Basic Electricity and

Electronics
ECE 3281
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Institute of Technology
Ambo University

1
 Chapter One
Network Theories and Equivalent Circuits

1.1.Introduction
 Circuit

 Circuit Variables
 Circuit Elements

2
 Circuit

 In electrical engineering, we are often interested in

communicating or transferring energy from one point to
another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical
devices. Such interconnection is referred to as an electric
circuit.
 An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements.

3
 Cont….

1.1. Systems of Units

4
 Circuit Variables

Charge:
 The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for
all electrical phenomena.
 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of
which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
 The charge of an electron is

5
 Cont…

 A coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there

are 1/(1.602 × 10−19) = 6.24 × 1018 electrons. Thus realistic or
laboratory values of charges are on the order of pC, nC, or μC.
 A large power supply capacitor can store up to 0.5 C of charge.
 Law of Conservation of Charge: Charge can neither be
created nor destroyed, only transferred.

6
 Circuit Variables Cont….

Current:
 is the rate of change of charge flow.
 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second (or 1 A = 1 C/s)

1.2 Electric current due to the flow of electric

charge in a conductor

7
 Current Cont….

It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of

positive charges, that is, opposite to the flow of negative charges,
as figure-1.2 above shows.
 The time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
dq
Mathematically, i 
dt
,

where i  the current in amperes, q  the charge in coulmbs,

t  the time in seconds.
The charge transferred between time t1 and t2 is obtained by:

8
Cont…

9
 Two types of currents
• Direct current (DC) is a
current that remains
constant with time.
By convention the symbol I is
used to represent such a constant
current. A time-varying current is
represented by the symbol i.
• An alternating current
(AC) is a current that varies
with time.
Such AC current is used in your
household, to run the air
conditioner, refrigerator, washing
machine, and other electric
appliances.
10
 Examples

1) How much charge is represented by 3,600

electrons?

2) The total charge entering a terminal is given

by q = 5sin 4πt mC. Calculate the current at t
= 0.5 s.

11
 Circuit Variable Cont….

Voltage:
 Voltage (or potential deference): the energy required to
move a unit charge though an element, measured in volts (V).

dw
v = Where w is energy in joules(J)
dq
and q is charge in
coulombs(C)

12
 Cont….
 The voltage between two points a and b in a circuit is denoted
by Vab and can be interpreted in two ways:
(a) point a is at a potential of Vab volts higher than point b, or

(b) the potential at point a with respect to point b is Vab.

The plus (+) and minus (-) signs at the points a

and b are used to define reference direction or
voltage polarity.
13
Example

14
 Cont…

 Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a DC voltage

and is represented by V ,
 whereas a sinusoidal time-varying voltage is called an AC
voltage and is represented by v.

 A dc voltage is commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage is

produced by an electric generator.

15
 Circuit Variables Cont…
Power:
 is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy.
Measured in watts(W)

P=VI in a DC circuit

Sign of power
Plus sign: Power is absorbed by the element. (resistor, inductor)
Minus sign: Power is supplied by the element. (battery, generator)
16
 Cont….
Passive sign convention:
 If the current enters through the positive polarity of the
voltage, p = vi.
 If the current enters through the negative polarity of the
voltage, p = -vi.

17
 Cont…

 The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any

electric circuit. Thus, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit,
at any instant of time, must be zero:
 This confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the
circuit must balance the total power absorbed.
Power absorbed = - Power supplied

18
 Circuit Variables Cont…
Energy:
 is the capacity to do work, measured in joules(J)
 The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time to
time t is

t t
w = òt pdt = òt vidt
0 0

The electric power utility companies measure energy in

watt-hours (Wh), Where 1 Wh = 3,600 J
19
 Circuit Elements

 There are 2 types of elements found in electrical circuits.

1) Active elements (is capable of generating energy), e.g.,

generators, batteries, and operational ampliers (Op-amp).
2) Passive element, e.g., resistors, capacitors and inductors.
 The most important active elements are voltage and current
sources:
(a) Voltage source provides the circuit with a specified voltage
(e.g. a 1.5V battery)
(b) Current source provides the circuit with a specified current
(e.g. a 1A current source).
20
 Cont…
 In addition, we may characterize the voltage or current sources
as:
1) Independent source: An active element that provides a
specified voltage or current that is completely independent of
other circuit elements.

21
 Cont…

2.Dependent source: An active element in which the source

quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

22
 Cont….

 There are a total of four variations

1.  A voltage –controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2.  A current –controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3.  A voltage –controlled current source (VCCS)
4. A current –controlled current source (CCCS)

23
 I1
V1 V1 I1

VCVS CCVS

I1
V1 g V1
I1

VCCS CCCS

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Circuit Analysis Theorems and Techniques

Basic Laws:
 Here we explore two fundamental laws that govern electric
circuits (Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws) and discuss some
techniques commonly applied in circuit design and analysis.
Ohm's Law:
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor.

25
 Cont…
 Mathematical expression for Ohm’s Law is as follows
v = iR
 Two extreme possible values of R: 0 (zero) and  (infinite)
are related with two basic circuit concepts: short circuit and
open circuit.

26
 Cont…

To apply Ohm's law, the direction of current i and the polarity
of voltage v must conform with the passive sign convention.
This implies that current flows from a higher potential to a lower
potential in order for v = iR. If current flows from a lower
potential to a higher potential, v = -iR.

27
Cont…
• The resistance R of a
cylindrical conductor of
cross-sectional area A,
length L, and conductivity
is given by:

Where is known as the resistivity of the

material in ohm-meters. Good
conductors, such as copper and aluminum,
have low resistivity, while insulators, such as
mica and paper, have high resistivity.
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 Ohms Law Cont…
 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current; it is the reciprocal of resistance R and is measured in
mhos or siemens.
1 i
G 
R v
 The power dissipated by a resistor:

2
v
p  vi  i 2 R 
R

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 Example

1. In the circuit below, calculate the current i,

and the power p.

30
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Branches, Nodes, Loops and Mesh

 Branch
-represents a single element such as a voltage source or a
resistor
 Node
– a point in a circuit where two or more circuit components are joined
 Loop
– any closed path that passes through no node more than once
 Mesh
– a loop that contains no other loop
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Example

– A, B, C, D, E and F are
nodes
– the paths ABEFA,
BCDEB
and ABCDEFA are loops
– ABEFA and BCDEB are
meshes

32
 Kirchhoff’s Laws Cont…

 The two laws of Kirchhoff’s are

(i) Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and

(ii) Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

 At any instant, the algebraic sum of all the currents flowing
into and out of any node in a circuit is zero
 if currents flowing into the node are positive, currents
flowing out of the node are negative, then ΣI=0
33
KCL Cont…

34
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
 In any complete path in an electrical circuit, the sum of the
voltage increases equals the sum of the voltage drops.
 If we trace from ve terminal to +ve terminal, It is a
voltage rise. Hence, the e.m.f. is +ve.
 If it is traced from +ve terminal to ve terminal, It is a
voltage fall and hence the e.m.f. is ve.

35
Example for KVL

36
Exercise

37
 Series Resistors and Voltage Division
• Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are
cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry the
same current.

• The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected

in a series is the sum of the individual resistances.
N
Req  R1  R2      R N   Rn
n 1

• The voltage divider can be expressed as

Rn
vn  v
R1  R2      R N
38
Example

39
 Parallel Resistors and Current Division
• Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are
connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the
same voltage across them.

• The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in

parallel is: 1 1 1 1
    
Req R1 R2 RN
• Suppose that, two resistances ‘R1’ & ‘R2’ are connected in
parallel with a current source ‘I’. So, the Individual current ‘I1’
& ‘I2’ are given by:

40
Example

41
 Basic Analysis Methods to Circuits

 Here we apply the fundamental laws of circuit

theory (Ohm's Law & Kirchhoff's Laws) to
develop two powerful techniques for circuit
analysis.
1. Nodal Analysis (based on KCL)

2. Mesh Analysis (based on KVL)

42
Mesh Analysis

• Four steps:

1. Identify the meshes

2. Assign a clockwise-flowing current to each. Label
these I1, I2, etc.

3. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each mesh

4. Solve the simultaneous equations to determine the
currents I1, I2, etc.

5. Use these values to obtain voltages if required

43
Mesh Analysis Cont…

1) Identifying the Meshes

1kW 1kW

+ +
V1 V2
- Mesh 1 Mesh 2 -
1kW

Mesh: A special kind of loop that doesn’t contain any loops within it.

44
Mesh Analysis Cont…

2) Assigning Mesh Currents

1kW 1kW

+ 1kW +
V1 V2
I1 I2
- -

45
 Mesh Analysis Cont…
3) Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in
terms of the loop currents.

1kW 1kW

+ 1kW +
I1 I2 V2
- -

For Mesh 1: -V1 + I1 1kW + (I1 - I2) 1kW = 0 I1 ( 1kW + 1kW) - I2 1kW = V1
For Mesh 2: (I2 - I1) 1kW + I2 1kW + V2 = 0 - I1 1kW + I2 ( 1kW + 1kW) = -V2

46
 Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in terms
of the loop currents.

1kW 1kW

I1 ( 1kW + 1kW) - I2 1kW = V1 + 1kW +

V1
I1 I2 V2
- I1 1kW + I2 ( 1kW + 1kW) = -V2 - -

4) Solve the resulting system of linear equations.

1k  1k  1k   I1   V1 

  1k     
 1k   1k I 
 2   2  V
47
 Exercise
1. Find the branch currents I1; I2; and I3 using mesh
analysis. Ans. I1=I2=1A, I3=0A

48
Nodal analysis
 Steps to determine node voltages
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages
v1, v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The
voltages are referenced with respect to the reference
node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 non reference nodes.
Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in
terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain
the unknown node voltages.

49
 Nodal Analysis Example
solved the following circuit by the method of node-voltage analysis.
Ans. VN=44V

50
Circuit Theorems
Superposition:
 states that the voltage across (or current through)
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents through) that element due

to each independent source acting alone.

51
Superposition Cont…
Steps:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find

the output (voltage or current) due to that active source
using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

52
Cont…
Example: Consider the circuit given below.
24 Ohm
R
Rload
I
+ V 2A 16 Ohm
20V

•Determine the current in the load resistor, RL.

•Verify that the superposition theorem does not apply to power.

53
Source Transformation
 is the process of replacing a voltage source vs. in
series with a resistor R by a current source is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

54
Thevenin’s theorem

 states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced

by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source
VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the
open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the
input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

55
Purpose

 Used when we are interested ONLY in the terminal

behavior of the circuit particularly where a variable load
is connected to.
 Provides a technique to replaced the fixed part of the
circuit by a simple equivalent circuit.
 Avoid the re-do on the analysis of the entire circuit
except for the changed load.
56
 Replacing linear two-terminal (a-b) circuit
by its Thevenin equivalent
• Original circuit • Thevenin equivalent circuit

VTh - Thevenin voltage

RTh - Thevenin resistance
57
Replacing linear two-terminal (a-b) circuit by its
Thevenin equivalent (Cntd)

• Thevenin equivalent circuit

VTh - Thevenin voltage

RTh - Thevenin resistance
58
Procedures to obtain VTh and RTh

Step 1: Priliminary – Omitting load resistor RL (Not

applicable if no load resistor)
Step 2: Find RTh – setting all independent sources to
zero. Find the resultant resistance between the
marked terminals.
Voltage source – s.c
Current source – o.c
Step 3: Find VTh – calculate VTh by returning all sources
back to their original positions. Find the o.c voltage
btw the marked terminals using the method which
takes least effort.

59
 Examples
1) Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit external
to the resistor RL for the circuit given below.

24 Ohm
R
Rload
I
+ V 2A 16 Ohm
20V

Use the Thevenin equivalent circuit to calculate the current

through RL.

60
Norton’s Theorem

 The purpose of its use is similar to the Thevenin’s

theorem.
 States that “A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a short
circuit current source through the terminals, IN in
parallel with a resistor RN where RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when all
independent source are turned off.”

61
Replacing linear two-terminal (a-b) circuit
by its Norton equivalent
(a) Original Circuit
(b) Norton Equivalent Circuit

62
Finding Norton current, IN

63
Procedures to obtain VTh and RTh

Step 1: Priliminary – Omitting load resistor RL (Not

applicable if no load resistor)
Step 2: Find RTh – setting all independent sources to
zero. Find the resultant resistance between the
marked terminals.
Voltage source – s.c
Current sorce – o.c
Step 3: Find VTh – calculate VTh by returning all sources
back to their original positions. Find the o.c voltage
btw the marked terminals using the method which
takes least effort.

64
Procedures to obtain IN and RN

Step 1: Priliminary – Omitting load resistor RL (Not applicable if no load

resistor)

Step 2: Find RN – setting all independent sources to zero. Find the resultant
resistance between the marked terminals.
Voltage source – s.c
Current sorce – o.c

Step 3: Find IN – calculate IN by returning all sources back to their original

positions. Find the o.c s.c current btw the marked terminals using the method
which takes least effort.

65
Norton Equivalent Circuit

 A Norton equivalent circuit consists of an

independent current source in parallel with the
Norton equivalent resistance.
 Can be derive from a Thevenin equivalent circuit
simply by making a source transformation.
 Norton current, IN = the short-circuit current at the
terminal of interest.
 Norton resistance, RN = Thevenin resistance, RTh

66
Series resistors combined, producing the
Thevenin equivalent circuit

8
a

32V 

THEVENIN
EQUIVALENT b
CIRCUIT
67
Producing the Norton equivalent
circuit

4A 8

NORTON
EQUIVALENT
b
CIRCUIT

68
Example
1.Determine the Norton equivalent circuit external to the
resistor RL for the circuit of the following figure. Use the

Norton equivalent circuit to calculate the current through RL.

24 Ohm
R
Rload
I
+ V 2A 16 Ohm
20V

69
 Maximum power transfer theorem

• Power transfer from source to the load can be

analyzed and discussed from two basic types of
systems:
1. Efficiency – eg: power utility systems concerned
with generation, transmission and distribution of
large quantities of electric power.
2. Amount – eg. Comm. & instrumentation sys
because in the transmission of info or data via electric
signals, the power available at the transmitter or
detector is limited or small.
• At this moment our concern is on the 2nd type of
system that is the amount of maximum power transfer
in purely resistive circuit.
70
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

 The Thevenin equivalent circuit is useful in finding

the max. power a linear cct. can deliver to a load.
 The entire cct can be replaced by its Thevenin eq.
except for the adjustable load.

71
 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit used for
maximum power Transfer

VTh and RTh are

fixed

Power delivered to the

load,
2
 VTh 
p  i RL 
2
 RL (1)
 RTh  RL 
72
Power delivered to the load as a function
of RL.

73
 Maximum Power Theorem

• Maximum Power is transferred to the load when the

load resistance, equals to the Thevenin resistance as
seen from the load (RL = RTh)

74
Proving Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
• Differentiate p in Eq.(1) with respect to RL and set the
result equal to zero,

dp 2  ( R  R ) 2
 2 RL ( RTh  RL ) 
 VTh  Th L
4 
dRL  ( RTh  RL ) 
2  ( RTh  RL  2 RL 
 VTh  3 0 (2)
 ( RTh  RL ) 
75
 Proving Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem (Cntd…)
• Implies that,
• 0 = (RTh + RL -2RL) = (RTh – RL)
• Yields,
• RL = Rth (3)
• Eq (3) gives the maximum power by showing
that d2p/dRL2 < 0.

76
Maximum Power Formula

• Substituting Eq.(3) into (1) to obtain the

maximum power transfer,
2
VTh
p max 
4 RT h (4)
• Eq.(4) applies only when RL = RTh. When RL ≠
RTh, compute power from Eq.(1)

77
Example
Find
a) The value of RL for maximum power transfer
b) Maximum power in the circuit shown below.

78
Solution

 We need to find the Thevenin resistance RTh and the

Thevenin voltage VTh across the terminals a-b. To
get RTh, we use the circuit shown in fig. a below.

79
Cont…
 To get VTh, we consider the circuit in Fig. b
above and by applying mesh analysis
 -12 + 18i1 – 12i2 = 0, i2 = -2 A
 Solving for i1, we get i1 = -2/3 A. Applying
KVL around the outer loop to get VTh across
terminals a-b, we obtain -12 + 6i1 + 3i2 +
2(0) + VTh = 0 VTh = 22 V
 For maximum power transfer, RL = RTh = 9Ω
and maximum power is

80