MEE312 – MECHANICS OF MACHINE

II
PART 4 – TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM AND
FLYWHEEL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN

COURSE LECTURER – ENGR DR. E. G. SADJERE

ASSISTANT LECTURER – ENGR (MRS) A. G. OREAVBIERE

2019
MEE312 LECTURE NOTES 2019

Contents
Turning Moment Diagrams and Flywheel ............................................. 3
The 4-Stroke Engine ..................................................................... 3
Shaft Torque (Turning Moment) ...................................................... 5
The Flywheel ..............................................................................10

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TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAMS AND FLYWHEEL

THE 4-STROKE ENGINE

The internal combustion engine uses an inversion of the 4-bar mechanism called
the slider-crank consisting of the crank, the connecting rod and a piston which
slides inside a cylinder. The piston is the driver while the crank is the driven link.
The driving energy is derived from a mixture of fuel and air which explodes inside
the cylinder, above the piston with the expanding gas developing the power to
drive the piston. The most popular engine design is the 4-stroke engine that works
on the Otto cycle. The Otto cycle is summarized with the diagram, figure 1.1

Figure 1-1

Figure 1-2

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There are 4-strokes in the Otto cycle starting with the piston in the topmost
position, called the Top Dead Centre (TDC). The first stroke is the intake stroke
when the piston moves down from the TDC, creating reduced pressure (below
atmospheric) in the cylinder and resulting in the inflow of air-fuel mixture as the
inlet valve opens. The 2nd stroke is the movement of the piston from the Bottom
Dead Centre (BDC) back to the TDC, compressing the mixture, hence called the
compression stroke. Towards the end of compression, the air-fuel mixture is
ignited (by a spark plug), creating a spike in the pressure as a result of the rapid
expansion of the mixture due to the explosion. The pressure developed in this
stroke produces the power that drives the engine and it’s hence called the power
stroke. Finally, there is the 4th and exhaust stroke where the piston returns from
BDC to TDC pushing out the products of combustion. The profile of the pressure
through the cycle is shown in figure 1.2

The useable output torque in the engine is created from the explosive gas pressure
generated within the cylinder in the power stroke. In the Otto cycle, there is one
power stroke in every four strokes or one power stroke in two revolutions of the
crankshaft. The magnitude and the shape of this gas pressure curve varies with
every engine. If we take our point ‘O’ as the point the mixture is ignited and power
delivered, the shape of the pressure profile will be as shown in figure 1.3

Figure 1-3

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SHAFT TORQUE (TURNING MOMENT)

The useful power used to drive other systems by the engine is delivered as shaft
torque of the crank. To determine the shaft torque, the forces in the engine have
to be analysed

Figure 1-4: Engine Forces

The forces acting on the engine includes

P= Resultant pressure developed by the exploding gas

F14 = Reaction of the piston with the cylinder wall (friction assumed
negligible)
Fo4 = Inertia force of the piston – changes direction depending on the
direction of piston movement.
FB3 = Force of Connecting Rod small end on the wrist
F12 = Reaction at Bearing O2; parallel to AB

Crankshaft is balanced with two equivalent masses as counterweight against

crankpin.

From the diagram figure 1.4, it is assumed that the piston is moving down, hence
inertia forces are negative. Therefore

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑃 − (𝐹𝑜4 + 𝐹𝐵3 )
From the polygon of forces

𝐹𝐵
𝐹12 = ; 𝐹14 = 𝐹𝐵 tan 𝜙
cos 𝜙

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From the diagram

𝑑 = ℎ sin 𝜙
ℎ sin 𝜙
𝑇 = 𝐹12 𝑑 = 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵 ℎ tan 𝜙
cos 𝜙
Alternatively,
𝑇 = 𝐹12 ℎ = 𝐹𝐵 ℎ tan 𝜙
Both approaches yield the same result.

However, torque T is better expressed as a function of the crank angle θ, which

can be more easily measured instead of the angle 𝜙. To express T as a function of
θ, all the parameters, 𝐹𝐵 , h and 𝜙 will have to be expressed as functions of θ. We
will need to refer to the kinematics of the slider-crank using figure 1.5

Figure 1-5

(a) Determination of 𝜙 as a function of θ

From figure 1.5

𝐿 sin 𝜙 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃

𝑅
sin 𝜙 = sin 𝜃
𝐿

𝑅
𝜙 = sin−1 ( sin 𝜃)
𝐿

(b) h as a function of 𝜃
ℎ = 𝑅 cos 𝜃 + 𝐿 cos 𝜙

𝑅
= 𝑅 cos 𝜃 + 𝐿 cos (sin−1 ( sin 𝜃))
𝐿
But for the analysis of the engine forces, we consider
ℎ tan 𝜙 = (𝑅 cos 𝜃 + 𝐿 cos 𝜙) tan 𝜙
𝐿
= 𝑅 tan 𝜙 (cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜙)
𝑅
ℎ 𝐿
tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 (cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜙)
𝑅 𝑅
𝜙 can be substituted for

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(c) Determination of P as a function of 𝜃

An equation for the gas force P cannot be written directly as a function of 𝜃 since
P is determined experimentally from an indicator diagram. Indicator diagrams are
shown either versus 𝜃 as in figure 1.2 and figure 1.3 or versus piston position x,
where piston position as function of 𝜃, we have to go back to figure 1.5

x is taken as +ve from TDC to BDC

From the figure

𝑥 = 𝑅 + 𝐿 − 𝑅 cos 𝜃 + 𝐿 cos 𝜙
= 𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃) + 𝐿(1 − cos 𝜙)
𝐿
= 𝑅 [(1 − cos 𝜃) + (1 − cos 𝜙)]
𝑅
Now recall from compound angle analysis
cos2 𝜙 + sin2 𝜙 = 1
cos 𝜙 = √1 − sin2 𝜙
Also
𝑅
sin 𝜙 = sin 𝜃
𝐿

Therefore
𝑅 2 2
√
cos 𝜙 = 1 − [( ) sin 𝜃]
𝐿
And
𝐿 𝑅 2 2
√
𝑥 = 𝑅 [(1 − cos 𝜃) + (1 − 1 − [( ) sin 𝜃])]
𝑅 𝐿

𝑥 1 𝐿 𝑅 2 2
√
= [(1 − cos 𝜃) + (1 − 1 − [( ) sin 𝜃])]
2𝑅 2 𝑅 𝐿

Figure 1-6

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The pressure P is determined from the indicator diagram. The indicator diagram
shows the pressure in the cylinder as recorded by an indicated power instrument.
𝑥
The abscissa of the indicated diagram is calibrated in the fraction to correspond
2𝑅
with the crank angle 𝜃. Also note that the pressure varies with the size of the
cylinder.

(d) Inertia forces 𝐹𝑜4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝐵3

𝐹𝑜4 + 𝐹𝐵3 = (𝑚𝑜4 + 𝑚𝐵3 )𝑎𝐵
𝑎𝐵 is obtained by differentiating x twice
𝐿 𝑅 2
𝑥 = 𝑅 [(1 − cos 𝜃) + (1 − √1 − [( ) sin2 𝜃])]
𝑅 𝐿
𝑅 2
The radical 1 − [( 𝐿 ) sin2 𝜃] can be approximated by using series expansion
1 1 𝐵4
(1 ± 𝐵2 )2 = 1 ± 𝐵2 − … … ….
2 2.4
Generally, the first two terms are sufficient, that is
𝑅 2 1 𝑅 2
√1 − [( ) sin2 𝜃] = 1 − ( ) sin2 𝜃
𝐿 2 𝐿
Hence
𝐿 1 𝑅 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑅 [(1 − cos 𝜃) + (1 − (1 − ( ) sin 𝜃))]
𝑅 2 𝐿
𝑅
𝑥 = 𝑅 [(1 − cos 𝜃) + sin2 𝜃]
2𝐿
𝑅2 2
𝑥 = 𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃) + sin 𝜃
2𝐿
But 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Therefore
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑅2 2
𝑉𝐵 = = (𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃) + sin 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2𝐿
𝑑 𝑅2 2
𝑉𝐵 = (𝑅(1 − cos 𝜔𝑡) + sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2𝐿
𝑅2
= (𝑅(𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡) + . 2𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
2𝐿
𝑅2
= (𝑅(𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡) + . 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡)
2𝐿
𝑅
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑅𝜔 (sin 𝜃 + . 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)
2𝐿

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑅
𝑎𝐵 =
2
= 𝑅𝜔2 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
If the mass 𝑚𝑜4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝐵3 are known, then 𝐹𝑜4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝐵3 can be calculated and
combined with P to produce 𝐹𝐵 . The combined effect of the force 𝐹𝐵 is shown in
figure 1.7.

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Figure 1-7

As shown in figure 1.7, the combined force 𝐹𝑜4 + 𝐹𝐵3 virtually takes over after the
power stroke and the forces are positive or negative as to whether they are going
towards the crankshaft or receding from the crankshaft.
With all parameters of the equation determined as functions of the crank angle 𝜃,
the torque T can now be evaluated with respect to the crank angle. Once again we
have
𝑇 = 𝐹𝐵 ℎ tan 𝜙

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑃 − (𝐹𝑜4 + 𝐹𝐵3 )
𝑥
P is determined from indicator diagrams at various positions of 2𝑅 where x = piston
position and 2R = engine stroke
𝐹𝑜4 + 𝐹𝐵3 = (𝑚𝑜4 + 𝑚𝐵3 )𝑎𝐵
And
𝑎𝐵 𝑅
2
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
𝑅𝜔 𝐿
The inertia forces changes direction depending on whether they are moving
towards the crankshaft or away from the crankshaft

ℎ 𝐿
tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜙 (cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜙)
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
𝜙 = sin−1 ( sin 𝜃)
𝐿
When 𝑇 = 𝐹𝐵 ℎ tan 𝜙 is plotted for a single cylinder 4-stroke engine over a cycle,
figure 1.8 is obtained

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Figure 1-8: Turning Moment Diagram

As can be seen from the turning moment diagram, apart from the power stroke,
there are two zero torques per stroke. These are points where 𝐹𝐵 = 0 (see figure
1.7) and where ℎ tan 𝜙 = 0 as tan 𝜙 = 0. The dash line is the average torque 𝑇𝑎𝑣 ,
which also equals the load torque. This is produced by the gas force during the
power stroke.
The graph shows that the output in the crankshaft is greatly variable. The diagram,
Figure 1.8 is known as Turning Moment Diagram. A flywheel is used to minimise,
if not eliminate the variability of the output torque

THE FLYWHEEL
The equations of motion of the piston of the internal combustion engine from the
section on the torque of the engine are recast as
𝑅2 2
𝑥 = 𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃) + sin 𝜃
2𝐿

𝑅
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑅𝜔 (sin 𝜃 + . 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)
2𝐿

𝑅
𝑎𝐵 = 𝑅𝜔2 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
𝐿
And the equation for torque

𝑇 = [𝐹𝐵 ]ℎ tan 𝜙

𝑇 = [𝑃 − (𝑚𝑜4 + 𝑚𝐵3 )𝑎𝐵 ]ℎ tan 𝜙

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𝑅
𝑇 = [𝑃 − (𝑚𝑜4 + 𝑚𝐵3 ) (cos 𝜃 +𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) 𝑅𝜔2 ] ℎ tan 𝜙
𝐿
From these equations, it is clear there are many starts and stops, making the
motion quite unsteady. Note that from the velocity, v formular, the piston has zero
velocities at crank angles, 0o, 180o, 360o, 540o and 720o, where sin 𝜃 =0, similarly,
the torque, T of the crankshaft is zero for all points where tan 𝜙 = 0, which are also
0o, 180o, 360o, 540o and 720o. In addition, torque is also zero anywhere 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑃 −
(𝑚𝑜4 + 𝑚𝐵3 )𝑎𝐵 = 0, which from the force diagram in the cylinder are roughly midway
in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th strokes.

The above observations result in the plot of the turning moment diagram. Figure
1.8 is reproduced as figure 1.9. The diagram plots torque T against 𝜃. The area
under the curve represents the energy, 𝐸 = ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝜃. The initial energy is provided
by the explosion in the power stroke, which energy is transferred to the crankshaft.
The crankshaft transfers part of the energy back to the system, which comes out
as negative energy. The system oscillates as energy is transferred to and fro as a
result of the energy of the shaft torque and the inertial forces.

NB: if an engine crank rotates at 3,000 rpm, it translates into 50 rev/sec; and in
a 4-stroke single-cylinder engine, there are 4-strokes in 2 revolutions or 100
strokes per second. Viewed another way, one stroke takes 0.01 seconds. With this
period (0.01sec), the piston accelerates from rest at the TDC, attain maximum
speed at half stroke position, and then decelerates to a stop at the BDC. The time
in which the starts and stops take place is so small that it is often not noticed but
it translates to the shaking of the engine. The shaking or oscillation is smoothened
off using a flywheel.

Figure 1-9

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A flywheel is used to smoothen out the speed of the crankshaft by studying the
torque or turning moment diagram. The pressure created by the explosion in the
power stroke, produce the crank torque above the zero torque line. The average
torque drives the external load. In flywheel design, much is done to make the
average torque equal to the load torque while the excess torque is used to drive
the flywheel. The flywheel gains kinetic energy which is used to increase or
decrease its speed.
Therefore
𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐼𝛼
Where I is the moment of inertia of the flywheel about the crank axis and 𝛼 is the
angular acceleration in the sense of the resultant torque.

Now

𝑑𝜔
𝛼=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜃
𝛼= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜔
𝛼= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜔
𝛼=𝜔
𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜔
𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
𝑑𝜃
Next, let’s look at a typical power stroke as represented by the torque diagram in
figure 1.10

Figure 1-10

We have

(𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 )𝑑𝜃 = 𝐼𝜔𝑑𝜔
But recall that T 𝑑𝜃 is equation of work or energy
∫(𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 )𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝐼𝜔𝑑𝜔

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This means that the energy of the torque is converted to the kinetic energy of the
flywheel.
Figure 1.10 shows the unbalance torque acting on the flywheel that accelerates its
angular motion. In the figure, the shaded area represents the work done on the
flywheel and this will cause a change in the kinetic energy of the flywheel due to
its change in speed.
To determine the energy of the diagram, the elemental energy equation is
integrated from the 𝜃 when the speed 𝜔 is minimum 𝜔𝑚 to when the speed is
maximum, 𝜔𝑀 .
Hence, we have

𝜃 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑀 𝜔𝑀
∫ (𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 )𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝐼𝜔𝑑𝜔
𝜃 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑚 𝜔𝑚

𝜔𝑀
= 𝐼∫ 𝜔𝑑𝜔
𝜔𝑚

1
= 𝐼(𝜔𝑀 2 − 𝜔𝑀 2 )
2
Where 𝜔𝑀 and 𝜔𝑚 are maximum and minimum speed of the flywheel respectively.

𝜔𝑀 and 𝜔𝑚 are determined from the turning moment diagram of the engine. They
are determined through the knowledge of the areas of the torque diagram above
and below the average torque line. The integral of each loop in the torque diagram
gives the area of that loop. This can be determined by the use of a planimeter or
a numerical integration but here such areas would be given. The point of maximum
speed, 𝜔𝑀 of figure 1.9 can be determined by inspection being the end of the
power stroke while 𝜔𝑚 is at the start of the 7th loop. It is not at the end of the 7th
loop because more speed is added then.
However, the more general way to establish 𝜔𝑀 and 𝜔𝑚 is to determine the loop
areas and sum up cumulatively as shown in figure 1.11. the summation can also
be done by tabulation.

Figure 1-11

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In the example of figure 1.11, hypothetic values have been given. The areas of
each loop are then summed up cumulatively, 𝜔𝑀 is a point end of loop 1 at +7
while 𝜔𝑚 is at point end of loop 5 at -2.

The +ve areas are work done to increase the speed of the flywheel while negative
areas are work done to decrease speed. Note also that the sum of the areas of the
loops should be zero sine the line TAV is the average torque which divides the +ve
and –ve areas into equal parts. The algebraic sum of the areas between the
locations of 𝜔𝑚 and 𝜔𝑀 represents the work done by torque to change the flywheel
kinetic energy from minimum to maximum. NOTE THE LAST STATEMENT.

The integral expression can be represented by A; where

𝜃 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑀
𝐴=∫ (𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 )𝑑𝜃
𝜃 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑚

As already mentioned, A is determined by a planimeter or by numerical

integration.
1
𝐴 = 𝐼(𝜔𝑀 2 − 𝜔𝑀 2 )
2

The flywheel is always designed to minimize the difference between the minimum
and maximum speed, hence a coefficient of fluctuation, K is assigned and defined
as

𝜔𝑀 − 𝜔𝑚
𝑘=
𝜔

Where 𝜔 is the average angular speed, but the average speed is

𝜔𝑀 + 𝜔𝑚
𝜔=
2
But the equation for area A can be expanded as

1
𝐴 = 𝐼(𝜔𝑀 + 𝜔𝑚 )(𝜔𝑀 − 𝜔𝑚 )
2
Hence A can be recast as:

1
𝐴 = 𝐼(𝜔𝑀 + 𝜔𝑚 )(𝜔𝑀 − 𝜔𝑚 )
2
𝜔𝑀 + 𝜔𝑚
𝜔=
2

𝜔𝑀 + 𝜔𝑚 = 2𝜔

𝜔𝑀 − 𝜔𝑚
𝑘=
𝜔
𝜔𝑀 − 𝜔𝑚 = 𝑘𝜔
1
𝐴 = 𝐼(2𝜔)(𝑘𝜔)
2
𝐴 = 𝐼𝑘𝜔2

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But
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔=
60
Where N is the speed revolutions per minute (rpm)

2𝜋𝑁 2
𝐴 = 𝐼𝑘 ( )
60
And
3600𝐴
𝐼=
4𝑘𝜋 2 𝑁 2
Finally with the moment of inertia known, the mass and size of the flywheel can
be determined, we have

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑅 2

Where m = mass and R = radius of gyration of the flywheel. In automobiles, the

flywheel is usually a discs. For the sake of lower weights, thin disc of large diameter
should be preferred but due to large stresses set up by centrifugal forces of
rotation, a compromise in diameter is adopted.

For the disc;

𝑚𝑟 2 𝑚𝑑2
𝐼= =
2 8

Where r and d are the radius and diameter of the disc respectively. One of these
values will have to be assigned

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Example
A multi-cylinder engine is running at 800rev/min against a constant load torque.
Intercepted areas between the driving and load torques are, in sequence, -52,
+124, -92, +140, -85, +72, and -107mm2, where the scales are 1mm = 600Nm
vertically and 1mm = 3o horizontally. If the fluctuation of speed is not to exceed
2 percent of the mean, find the least radius of gyration of the flywheel if it’s mass
is to be 500kg
SOLUTION

Points Areas Cumulative

Sum
A-B -52 -52 min
B-C 124 72
C-D -92 -20
D-E 140 120 max
E-F -85 35
F-G 72 107
G-H -107 0

𝐴 = 124 − 92 + 140 = 172𝑚𝑚2

𝜋
1𝑚𝑚2 = 600 ×
60
𝜋
𝐴 = 172𝑚𝑚2 × 600 × = 5404𝑁𝑚
60

𝐴 = 𝐼𝐾𝜔2
2 800 × 2𝜋 2
5404 = 𝐼 × ×( )
100 60
𝐼 = 38.5𝑘𝑔𝑚2
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑘 2
38.5 = 500 × 𝑘 2
𝑘 = 0.277𝑚
Determine the mass, m and thickness t of a cast iron type flywheel, 300mm
diameter. The moment of inertia is 2668.1kg-cm2 and the density of cast iron is
7.2g/cm3
SOLUTION

𝑚𝑑2
𝐼=
8
𝑚(0.3)2
2668.1 =
8
𝑚 = 23.72𝑘𝑔
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
23.72 × 1000
7.2 =
𝑣
𝜋𝑑2
𝑣 = 3293.95 = 𝑡
4
𝜋(0.3)2
3293.95 = 𝑡
4

𝑡 = 4.66𝑐𝑚

MEE 312 – Mechanics of Machines II Page 16 of 16