Lecture 1

CHAPTER 1
BOOK: INTRODUCTORY CIRCUIT ANALYSIS, ROBERT L. BOYELSTAD
Introduction
❖ Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental
theories upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built.
❖ Many branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines,
control, electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric
circuit theory.
❖ Therefore, the basic electric circuit theory course is the most important course
for an electrical engineering student, and always an excellent starting point for a
beginning student in electrical engineering education.
An Electric Circuit
❖ In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring
energy from one point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical
devices. Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each component
of the circuit is known as an element.
An Electric Circuit
❖ It consists of three basic elements:
• a battery,
• a lamp, and
• connecting wires.
❖ Such a simple circuit can exist by
itself; it has several applications, such
as a flashlight, a searchlight, and so
forth.
Systems of Unit
❖ Our measurement, however, must be
communicated in a standard language
that virtually all professionals can
understand, irrespective of the country
where the measurement is conducted.
Such an international measurement
language is the International System of
Units (SI), adopted by the General
Conference on Weights and Measures in
1960.
Charge and Electric Current

❖ Charge: The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. Charge is an
electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in Coulombs (C).
Electric Current contd.
❖ When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of
electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction
while negative charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric
current.
❖ It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges.
❖Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t:
Types of Current
❖ A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time. By convention the symbol I
is used to represent such a constant current
❖ An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time. A time-varying
current is represented by the symbol i. Such current is used in your household, to run the air
conditioner, refrigerator, washing machine, and other electric appliances.
Direction of Current
❖ Once we define current as the movement of charge, we expect current to have an associated
direction of flow. As mentioned earlier, the direction of current flow is conventionally taken as
the direction of positive charge movement.
❖ Based on this convention, a current of 5 A may be represented positively or negatively as
shown in Fig (a). In other words, a negative current of -5A flowing in one direction as shown in
Fig. (b) is the same as a current of A flowing in the opposite direction.
Example:
Practice:
1. Find the current in amperes if 96 mC of charge pass through a wire in 8.4 s.
2. If a current of 40 mA exists for 1.2 min, how many coulombs of charge have
passed through the wire?
3. If the current in a conductor is constant at 2 mA, how much time is required
for 6 mC to pass through the conductor?
4. If 21.847 × 1018 electrons pass through a wire in 12 s, find the current.
Be careful about the signs!
Voltage
Voltage contd.
❖ To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy
transfer. This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically represented
by the battery. This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.
❖ The voltage, 𝑣𝑎𝑏 between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work)
needed to move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C).

❖ Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a dc voltage and is represented by V, whereas
a sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by v. A dc voltage is
commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage is produced by an electric generator.
Types of Voltage
❖ The term dc, used throughout this text, is an abbreviation for direct current, which
encompasses all systems where there is a unidirectional (one direction) flow of charge. This
course reviews dc voltage supplies that apply a fixed voltage to electrical/electronics systems.
❖ The relative length of the bars at each end define the polarity of the supply. The long bar
represents the positive side; the short bar, the negative.
❖ An electromotive force (emf) is a force that establishes the flow of charge (or current) in a
system due to the application of a difference in potential.
❖ In general, dc voltage sources can be divided into three basic types:
➢(1) batteries (chemical action or solar energy),
➢(2) generators (electromechanical), and
➢(3) power supplies (rectification—a conversion process to be described in
your electronics courses).
Polarity of Voltage
❖ The voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular block) connected to points a and
b. The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity.
❖ The 𝑣𝑎𝑏 can be interpreted in two ways:
(a) point a is at a potential of 𝑣𝑎𝑏 volts higher than point b, or
(b) the potential at point a with respect to point b is 𝑣𝑎𝑏 .
❖ It follows logically that in general
Practice:
1. What is the voltage between two points if 3.4 J of energy are required to move
12 mC between the two points?
2. If the potential difference between two points is 60 V, how much energy is
expended to bring 8 mC from one point to the other?
3. Find the charge in coulombs that requires 400 mJ of energy to be moved
through a potential difference of 40 mV.
Power
❖ We all know from experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a 60-watt
bulb. We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric utility companies, we are
paying for the electric energy consumed over a certain period of time. Thus, power and
energy calculations are important in circuit analysis.

❖ Mathematically,

❖ Thus, the power absorbed or supplied by an element is the product of the voltage
across the element and the current through it.
Polarities of Power
❖ If the power has a sign, power is being delivered
to or absorbed by the element. If, on the other
hand, the power has a sign, power is being
supplied by the element.
Passive Sign Convention
❖ Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the sign of power.
❖ The voltage polarity and current direction must conform with those shown in Fig. (a) in order
for the power to have a positive sign. This is known as the passive sign convention.
❖ By the passive sign convention, current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage. In
this case, or implies that the element is absorbing power. However, if or , as in Fig. (b), the
element is releasing or supplying power
Passive Sign Convention Example
❖ The element in both circuits of Fig. 1.9 has an absorbing power of +12W because a positive
current enters the positive terminal in both cases.
❖ In Fig. 1.10, however, the element is supplying power of +12W because a positive current
enters the negative terminal.
❖ Of course, an absorbing power of -12W is equivalent to a supplying power of +12W. In general,

❖The total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power absorbed. The law of
conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason, the algebraic sum
of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:
Energy
❖ We know from the definition of Power,

❖ So, the energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to time t is

❖The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where
Example:
Example

DO IT BY YOURSELF
Electricity Bills
❖ The cost of electricity depends upon the
amount of energy consumed in kilowatt-hours
(kWh).
❖ However, even if a consumer uses no energy
at all, there is a minimum service charge the
customer must pay because it costs money to
stay connected to the power line.
❖ As energy consumption increases, the cost per
kWh drops.
 Ampere-Hour Rating
❖ The most important piece of data for any battery (other than its voltage rating) is its
ampere-hour (Ah) rating.
❖ The ampere-hour (Ah) rating provides an indication of how long a battery of fixed
voltage will be able to supply a particular current.
❖ For an example, a battery with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will theoretically provide a
current of 1 A for 100 hours, 10 A for 10 hours, or 100 A for 1 hour.
❖ An equation for determining the length of time a battery will supply a particular
current is the following:
Example
Practice:
1. What current will a battery with an
Ah rating of 180 theoretically
provide for 40 h?

2. What is the Ah rating of a battery

that can provide 0.64 A for 80 h?

3. For how many hours will a battery

with an Ah rating of 72 theoretically
provide a current of 1.80 A?
 Practice Math
1. If 540 J of energy are absorbed by a resistor in 3.6 min, what is the power delivered to the resistor in watts?
2. The power to a device is 60 joules per second (J/s). How long will it take to deliver 840 J?
3. a. In 12 h an electrical system converts 1500 kWh of electrical energy into heat. What is the power level of the
system? b. If the applied voltage is 230 V, what is the current drawn from the supply?
4. A calculator with an internal 4.5 V battery draws 0.5 mW when fully functional.
◦ a. What is the current demand from the supply?
◦ b. If the calculator is rated to operate 550 h on the same battery, what is the ampere-hour rating of the battery?
5. What is the total cost of using the following at 12¢/kWh?
a. 1600 W air conditioner for 8 h
b. 1200 W hair dryer for 20 min
c. 4800 W clothes dryer for 1 h
d. 900 W coffee maker for 15 min
e. 200 W Play Station 3 for 1.2 h
f. 50 W stereo for 3.5 h
Types of Material
❖ Different wires placed across the same two battery terminals allow different amounts of charge to flow
between the terminals. Many factors, such as the density, mobility, and stability characteristics of a material,
account for these variations in charge flow.
Conductors
❖ Conductors are those materials that permit a
generous flow of electrons with very little
external force (voltage) applied.
❖ In addition, good conductors typically have
only one electron in the valence (most distant
from the nucleus) ring.
❖ Since copper is used most frequently, it serves
as the standard of comparison for the relative
conductivity in Table.
Insulators
❖ Insulators are those materials that have very few
free electrons and require a large applied potential
(voltage) to establish a measurable current level.
❖ A common use of insulating material is for
covering current carrying wire, which, if
uninsulated, could cause dangerous side effects.
Power line workers wear rubber gloves and stand
on rubber mats as safety measures when working
on high-voltage transmission lines.
Semiconductors
❖ Semiconductors are a specific group of elements
that exhibit characteristics between those of
insulators and those of conductors.
❖ The prefix semi, included in the terminology, has
the dictionary definition of half, partial, or between,
as defined by its use.
❖ The entire electronics industry is dependent on
this class of materials since the electronic devices
and integrated circuits (ICs) are constructed of
semiconductor materials.