BS- Laboratory Course

PH-193
Aim of experiment:
The purpose of this experiment is to verify Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) and
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). Ohm’s law relates voltage to resistance and current;
Kirchoff’s laws deal solely with current and voltage.
 Use of multimeter.
 To study the relationship between current and voltage in DC circuits.
 To observe resistance, current, and voltage relationships in series and parallel
combinations.
 To study the voltage and current divider circuits.
Introduction:
Ohm’s law, Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) are essential
in the analysis of linear circuitry. Kirchoff’s laws deal with the voltage and current in the
circuit. Ohm’s law relates voltage, current and resistance to one another. These three laws
apply to resistive circuits where the only elements are voltage and/or current sources and
resistors. Using the three laws any resistance of, current through or voltage across a resistor
can be found if any two are already known. The purpose of this report is to provide
verification of these laws.
Ohm’s Law
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge.
This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented
by the symbol R.
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor.
VI
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R.
V =IR 1
The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).
It should be pointed out that not all resistors obey Ohm’s law. A resistor that obeys Ohm’s
law is known as a linear resistor. It has a constant resistance and thus its current-voltage
characteristic is as illustrated in Figure 1: its I-V graph is a straight line passing through the
origin. The slope of the curve gives the value of the resistance.

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 Figure 1: The I-V characteristic of a linear resistor,

The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

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V
P=VI =I 2 R=
R 2
Figure 2 summarizes the relation between the voltage, current resistance and power dissipation.

Figure 2: Summary of Ohm’s Law relationship.

Kirchhoff’s Law
Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety
of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current
law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) or Junction Rule
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the
algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering and exiting a node (or in a closed boundary) is zero.
N
∑ I n=0
n=1 3
Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and “n” is the nth current entering
(or leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive,
while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

Figure 3: Currents at Currents at a node illustrating KCL.

Applying this rule to the junction in Figure 3 gives.

I1 = I 2 + I 3 4
Krichoff Voltage Law (KVL) or Loop Rule
Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation of energy:
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
drops around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

∑ V =0
loop 5

Figure 4: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

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Applying this rule to the loop in Figure 4 gives.
V=V1+V2
V-V1-V2=0
Series and Parallel Networks
Series Circuits
Figure 5 shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected end to end, i.e., in series, with a
battery source of voltage V volts. Since the circuit is closed a current I will flow and the
potential difference across each resistor may be determine from the voltmeter readings V1, V2,
V3

Figure 5: A single-loop circuit with three resistors in series.

In a series circuit:
The current I is same in all parts of the circuit and hence the same reading is found on the
ammeters shown and
The sum of the voltages is equal to the total applied voltage V (KVL), i.e.,
V = V1+V2+V3
From Ohm’s Law
V1=IR1, V2=IR2, V3=IR3
and
V= IReq
Where Req is the total resistance of the circuit.
IReq = IR1+IR2+IR3
Req = R1+R2+R3 6

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Thus for the series circuit, the total resistance is obtained by adding together the values of
separate resistances.
For N resistors in series,
N
Req = ∑ Rn
n=1 7
Voltage Divider Rule / Potential Divider
The circuit shown in the Figure 6 (a) is referred to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit
can consist of a number of similar elements in series connected across a voltage source,
voltage being taken from connections between the elements. Frequently the divider consists
of two resistors as shown in figure.

Figure 6: A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series illustrated the voltage divider circuit.

The voltage distribution of the circuit shown in figure is

R1
V 1=
( R1 + R 2 )
V
8

R2
V 2=
( )
R1 + R 2
V
9
For R1 = R2 in the above circuit, V1= V2=V/2
The circuit shown in Figure 6 (b) is often referred to as a potential divider circuit. Such a
circuit can consist of a number of similar elements in series connected across a voltage
source, voltages being taken from connections between the elements. Frequently the divider
consists of two resistors as shown in Figure 6 (b), where
R1
V out =
( V
)
R1 +R 2 in
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Parallel Networks

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Figure 7 shows the three resistors connected across each other, i.e., in parallel, across a
battery source of V volts.

Figure 7: Three resistances in parallel

In a parallel circuit
The sum of the current I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current (KCL), i.e.,
I = I1+I2+I3
And the source potential difference V volts is the same across each of the resistors
From Ohm’s Law
V V V V
I1= I2= I3= I=
R1 , R2 , R3 and
R eq

V V V V
= + +
R eq R1 R 2 R3
Dividing throughout V gives:
1 1 1 1
= + +
R eq R1 R 2 R3 11
This equation must be used when finding the total resistance R of the parallel circuit. For the
special case or two resistors in parallel (Figure 8)

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 Figure 8: Two resistors in parallel.

1 1 1 R 2 + R1
= + =
R eq R1 R 2 R1 R 2
R1 R 2
Req =
R 2 + R1 ( i. e . , product
sum ) 12

For N resistors in series,

N
1 1
=∑
R eq n=1 Rn 13
Note that Req is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest resistor in the parallel
combination. If R1 = R2 = · · · = RN = R, then
R
Req =
N 14
Current Divider Rules / Current Division
For the circuit shown in the figure, the total circuit resistance, Req is given by
R1 R 2
Req =
R 2 + R1

R1 R 2
V =IR eq =I
( R 2 + R1 )
Current I1,

V I R 1 R2
I1= =
R 1 R1 R2 + R 1 ( )
R2
I1=
( R 2 + R1
I
) 15
And current I2

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 V I R1 R2
I2= =
(
R2 R2 R2 + R1 )
R1
I2=
( )
R 2 + R1
I
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Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854)

German physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined the most basic law
relating voltage and current for a resistor. Ohm’s work was initially denied by
critics. Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria, Ohm threw himself
into electrical research. His efforts resulted in his famous law. He was
awarded the Copley Medal in 1841 by the Royal Society of London. In 1849,
he was given the Professor of Physics chair by the University of Munich. To
honor him, the unit of resistance was named the ohm.

GUSTAV KIRCHHOFF (1824–1887)

German physicist, stated two basic laws in 1847 concerning the relationship
between the currents and voltages in an electrical network. Kirchhoff’s laws,
along with Ohm’s law, form the basis of circuit theory. Born the son of a
lawyer in Konigsberg, East Prussia, Kirchhoff entered the University of
Konigsberg at age 18 and later became a lecturer in Berlin. His collaborative
work in spectroscopy with German chemist Robert Bunsen led to the
discovery of cesium in 1860 and rubidium in 1861. Kirchhoff was also
credited with the Kirchhoff law of radiation. Thus Kirchhoff is famous among
engineers, chemists, and physicists.

Equipment:
 Digital Multimeters (2)
 DC Battery 9 V (1)
 Resistors; 470 Ω, 1000 Ω , 2200 Ω (2 each)
 Potentiometer 10 kΩ (1)
 Short wires (10)
 Circuit board (breadboard) (1),
 Circuit board leads (6)
 Banana Lead
 Potentiometer
About the Circuit Board (Breadboard)
Notice the small lines, letters and numbers.
Position the board horizontally so that the letters are right side up. The holes connected by
little lines are connected inside the board. That means the bottom row is connected all the
way across. Also the top two rows are similarly connected all the way across the board.

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Notice the middle rows are connected in groups of five holes. When you put components into
the circuit they must go between holes that are not connected. You can put them horizontally
where they jump from one set of five holes to another set, or you can put them vertically
between different rows. When you want to connect two or more components, part of each
must be in connecting holes.

Figure 9: Electronic breadboard template

Multimeter
 A multimeter is a devise used to measure voltage, resistance and current in electronics
& electrical equipment
 It is also used to test continuity between to 2 points to verify if there is any breaks in
circuit or line
 There are two types of multimeter Analog & Digital
1. –Analog has a needle style gauge
2. –Digital has a LCD display
 There are 2 styles of multimeters
1. Switched Manually switch between ranges to get most accurate reading.
2. Auto Range Switches between ranges automatically for best reading.
Both of these styles work the same
These symbols are often found on multimeter and schematics are shown in Figure 10. They
are designed to symbolize components and reference values.

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 Figure 10: Symbols found on multimeter.

Measuring Resistance and Continuity

To measure the resistance of resistor, plug the banana leads of two breadboard leads into the
Ohms and COM receptacles on the multimeter.
 Resistance (W) is the opposition to current
 Resistance is measured in Ohm's
 Disconnect power source before testing
 Remove component or part from system before testing
 Measure using lowest value, if OL move to next level
 Testing for continuity is used to test to verify if a circuit, wire or fuse is complete with
no open
 Audible continuity allows an alarm if circuit is complete
 If there is no audible alarm resistance of 1ohm to .1ohm should be present

Measuring Voltage

To measure the voltage, plug the banana leads of two breadboard leads into the Volts and
COM receptacles on the multimeter.

 Voltage (V) is the unit of electrical pressure; one volt is the potential difference
needed to cause one amp of current to pass through one ohm of resistance
 Voltage is broke up into 2 sections AC & DC
 Alternating Current (AC) is house voltage (110vac)
 Direct Current (DC) is battery voltage (12vdc)
 On switched meters use one value higher than your expected value
 Be very careful to not touch any other electronic components within the equipment
and do not touch the tips to each other while connected to anything else

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  To measure voltage, connect the leads in parallel between the two points where the
measurement is to be made. The multimeter provides a parallel pathway so it needs to
be of a high resistance to allow as little current flow through it as possible.

Measuring Current
To measure the current, plug the banana leads of two breadboard leads into the Ampere (A
or mA) and COM receptacles on the multimeter.
 Current (amps) is the flow of electrical charge though a component or conductor
 Current is measured in amps or amperes
 Disconnect power source before testing
 Disconnect completed circuit at end of circuit
 Place multimeter in series with circuit
 Reconnect power source and turn ON
 Select highest current setting and work your way down.
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is an adjustable resistor which consists of a wiper that
slides across a resistive strip to deliver an increase or decrease in
resistance. The level of resistance will determine output of current to the
circuit.

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Symbols are used for components in electrical circuit diagrams and some of the more
common ones are shown in table.

Component Symbol Picture

Resistor

Variable Resistor
Or
Potentiometer

Battery

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Capacitor

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Experiment # 1.
Ohms Law Verification:
For the circuit shown in Figure 11, Measure the IV curve. And calculate the value of the
resistance from the slope of the curve for three different values of R. Compare the value of R
calculated from graph and measured by the Ohm’s meter.

Figure 11: Circuit diagram to test Ohm’s Law.

Procedure:
1. Connect the component on the bread board according to the Figure 11 (R= 470 Ω).
2. Vary the current through the circuit using the potentiometer and note down the
voltage drop across the resistor.
# Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω) (R=V/I)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

3. Calculate the value of R using equation R=V/I

4. Plot the graph between I and V.
5. Calculate the value of R from the graph (slope of the curve).
6. Repeat the experiment (step 1-5) with R = 1 kΩ and R = 2.2 kΩ

Experiment # 2.

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Voltage divider circuit

Figure 12: Voltage divider circuit

1. Connect the component on the bread board according to the Figure 12 (Ro = 470 Ω).
2. Measure the voltage of the battery before connecting to circuit.
3. Measure the current through the circuit.
4. Measure the voltage drop across Vout across Ro
5. Calculate the value of Vout using equation 10
6. Repeat the experiment (step 1-5) with Ro = 1 kΩ and R = 2.2 kΩ

V= Volts R1 = 1kΩ
Calculated Vout (Volts)
# Ro (Ω) Vout (V) Ro
(
V out =
)
R1 + R o
V

1
2
3

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Experiment # 3.
Resistors in series:
Find the net resistance of the series network.
For known values of resistor R1 = 470 Ω, R2 = 1000 Ω, R3 =2200 Ω

Figure 13: Three resistors in series.

Resistor in Series:

1. Connect the three resistors with values of about 470 Ω, 1000 Ω and 2200 Ω in series
as shown in Figure 13.
2. Record in your journal the resistance values indicated from the color code bands.
3. Plug the banana leads of two breadboard leads into the Ohms and COM receptacles
on the multimeter.
4. Measure the resistance of each resistor by connecting the wires of the circuit board
leads to each side of the resistor.
5. Measure and record the values of R1, R2, R3, and Req (across all three resistors).
6. Find the percent error between the measured value of Req and the sum of the measured
resistances.

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Experiment # 4.
Voltage divider circuit and KVL Verification:

Figure 14: Three resistors in series.

For the circuit shown in Figure 14

Measure the current I and voltage drops (V1, V2 and V3) across each resistor (R1, R2 and R3
respectively).

Verify the KVL (V = V1+V2+V3)

Calculate the value of Req of the circuit Using Eq. V= IReq
Confirm that Req = R1+R2+R3

Also confirm the values of Vi by calculating

V i=IR i (i=1 , 2 , 3)
Compare the calculated values with measured V1, V2 and V3

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Experiment # 5.
Resistor in Parallel:
Find the net resistance of the series network.
For known values of resistor R1 = 470 Ω, R2 = 1000 Ω, R3 =2200 Ω

Figure 15: Three resistors in parallel.

1. Record in your journal the resistance values indicated from the color code bands.
2. Plug the banana leads of two breadboard leads into the Ohms and COM receptacles
on the multimeter.
3. Before connecting the resistors in parallel (Figure 15), measure the resistance of each
resistor by connecting the wires of the circuit board leads to each side of the resistor.
4. Measure and record the values of R1, R2, R3,
5. Connect the three resistors (with values of about 470 Ω, 1000 Ω and 2200 Ω) in
parallel as shown in Figure 15.
6. Measure the resistance of each resistor by connecting the wires of the circuit board
leads to each side of the resistor.
7. Measure and record the value of Req.
8. Find the percent error between the measured value of Req and the sum of the measured
resistances.

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Experiment # 5.
Current divider circuit

Figure 16: Current divider circuit

1. Connect the component on the bread board according to the Figure 16 (Ro = 470 Ω).
2. Measure the voltage of the battery before connecting to circuit.
3. Measure the current through the circuit I.
4. Measure the currents I1 and Io through each resistor, R1 and Ro respectively.
5. Calculate the value of of I1 and Io using equation 11 and 12
6. Repeat the experiment (step 1-5) with Ro = 1 kΩ and R = 2.2 kΩ

V= Volts R1 = 1kΩ
Calculated
# Ro (Ω) I (A) I1 (A) I2 (A) Ro R1
I1=
( )
R 1 + Ro
I I o=
( )
R1 + R o
I

1
2
3

Experiment # 6.

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Current divider circuit and KCL Verification:

Figure 17: Three resistors in parallel.

For the circuit shown in Figure 17,

1. Fixed the voltage V using the potentiometer to 4 volts.
2. Measure the current I and (I1, I2 and I3) across each resistor (R1, R2 and R3
respectively).
3. Verify the KCL (I = I1+I2+I3)
4. Calculate the value of Req of the circuit Using Eq. V= IReq
1 1 1 1
= + +
5. Confirm that
R eq R1 R 2 R3
6. Repeat the experiment (step1-5) for different values of voltage V (6 volts and 8 volts)

Prepared By:
Dr. Muhammad Usman
Department of Physics
Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad 45320.
Pakistan.

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