Introduction

Electric charge and current

The unit of current, the ampere (A), is defined as the constant
current in two parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible
cross section, 1 meter apart in vacuum, which produces a force
between the conductors of 2.0 x10-7 newtons per meter length.
Current results from charges in motion, and 1 ampere is equivalent
to 1 coulomb of charge moving across a fixed surface in 1 second.

Moving charges are positive or negative. Figure 1 a and b shows the

movement of positive charges. The current is in the direction of the
positive charge but opposite to the movement of the negative charge.
If the charges cross the surface S at a rate of 1 Coloumb per second
then the current is 1 ampere.
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 Figure 1

In a metallic conductor there is a random motion of electrons at

room temperature.
In copper there are approx. 8.5 x 1028 free electrons per cubic meter.
Each electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10-19C. Therefore for 1 Amp to
flow in one second 1/1.6 x 10-19 or 6.24 x 1018 electrons must cross a
fixed surface area in 1 second.

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Electric potential
An electric charge experiences a force in an electric field which, if
unopposed, will accelerate the particle containing the charge. Thus, if
1 joule of work is required to move a charge Q of 1 coulomb from
position 0 to position 1, then position 1 is at a potential of 1 volt with
respect to position 0; 1V = 1 J/C.
i.e. the Potiential Difference = work done / charge
This electric potential is capable of doing work just as a mass m
which was raised against the gravitational force g to a height h
above the ground plane (PE = mgh)
Energy and Electric Power
The rate, in joules per second, at which energy is transferred is
electric power in watts. The product of voltage V and current I
yields electric power P,
P = I V; 1W =1V.1 A.
Power is the time derivative p = dw/dt, where w is the work 3
done.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ELEMENTS
An electrical device is represented by a circuit diagram or network
constructed from series and parallel arrangements of two-terminal
elements. The analysis of the circuit diagram predicts the performance
of the actual device.

Active elements are voltage or current

sources which are able to supply energy to
the network.

Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are

passive elements which take energy from
the sources and either convert it to another
Two terminal device form or store it in an electric or magnetic
field.

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a and b are voltage sources: c and d are current sources.
A voltage source that is not affected by changes in the connected
circuit is an independent source, represented by a.
A dependent voltage source which changes in some described
manner with the conditions on the connected circuit and is
represented by a diamond shape (b).
Current sources can also be dependent or independent and are shown
in c and d.
The passive elements resistors, inductors and capacitors are shown
in e, f and g.
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Sign conventions
Voltage sources must have a polarity (+ve and ve leads) and current
sources must have a direction.

For passive elements the terminal at which the current enters is +ve
with respect to the one from which the current leaves.

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7
Electrical Quantities and prefixes

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CAPACITANCE
The circuit element that stores energy in an electric field is a capacitor
(also called capacitance). The unit of capacitance is the Farad (F). When
the voltage is variable over a cycle, energy will be stored during one part
of the cycle and returned in the next.

While an inductance cannot retain energy after removal of the source

because the magnetic field collapses, the capacitor retains the charge and
the electric field can remain after the source is removed. This charged
condition can remain until a discharge path is provided, at which
time the energy is released. The power in the capacitor is given by the
following equation

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Proof
Recall V = W/Q and I = Q/T and from P = W/T
W = QV and T = Q/I
Therefore P = W/T = QV/(Q/I) = VI

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KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW
For any closed path in a network, Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL)
states that the algebraic sum of the voltages is zero.

Some of the voltages will be sources, while others will result from
current in passive elements creating a voltage, which is sometimes
referred to as a voltage drop.

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Series circuit

The current is the same in each element in the circuit.

The applied voltage is equal to the sum of the potential
difference (or voltage drop) across each element in the circuit.
This is KVL. 14
Write KVL for the circuit shown.

Follow the current from the

starting point (i.e the source)
in a clockwise direction.
Keep in mind that current
leaves the positive terminal
and enters the negative
terminal. Hence

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Write KVL for the circuit shown.

Starting at the lower left corner of the circuit, for the current direction
as shown, we have

va = v1+ vb + v2 + v3

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KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW
The connection of two or more circuit elements creates a junction called
a node. The junction between two elements is called a simple node and
no division of current results. The junction of three or more elements is
called a principal node, and here current division does take place.
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) states that the algrebraic sum of the
currents at a node is zero. It may be stated alternatively that the sum of
the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
that node.
KCL for the node shown:

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 Consider the following circuit.
In this circuit there are two
constant voltage sources VA and
VB connected to a 5 resistor.
Current flows from the positive
terminal.
The current re-enters the source at the negative terminal. Hence the 20V
source will produce a current of 4 A (Ohms Law V = IR) in a clockwise
direction and the 5 V source will give 1 A in an anticlockwise direction.
Hence the resultant current is 3 A in a clockwise direction.

Power is absorbed by an element when current enters the element at the

+ve terminal. Therefore, the resistor and VB absorbs power. Power is
supplied by an element when current enters its ve terminal, therefore VA
supplies power to all elements in the circuit and is considered to be the
circuits source.
Power supplied = IVA = 20 x 3 = 60 Watts
Power absorbed by resistor and VB = I2R + IVB = 9 x 5 + 3 x 5 = 60 W.
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 Series Circuit

The total voltage v is the sum of the individual

voltages;
v = v1 + v2 + v3.
The current is the same in each element

where a single equivalent resistance Req replaces the three series

resistors. For any number of resistors in series, we have
Req = R1 + R2 +...

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 Parallel circuit
The total current is the sum of
the individual currents

The voltage across each

element is the same.

If the three passive circuit elements are resistances,

For several resistors in parallel,

For two resistors in parallel

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Voltage Division
A set of series-connected resistors as shown is referred to as a
voltage divider.

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Voltage Divider with a load

First find the R EQ RL // R 2 then

RL // R2 REQ
vo vs vs
R R
R1 RL // R2 1 EQ
Current division
A parallel arrangement of resistors as shown results in a current
divider. The ratio of the branch current i1 to the total current i
illustrates the operation of the divider.

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Use the current divider rule to find the currents I1 and I2 in the
networks shown

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Questions

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 Voltage sources in series

since they are all driving current in the same direction.

Since the 4V and 9V sources are opposing each other and the 3V source is
driving current in the same direction of the 9V source.
 Parallel Voltage Sources

Must have same voltage rating

Different terminal voltages Both would be damaged (ineffective) since the

voltage of larger would try to drop to that of
smaller.
E1 E 2
I
Rint1 Rint 2

= 6/.05 = 120A which exceeds the rating

of the larger supply causing a rapid
discharge of E1 and a destructive impact
on the smaller supply
Method of solving circuits
To find source current, reduce circuit to a single voltage source and
a single equivalent resistance Req.
Starting from the resistance furthest from the source apply
series and parallel techniques until a Req is found.
Find source current using Ohms law.
Apply KVL and KCL to circuit
To apply KCL build back circuit in stages, two loops first and
solve for all currents. Then add another loop and solve for
currents. Use this technique until all currents in the circuit are
found.
To apply KVL, use the original circuit and identify all closed
loops. Apply KVL to each individual loop. Note that some
loops may not have a voltage source.
By now all currents, voltages and resistances will be known.
Calculate power for each resistor and show that the power supplied
is equal to the power consumed (absorbed) in the circuit. 32
Example
 Question

Calculate, a) the voltage v, b) the power delivered to the circuit by the

current source, c) the power dissipated in the 10 resistor
 Question

Calculate, a) the no load voltage vo , b) vo when the load is 200K , c) the power
dissipated in the 25 k resistor if the load terminals are accidentally shorted, d)
the maximum power dissipated in the 75k resistor.
Find a) the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80
resistor, b) the power that will be dissipated in R calculated from part a, c) the
power generated by the current source given the value of R calculated.
Question 1 Simplify the circuits
Question 2 Simplify the circuits
Q3 Use voltage division and current division to solve circuit and find
the unknown quantities.
Question 4: a) Use voltage division to determine the voltage across the 40
resistor, b) use this value to determine the current through the 40 resistor,
and use the current divider rule to calculate the current in the 30 resistor,
c)How much power is absorbed by the 50 resistor?
Q 5. Solve for the unknown quantities in the following circuits:
Q 6. Use the voltage divider rule to solve for the unknown quantities in the
following ckt: