 226 

54
 Summary
Capacitive phase shift

When a sine wave

is applied to a V C
0
capacitor, there is a
phase shift between
o
90
voltage and current
such that current
I
always leads the 0
voltage by 90o.

55
 Summary
Power in a capacitor
Energy is stored by the capacitor during a portion of the ac
cycle and returned to the source during another portion of
the cycle.
Voltage and current are always 90o out of phase.
For this reason, no true power is dissipated by a capacitor,
because stored energy is returned to the circuit.
The rate at which a capacitor stores or returns
energy is called reactive power. The unit for reactive
power is the VAR (volt-ampere reactive).

56
 Summary
Sinusoidal response of RC circuits
When both resistance and capacitance are in a series
circuit, the phase angle between the applied voltage and
total current is between 0 and 90, depending on the
values of resistance and reactance.
VR VC

VR leads VS VC lags VS

R
C
VS

I leads VS

57
 Summary
Impedance of series RC circuits
In a series RC circuit, the total impedance is the phasor
sum of R and XC.
R is plotted along the positive x-axis.
XC is plotted along the negative y-axis.
X 
  tan 1  C  R R
 R  q q
Z is the diagonal
XC XC
Z Z

It is convenient to reposition the

phasors into the impedance triangle.
58
 Summary
Analysis of series RC circuits
Ohm’s law is applied to series RC circuits using Z,
V, and I.
V V
V  IZ I Z
Z I

Because I is the same everywhere in a series circuit,

you can obtain the voltages across different
components by multiplying the impedance of that
component by the current as shown in the following
example.

59
 Summary
Sinusoidal response of parallel RC circuits
For parallel circuits, it is useful to introduce two new
quantities (susceptance and admittance) and to review
conductance.
1
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. G
R

Capacitive susceptance is the reciprocal 1

BC 
of capacitive reactance. XC

1
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. Y 
Z

60
 Summary
Sinusoidal response of parallel RC circuits
In a parallel RC circuit, the admittance phasor is the sum
of the conductance and capacitive susceptance phasors.
The magnitude can be expressed as Y  G 2 + BC 2
1  BC 
From the diagram, the phase angle is   tan  
G 
BC

Y
VS G BC

q G

61
 Summary
Analysis of parallel RC circuits
Ohm’s law is applied to parallel RC circuits using
Y, V, and I.

I I
V I  VY Y 
Y V
Because V is the same across all components in a
parallel circuit, you can obtain the current in a given
component by simply multiplying the admittance of
the component by the voltage as illustrated in the
following example.

62
 Summary
Power factor

The power factor is the relationship between the

apparent power in volt-amperes and true power in
watts. Volt-amperes multiplied by the power factor
equals true power.
Power factor is defined mathematically as
PF = cos 

The power factor can vary from 0 for a purely reactive

circuit to 1 for a purely resistive circuit.

63
 Summary
Apparent power

Apparent power consists of two components; a true

power component, that does the work, and a
reactive power component, that is simply power
shuttled back and forth between source and load.

Ptrue (W)
Some components such q
as transformers, motors,
and generators are rated Pa (VA)
Pr (VAR)
in VA rather than watts.

64
 Summary
The Basic Inductor
When a length of wire is formed into a coil., it
becomes a basic inductor. When there is current in
the inductor, a three-dimensional magnetic field is
created.
A change in current
causes the magnetic
S N
field to change. This in
turn induces a voltage
across the inductor that
opposes the original
change in current.
65
 Summary

The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly

proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field
with respect to the coil.

66
 Summary

When the current through a coil changes and an

induced voltage is created as a result of the changing
magnetic field, the direction of the induced voltage is
such that it always opposes the change in the current.

67
 Summary
Lenz’s law
A basic circuit to demonstrate Lenz’s law is shown.
Initially, the SW is open and there is a small
current in the circuit through L and R1.
L
SW

+
V S
R 1 R 2

 +

68
 Summary
Lenz’s law

SW closes and immediately a voltage appears

across L that tends to oppose any change in current.

L
SW
+ 

+
V S
R 1 R 2

 +
Initially, the meter
reads same current
as before the switch
was closed.
69
 Summary
Lenz’s law

After a time, the current stabilizes at a higher level

(due to I2) as the voltage decays across the coil.
L
SW

+
V S
R 1
R 2


 +
Later, the meter
reads a higher
current because of
the load change.
70
 Summary
Practical inductors
In addition to inductance, actual inductors have
winding resistance (RW) due to the resistance of the
wire and winding capacitance (CW) between turns.
An equivalent circuit for a practical inductor
CW
including these effects is shown:
Notice that the winding resistance
is in series with the coil and the L
winding capacitance is in parallel RW
with both.

71
 Summary
Types of inductors
There are a variety of inductors, depending on the
amount of inductance required and the application.
Some, with fine wires, are encapsulated and may
appear like a resistor.

Common symbols for inductors (coils) are

Air core Iron core Ferrite core Variable

72
 Summary
Factors affecting inductance
Four factors affect the amount of inductance for a
coil. The equation for the inductance of a coil is
N 2 A
L
l
where
L = inductance in henries
N = number of turns of wire
 = permeability in H/m (same as Wb/At-m)
l = coil length on meters

73
 Summary
Series inductors
When inductors are connected in series, the total
inductance is the sum of the individual inductors.
The general equation for inductors in series is
LT  L1  L2  L3  ...Ln

If a 1.5 mH inductor is L L
1 2
connected in series with
an 680 H inductor, the 1 .5 m H 6 8 0 H
total inductance is 2.18 mH

74
 Summary
Parallel inductors
When inductors are connected in parallel, the total
inductance is smaller than the smallest one. The
general equation for inductors in parallel is
1
LT 
1 1 1 1
   ... 
L1 L2 L3 LT

The total inductance of two inductors is

1
LT 
1 1

L1 L2

…or you can use the product-over-sum rule.

75
 Summary
Vinitial
Inductors in dc circuits
When an inductor is connected
in series with a resistor and dc
source, the current change is 0 t
Inductor volta ge a fter switch closure
exponential.
Ifinal
R

0 t
Current a fter switch closure

76
 Summary
Vinitial
Inductors in dc circuits
When an inductor is connected
in series with a resistor and dc
source, the current change is 0 t
Inductor volta ge a fter switch closure
exponential.
Ifinal
R

0 t
Current a fter switch closure

77
 Summary
Inductive reactance

Inductive reactance is the opposition to

ac by an inductor. The equation for
inductive reactance is
X L  2πfL

The reactance of a 33 H inductor when a

frequency of 550 kHz is applied is 114 

78
 Summary
Inductive phase shift

When a sine wave

is applied to an VL 0
inductor, there is a
90
phase shift between
voltage and current
such that voltage
always leads the I 0
current by 90o.

79
 Power in an inductor
True Power: Ideally, inductors do not dissipate power.
However, a small amount of power is dissipated in
winding resistance given by the equation:
Ptrue = (Irms)2RW
Reactive Power: Reactive power is a measure of the rate
at which the inductor stores and returns energy. One form
of the reactive power equation is:
Pr=VrmsIrms
The unit for reactive power is the VAR.
80
 Summary
Sinusoidal response of RL circuits
When both resistance and inductance are in a series
circuit, the phase angle between the applied voltage and
total current is between 0 and 90, depending on the
values of resistance and reactance.
VR VL

VR lags VS VL lead s VS

R L
VS

I lags VS

81
 Summary
Impedance of series RL circuits
In a series RL circuit, the total impedance is the phasor
sum of R and XL.
R is plotted along the positive x-axis.
XL is plotted along the positive y-axis.
X 
  tan 1  L 
 R 
Z Z
Z is the diagonal
XL XL
q
q
R R

It is convenient to reposition the

phasors into the impedance triangle.
82
 Summary
Analysis of series RL circuits
Ohm’s law is applied to series RL circuits using
quantities of Z, V, and I.

V V
V  IZ I Z
Z I
Because I is the same everywhere in a series circuit,
you can obtain the voltage phasors by simply
multiplying the impedance phasors by the current.

83
 Summary
Sinusoidal response of parallel RL circuits
For parallel circuits, it is useful to review conductance,
susceptance and admittance, introduced in Chapter 10.

1
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. G
R

Inductive susceptance is the reciprocal 1

BL 
of inductive reactance. XL

1
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. Y 
Z

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 Summary
Sinusoidal response of parallel RL circuits
In a parallel RL circuit, the admittance phasor is the sum
of the conductance and inductive susceptance phasors.
The magnitude of the susceptance is Y  G 2 + BL 2
The magnitude of the phase angle is   tan 1 
BL 

G
 
G

VS G BL
BL Y

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 Summary
Sinusoidal response of parallel RL circuits
Some important points to notice are:
G is plotted along the positive x-axis.
BL is plotted along the negative y-axis.
B 
  tan 1  L 
G
Y is the diagonal
G

VS G BL
BL Y

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 Summary
Series-Parallel RL circuits
Series-parallel RL circuits are combinations of both series and
parallel elements. The solution of these circuits is similar to
resistive combinational circuits but you need to combine reactive
elements using phasors.
The components in the R1 R2
yellow box are in series and Z1 Z2
those in the green box are L1 L2
also in series.
Z1  R12  X L21
and The two boxes are in parallel. You
Z 2  R22  X L22 can find the branch currents by
applying Ohm’s law to the source
voltage and the branch impedance.
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