BASICS OF POWER SYSTEMS

Circuit fundamentals
An electrical network is an interconnection of circuit elements such as
resistors, inductors, capacitors, and energy sources. If the electrical network is
closed then it is called electric circuit. The circuit elements can be classified into
following categories.

 Active or passive
 Linear or non linear
 Unilateral or bilateral

Active elements: All energy sources are said to be active sources (voltage source
and current source). A battery or a generator is an example of a voltage source,
while an amplifier tube is an example of current source.

Passive elements: An element which is not an energy source is a passive element.

A passive element transforms or stores energy. Ex. Resistors, inductors and
capacitors.

Linear element: Element which obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity
are called linear elements. ex; resistor, capacitor, inductor etc

Non linear elements: Elements which do not obey the principle of superposition and
homogeneity are called non linear elements. ex; thermistor, Light dependent resistor
(LDR) etc.

Bilateral elements: Bilateral elements are elements in which the relation between the
current and voltage is same, irrespective of the direction of current flow.

Unilateral elements: Unilateral elements are elements in which the relation between
the current and voltage depends on the direction of current flow. Ex diode

Source of Electrical energy

There are two types of sources of electrical energy.
 Ideal voltage source
 Ideal current source

Ideal voltage source

An ideal voltage source is an two terminal element which maintains a constant

terminal voltage, regardless of the value of current through its terminals.
 But in a practical voltage source the terminal voltage falls with the load. Hence
the practical voltage source can be represented by an ideal voltage source in series
with a resistance (internal resistance of the source).

Ideal current source

An ideal current source is a two terminal element which maintains a constant

current flowing through its terminals regardless of the values of the terminal voltage.

But in a practical current source the current through the source decreases as the
voltage across it increases. This behaviour can be explained by putting a resistance
across the terminals of the source.

Ideal voltage and current sources can be further described as either independent
sources or dependent sources. An independent source establishes a voltage or
current in a circuit without relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit.
The value of the voltage or current supplied is specified by the value of the
independent source alone. In contrast, a dependent source establishes a voltage or
current whose value depends on the value of the voltage or current elsewhere in the
circuit. We cannot specify the value of a dependent source, unless you know the
value of the voltage or current on which it depends.
The circuit symbols for ideal independent sources are shown in fig a) and (b).
Note that a circle is used to represent an independent source. The circuit symbols for
dependent sources are shown in Fig.(c), (d), (e) and (f). A diamond symbol is used to
represent a dependent source.

Source transformation

A voltage source in series with an internal resistance R can be converted into

an equivalent current source of value I=V/R in parallel with a resistance R

Similarly a current source in parallel with a resistance R can be converted

into a voltage source of value V=IR in series with a resistance R.

Direct current Vs Alternating current

The rate of flow of electric charge in a conductor is known as electric current.

I=Q/t
Where
Q – charge in coulombs
t – time in seconds

Direct current
If the flow of charge is always in one direction and steady, the current is
known as direct current.
 If the magnitude of the unidirectional current (DC current) varies with time it is
called pulsating current.

Alternating current
If the current keeps on reversing its direction continuously, then it is called
alternating current.

Basics of network laws and theorems

Some of the basis laws and theorems which are useful in solving electrical
circuits are as follows

Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that, at constant temperature the current through a

conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the two points.

IαV

= constant =R

Where R is the resistance of the conductor in ohms.

Two more important laws used in the solution of electric circuits are Kirchoff’s Laws.

Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

It states that the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is zero.

k

I
j 1
j 0

In other words, the sum of currents flowing from the junction is equal to the
sum of currents flowing towards it.

Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL)

It states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero.
In other words voltage rise in a closed loop is equal to voltage drop in the loop.
Example

Consider the circuit shown in Fig below. Find each branch current and voltage
across each branch when R1 = 8Ω, V 2 = -10, volts I3 = 2A and R3 = 1Ω. Also find R2.

Applying KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) at node A, we get

Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) for the loop EACDE, we get
Super position theorem

Super position theorem states that in any linear, bilateral network containing 2
or more independent sources , the network response in any element is the sum of
responses due to each independent source acting separately, when all other sources
are set to zero (when other sources are set to zero then internal impedance if any
has to be included)

Limitations: Superposition is a fundamental property of linear equations and,

therefore, can be applied to any effect that is linearly related to the cause. That is, we
want to point out that, superposition principle applies only to the current and voltage
in a linear circuit but it cannot be used to determine power because power is a non-
linear function.

Example 1
Find the current in the 6 Ω resistor using the principle of superposition for the
circuit of Fig

As a first step, set the current source to zero. That is, the current source appears as
an open circuit
As a next step, set the voltage to zero by replacing it with a short circuit

The total current i is then the sum of i1 and i2

Example 2
Find the current i for the circuit shown below.

Solution
As a first step in the analysis, we will find the current resulting from the independent
voltage source. The current source is deactivated and we have the circuit as shown
As a second step, we set the voltage source to zero and determine the current i2
due to the current source.

Thus, the total current

Thevenin’s theorem
A linear active network containing one or more sources can be replaced by a
single voltage source and series impedance. The value of the voltage is the open
circuit voltage across the terminals (V’). If I’ is the short circuit current flowing
between the terminals then z’’=v’/I’. The resistance z’ is the thevenin’s impedance.

The Thevinin’s impedance can be found by three ways

i) Z’= V’/I’
 Where V’- is the open circuit voltage
I’- is the short circuit current

ii) In the absence of any dependent sources the impedance can be the
equivalent impedance of the passive network (by short circuiting all
independent voltage sources and opening all current sources)

iii) For a circuit with only dependent sources the equivalent resistance of the
passive network can be determined by injecting a current of 1 A into the
network. The voltage at the output terminals of the source is the value of
thevinins resistance.

Example 1
Using the Thevenin’s theorem, find the current i through R = 2Ω.

Solution
Since we are interested in the current i through R, the resistor R is identified as
circuit B and the remainder as circuit A. After removing the circuit B, circuit A is as
shown

From fig above

To find Rt we have to deactivate the independent voltage source. Accordingly, we get

the following circuit

Thus the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is

Reconnecting the circuit B to the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown

Example 2

Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown, with respect to terminals a and b

Solution
Applying KVL around d the closed loop

Therefore the open circuit voltage

Since both dependent and independent sources are present, Thevenin resistance
is found using the relation,

To find Isc , short the output terminals

Applying KVL for Mesh 1

Substituting i=i1-i2 we have

Applying KVL to mesh 2

Solving the two mesh equations we have

Single phase AC fundamentals

 Electrical power is generated, distributed, and consumed in the form of ac
power. In AC power the voltages and currents vary sinusoidally with time. And such a
variation is mathematically represented by

i= Im sin ωt

Advantages of AC system over DC system

1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer

2. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors
3. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system

Generation of sinusoidal voltage

Induced emf can be produced by changing the orientation of the coil with
respect to the magnetic field. Consider a coil which is free to rotate about an axis in
its own plane, the axis being perpendicular to the magnetic field. Let the angular
velocity of rotation of the coil be ω. If we measure time t from the instant when the
plane of the coil is perpendicular to the plane of flux, θ=0 at t=0, then at any instant
of time t, angle θ is given as θ=ωt.

At any instant when the normal of the plane of the coil makes an angle θ with the
filed, the flux passing through the coil is given as

Where B= flux density

Acosωt = effective area of the loop.

As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, the flux changes with time, and hence an
emf is induced in the coil. From Faraday’s Laws, the induced emf in a single turn coil
is given as

If the coil consists of N turns, the induced emf is given as

The induced emf in the coil will be alternating in nature. When the coil is
perpendicular to the field in the beginning, ωt=0, and hence the emf induced is also
zero. As the coil rotates in clockwise direction, the value of the angle ωt increases
and hence the value of emf induced also increases. At time , where T is the

period of rotation of thee coil, angle ωt=90 0, and hence the induced emf assumes its
maximum value. Denoting the maximum value of induced emf by E m, we have

Em is called the maximum value or peak value of the induced emf. The value of E m
depends upon

(i) The number of turns in the coil

(ii) The strength of the magnetic field
(iii) The area of the coil
(iv) The speed of rotation of the coil.

The variation of induced emf e with time t is shown. In positions (a), (c) and (e) of the
coil, the induced emf is zero. When coil passes through these positions, the rate of
cutting of flux by conductors MN and OP of the coil is zero. Hence the induced emf is
zero. However, the rate of cutting of flux by the conductors MN and OP of the coil in
positions (b) and (d) is maximum, and hence the induced emf is maximum. If the free
ends of the coil are connected to an external circuit current results in the coil.

Sinusoidal Function Terminology

(i) Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of the function is
called a cycle.

(ii) Maximum (Peak Value): It is the maximum value, positive or negative of

the quantity. It is also sometimes called the amplitude of the sinusoid.

(iii) Instantaneous Value: It is the value of the quantity at any instant of time

(iv) Time Period: It is the duration of the time required for the quantity to
complete one cycle. It is denoted as T.

(v) Frequency: It is the number of cycles of quantity that occur in one second.
The unit of frequency is Hz.

(vi) Angular frequency: Angular frequency, denoted as ω, is equal to the

number of radians covered in one second. Its unit is rad/sec.

(vii) Alteration: It is one half of the cycle, when it includes either all positive or
all negative values.
Root Mean Square (R.M.S) Value:

The r.m.s or effective value of an alternating current is defined as that steady

current which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the
same amount of heat as produced by an alternating current, when flowing the same
resistance for the same time.

The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by

Let the heat produced by this dc current when flowing through a resistance for a
duration π be

Heat produced by this alternating current over the same duration (π sec) is given by
Equating the heat produced by dc current I and alternating current i we get

From the definition of r.m.s value we get,

Average Value:
The average value of an alternating current is defined as that steady current
which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time transfers the same
amount of charge as transferred by the alternating current , when flowing through the
same resistance for the same time.

The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is given by

Let us assume that the average value of the given alternating current i is a DC
current I.

Let the charge transferred by this dc current when flowing through a

resistance for a duration π be I coulomb.

Charge transferred by the elemental strip of thickness of this alternating

current i is idθ coulomb.

Charge transferred by this alternating current over one full cycle is given by
Equating the charge transferred by dc current I and alternating current i we get

From the definition of average value we get

Form Factor and Peak Factor

A definite relationship exists between peak value, average value and r.m.s value of
an alternating quantity.

1. Form Factor: The ratio of effective value (or r.m.s vale) to average value of an
alternating quantity (voltage and current) is called form factor, i.e.,

Form Factor,

For sinusoidal alternating Voltage ,

Hence R.M.S value is 1.11 times its average value.

Crest Factor or peak Factor or Amplitude Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the effective value (r.m.s) of an

alternating quantity. i.e.,

For sinusoidal alternating current,

The knowledge of crest factor is particularly important in the testing of dielectric
strength of insulating materials; this is because the breakdown of insulating materials
depends upon the maximum value of voltage.

Representation of Sinusoidal Signal by a Phasor

A sinusoidal quantity, i.e. current, I=Imsinωt is taken up as an example. In Fig. the
length, OP, along the x-axis, represents the maximum value of the current, on a
certain scale. It is being rotated in the anti-clockwise direction at an angular velocity,
ω, and takes up a position, OA after a time t (or angle, θ=ωt, with the x-axis). The
vertical projection of OA is plotted in the right hand side of the above figure with
respect to the angle θ. It will generate a sine wave (Fig. 13.1b), as OA is at an angle,
θ with the x-axis, as stated earlier. The vertical projection of OA along y-axis is OC =
AB = i(θ)=Im sin ( θ) which is the instantaneous value of the current at any time t or
angle θ. The angle θ is in rad., i.e. θ=tω. The angular speed, ω is in rad/s, i.e.
ω=2fπ, where f is the frequency in Hz or cycles/sec. So, OP represents the phasor
with respect to the above current, i.

The line, OP can be taken as the rms value, instead of maximum value, I m . Then
the vertical projection of OA, in magnitude equal to OP, does not represent exactly
the instantaneous value of I, but represents it with the scale factor of 0.707 I m.

Phase
We may define the phase of an alternating quantity at any particular instant as the
fractional part or the periodic cycle through which the quantity has advanced from
the selected origin.

Phase Displacement
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero
crossovers, they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero
points is the angle of phase difference.

In Phase
Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between
them is zero. That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform,
phasor and equation representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase
is as shown. The figure shows that the voltage and current are in phase.

Lagging
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of
the voltage waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The
waveform, phasor and equation representation is as shown.
Leading
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero
point of the voltage waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The
waveform, phasor and equation representation is as shown.

A.C Circuit Containing Pure Ohmic Resistance

 Let us consider an A.C.circuit with just a pure resistance R only, as shown in the fig
above. Let the applied voltage be given by the equation

……………(i)

As a result of this alternating voltage an alternating current ‘i’ will flow through the
circuit

…………..(ii)

Where

From the expression of instantaneous applied voltage (i) and the instantaneous
current flowing through a purely resistive circuit (ii) it is clear that the current is in
phase with the applied voltage.
Instantaneous power:

Thus the instantaneous power consists of a constant part and a fluctuating part

The fluctuating part of the power oscillates with a frequency twice the frequency of
the applied voltage.

Average Power:

Average of the fluctuating component of power

Therefore the average power is

A.C Circuit Containing Pure Inductance

Let us consider a pure inductive circuit with inductance ‘L’ henry. Let the apllied
voltage be

……………..(i)

Self-induced emf in the coil, el = -L . Since the applied voltage at every instant is

equal and opposite to the self-induced emf.,i.e

Therefore,

Integrating both the sides, we get

Where ωL is known as the inductive reactance and is denoted as ohms or

……………….(ii)

From the expression of instantaneous applied voltage (i) and the instantaneous
current flowing through a purely inductive coil, it is clear that the current lags behind
the voltage π/2.

Instantaneous Power:

The instantaneous power equation has only one component that oscillates with a
frequency twice that of the applied voltage.
Average Power:

Hence the power absorbed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.

A.C Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance

Let us consider a pure capacitive circuit with capacitance ’C’ Farads. Let the applied
voltage be

Instantaneous charge,
 Where

………..(ii)

From the expression of instantaneous applied voltage (i) and the instantaneous
current flowing through a purely capacitive coil, it is clear that the current leads the
voltage by an angle of π/2.

Instantaneous power:
The instantaneous power equation has only one component that oscillates with a
frequency twice that of the applied voltage.

Average Power:

Hence the power absorbed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.

Series R-L Circuit

Let us consider an a.c. circuit containing a pure resistance R ohms and a pure
inductance of L henrys as shown in fig above.

Let E = r.m.s value of the applied voltage

I = r.m.s value of the current

Voltage drop across R,

Voltage drop across L, (leading I by 900)

From the above vector diagram we see that the applied voltage E is the vector sum
of the two, i.e.,
The term offers opposition to the current flow and is called the impedance
of the circuit (Z) of the circuit. It is measured in ohms.

Therefore,

Referring to the impedance triangle ABC,

Or

(impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Reactance)2

We observe from the vector diagram that the applied voltage E leads the current I by
an angle φ.

The impedance Z can be expressed in rectangular form or polar form as

Z  R  jX L or Z  Z 

So, if the applied voltage is expressed as

and, the current is given as

Where

Power:

Referring back to the vector diagram we can see that I can be resolved into two
components:

1. I cosφ, along the applied voltage E, and

2. IsinΦ, perpendicular to E.
The mean power consumed by the circuit is given by the product of V and the
component of I which is in phase with E.

Thus,

The term cosΦ is called the power factor of the circuit. It is apparent that the
value of power factor cannot be greater than unity.

Instantaneous Power
This power consists of two parts

(i) Constant part which contributes to real power.

(ii) Sinusoidally varying part , whose frequency is twice that of the

voltage and the current, and whose average value over a complete cycle is zero

So, the average value of power consumed is

Significance of Power Factor:

Power factor is defined as the ratio of active power to apparent power.

Power factor is also defined as the cos of angle between the applied voltage and the
current flowing through the circuit or the ratio of resistance to impedance in a circuit.
In addition to having a numerical value, the power factor of a circuit carries a notation
that signifies the nature of the circuit, i.e., whether the equivalent circuit is resistive,
inductive or capacitive. Thus, the power factor may be expressed as lagging or
leading. The lagging or leading refers to the phase of current vector with respect to
the voltage vector. Thus, a lagging power factor means that the current is lagging
with respect to voltage and the circuit is inductive in nature. However, in case of
leading power factor, the current leads the voltage and the circuit is capacitive.

For a pure resistive circuit the power factor is unity. For a pure inductive and
capacitive circuit power factor is 0 lagging and 0 leading respectively.

The true power in ac circuits is obtained by multiplying apparent power by power

factor and is expressed as watts or Kilo-watts.

Impedance Triangle

We can derive a triangle called the impedance triangle from the phasor diagram of
an RL series circuit as shown below

Phasor algebra in a RL series circuit

Example

A coil having a resistance of 7Ω and an inductance of 31.8mH is connected to

230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (i) the circuit current (ii) phase angle (iii) power
factor (iv) power consumed.

Solution
Series RC Circuit:

Let us consider an a.c. circuit containing a pure resistance R ohms and a pure
capacitance of C Farads as shown in fig above.

Let E = r.m.s value of the applied voltage

I = r.m.s value of the current

Voltage drop across R, ER = IR (in phase with I)

Voltage drop across C, EC = I XC (leading I by 900)

From the above vector diagram we see that the applied voltage E is the vector sum
of the two, i.e.,
The term offers opposition to the current flow and is called the impedance
of the circuit (Z) of the circuit. It is measured in ohms.

Therefore,

Referring to the impedance triangle ABC,

Or

(impedance)2 = (Resistance)2 + (Reactance)2

We observe from the vector diagram that the applied voltage E lags the current I by
an angle φ.

The impedance Z can be expressed as

Z  R  jX C or Z  Z  

So, if the applied voltage is expressed as

, the current is given as

Where

Instantaneous Power

This power consists of two parts

(i) Constant part which contributes to real power.

(ii) Sinusoidally varying part , who.

(iii) so frequency is twice that of the voltage and the current, and whose
average value over a complete cycle is zero

So, the average value of power consumed is

The average value of power is

Example

A Capacitor of capacitance 79.5μF is connected in series with a non inductive

resistance of 30Ω across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Find (i) impedance (ii) current
(iii) phase angle (iv) Equation for the instantaneous value of current

Solution

Series R-L-C Circuit:

Consider an a.c series circuit containing R ohms, inductance L henries and
capacitance C farads as shown in the fig above.

Let E = r.m.s value of the applied voltage

I= r.m.s value of the current

ER= IR ,Voltage drop across the resistor

EL = IXL, Voltage drop across the inductor

EC= IXC, Voltage drop across the capacitor

Let us consider three different cases

And applied voltage,

Impedance,

From the phasor diagram we can see that current lags voltage by an angle of

Z  R  j( X L  X C ) or Z  Z  

Therefore,

Power factor angle,

Power factor,

Power,

In an RLC circuit when , the circuit behaves like an RL circuit.

In an RLC circuit when , the circuit behaves like an RC circuit.

 (i) (This is known as condition of resonance)

When ,

And applied voltage,

Impedance,

From the phasor diagram we can see that current is in phase with voltage.

Therefore,

Power factor angle,

Power factor,

Power,

At series resonance

(i) Net reactance is zero, i.e., X=0

(ii) Impedance of the circuit, Z=R
(iii) The current flowing through the circuit is maximum and is in phase with the
voltage. The magnitude of current will be V/R
(iv) The voltage drop across the inductor is equal to the voltage drop across
the capacitor and is maximum.
(v) The power expended is VI watts
(vi) The power factor is unity.

Example 1

A 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply is applied to a coil of 0.06 H inductance and 2.5 Ω

resistance connected in series with a 6.8 μF capacitor. Calculate (i) Impedance (ii)
Current (iii) Phase angle between current and voltage (iv) power factor (v) power
consumed

Solution

Example 2

A resistance R, an inductance L=0.01 H and a capacitance C are connected in

series. When an alternating voltage v=400sin(3000t-20º)is applied to the series

combination, the current flowing is 10 sin(3000t-65º). Find the values of R and C.

Solution
Parallel AC Circuits

In a parallel AC circuits the voltage across each branch of the circuit is the same
whereas the current in each branch depends upon the branch impedance.

The reciprocal of impedance is called as its admittance and it is denoted by Y

1
Y   G  jB
R  jX

R
G -conductance
R X2
2

X
B 2 - susceptance
R X2
Example
A parallel circuit comprises of a resistor of 20Ω in series with an inductive
reactance 15 Ω in one branch and a resistor of 30 Ω in series with a capacitive
reactance of 20 Ω in the other branch .Determine the current and power dissipated in
each branch if the total current drawn by the parallelcircuit is 10L-30 A

Solution

Example 2
A circuit having a resistance of 20Ω and inductance of 0.07H is connected in parallel
with a series combination of 50Ω resistance and 60μF capacitance. Calculate the
total current, when the parallel combination is connected across 230V, 50Hz supply.

Solution
Power

In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as

1. Real or Active power
2. Reactive power
3. Apparent power
Real or active power in an AC circuit is the power that does useful work in the cicuit.
Reactive power flows in an AC circuit but does not do any useful work. Apparent
power is the total power in an AC circuit.

If V is the applied voltage to a network and I is the current and if Φ is the power
factor angle of the network, then

Real Power
The power due to the active component of current is called as the active power or
real power. It is denoted by P.

P = V x I Cos ϴ = I2R

Real power is the power that does useful power. It is the power that is consumed by
the resistance. The unit of real power in Watt(W).

Reactive Power

The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive
power. It is denoted by Q.

Q = V x I Sin ϴ = I2XL

Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating power in L
and C components. The unit of reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive
(VAR).

Apparent Power

The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is denoted by S.

The unit for apparent power is Volt Amperes (VA).

Power Triangle

From the impedance triangle, another triangle called the power triangle can be
derived as shown.
 THREE PHASE CIRCUITS
A three phase system is defined as the combination of three single phase voltages
having the same magnitude and frequency but displaced from one another by an
equal angle of 1200 electrical.

The Advantages of Three Phase System:

The advantages of three phase system are as follows

1. The output of a three phase machine is always greater than that of a single
phase machine of the same size of frame.
2. To transmit and distribute a given amount of power over a given distance, a
three phase transmission line requires less copper than a single phase
system.
3. Single phase motors are not self starting where as three phase motors are
self starting.
4. Three phase motors produce a uniform torque where as a three phase motor
produces a pulsating torque.
5. In case of three phase star connected system two different voltages can be
obtained, line and phase voltage. In single phase system only one voltage can
be obtained.

Generation of Three Phase E.M.F:

In the 3-phase system, there are three equal voltages of the same frequency but
displaced from one another by 1200 electrical. These voltages are produced by a
three phase generator which has identical windings or phases (coils) displaced 120 0
electrical apart. When these windings are rotated in a magnetic field, emf is induced
in each winding or phases. These emfs have same magnitude and frequency but
displaced from one another by 1200 electrical.

Consider three electrical coils A , B, and C mounted on the same axis but displaced
from one another by 1200 electrical. Let the three coils be rotated in anti-clockwise
direction in a bipolar magnetic field with an angular velocity of ω rad/sec as shown in
fig below.
Thus it is apparent that emf induced in the three coils are of the same magnitude and
frequency but displaced from each other by 120 0electrical.

Equations:

or

The wave forms of these voltages are as follows

Vector Diagram: The r.m.s values of the three phase voltages are shown vectorially
in fig below.
Phase Sequence:

The order in which the voltages reach their maximum positive values is called the
phase sequence. RYB is the positive phase sequence. RBY is the negative phase
sequence.

Star or WYE (Y) Connection:

This system is obtained by joining together similar ends, either start or finish; the
other ends are joined to the line wires. The common point N at which similar ends
are connected is called the neutral or star point.

The voltage between any line and the neutral point, i.e., voltage across the phase
winding, is called the phase voltage.

The voltage between any two lines is called line voltage.

The emfs induced in the three phases are shown vectorially. In a star
connection there are two windings between each pair of lines and due to joining of
similar ends together, the emfs induced in them are in opposition. Hence the
potential between the two lines, known as line voltage is the vector difference of
phase emfs of the two phases.

The potential difference between line R and Y

(Vector Difference)

(Vector Sum)

Phase angle between ER and –EY is 600

Therefore from the vector diagram we get

Let ER = EY =EB =EP = phase Voltage

Then Line Voltage

Since in a star connected system, each line conductor is connected to a separate

phase, so the current flowing through the lines and phases are the same

i.e.,
if the phase current has a phase difference of φ with the phase voltage,

Power output per phase =

Total Power Output P =

= watts

i.e., Power = watts

Apparent Power of three phase star connected system =

= VA

= VA

= VA

Reactive Power of three phase star connected system =

= VAR

= sin φ VAR

= sin φ VAR

Mesh or Delta Connected Load:

When the starting end of the coil is connected to the finishing end of another coil, as
shown in the fig below, mesh or delta connection is obtained.

From the fig above it is clear that line current is the vector difference of phase
currents of the two phases concerned.

Line current

(Vector Difference)

As the phase angle between currents

Therefore

In a delta network there is only one phase between any pair of lines. So the potential
difference between the lines, called line voltage, is equal to phase voltage

Where cosφ is the power factor of the load

 watts

i.e., Power = watts

Apparent Power of three phase delta connected system =

= VA

= VA

= VA

Reactive Power of three phase delta connected system =

= VAR

= sin φ VAR

= sin φ VAR

Example 1
A balanced 3Φ delta connected load has per phase impedance of (25+j40)Ω. If
400V, 3Φ supply is connected to this load, find (i) phase current (ii) line current (iii)
power supplied to the load.

Solution
Example2

Each branch of a 3-phase star connected load consists of a coil of resistance 4.2
ohms and reactance 5.6 ohms. The load is supplied at a line voltage of 415 V, 50Hz.
Find the total power supplied to the load.

Given:

For a star connected system,

Phase current,

Power factor,

Therefore phase angle,

Power Input,
PER UNIT SYSTEM

Power transmission lines are operated at high voltages, which are usually
expressed in KV and the power flow is expressed in KW or KVA or MVA or MW.

Transformers of various sizes, ratings, voltage ratios can be seen being used
in a power system. The parameters of the equivalent circuits of these machines also
vary over a large range. Also the comparisons of these machines are made simple if
all the parameters are normalized. If simple scaling of the parameters is done then
one has to carry forward the scaling factors in the calculations. Expressing in percent
basis is one example of scaling. However if the scaling is done on a logical basis one
can have a simple representation of the parameters without the bother of the scaling
factors. Also different units of measurement are in use in the different countries
(FPS, CGS, MKS, etc;). These units also underwent several revisions over the
years. If the transformer parameter can be freed from the units then the system
becomes very simple. The ‘per unit’ system is developed keeping these aspects in
mind.
Hence in power system calculations, the quantities such as voltage, current,
power and impedance are often expressed as percentage or per unit of a base or
reference value specified for each quantity.

When making calculations on a power system network having two or more

voltages levels, it is very cumbersome to convert currents to different voltage levels
at each point where they flow through a transformer, the change in current being
inversely proportional to the transformer turns ratio. In order to simplify these
calculations we can use per unit system.

In this system a base quantities are assumed for each voltage level

The per unit value of any quantity (voltage, current, power, impedance) is calculated
as follow

Per unit value =

For the complete characterization of a per unit system requires that all four base
quantities be defined and the per unit quantities are
 V I S Z
V pu  I pu  S pu  Z pu 
Vbase I base S base Z base

The four electrical quantity (voltages, current, power, and impedance) are so
related that selection of base values for any two of them determine the base values
of the remaining two.

Usually base apperant power in mega volt amperes (MVA) and base voltage
in KV are quantities selected to specify the base values. The base quantities for
current and impedance are expressed in terms of these quantities.

For a single phase systems

Base current in Amp =

Base current in K A =

Base impedance =

Base impedance =

Therefore
3 Phase system

In a three phase system the rated MVA is the total 3 phase MVA. And the
rated voltage is the line to line voltage. Hence it is customary to choose 3 phase
MVA and line to line voltage as base quantities.

Base MVA = 3 phase MVA =3 * per phase MVA

Base KV = Line to line Voltage in KV = * Phase voltage in KV

Base current =

Base impedance =

Therefore

Note:
In a 3-phase system, the per unit 3-phase kVA and voltage on the 3-phase
basis is equal to the per unit per phase kVA and voltage on the per phase basis.

Change in base quantities

In power systems the transmission line impedances are given in Ω the

impedance of the synchronous machines are given in pu on the basis of its own
rated KVA and rated KV.
 In a complex power systems there will be number of machines with different
MVA and KV ratings. So it is necessary to chose a common base MVA for the entire
power system. Hence all the PU impedances on their own MVA and KV base valves
are to be converted into PU impedances on the chosen base MVA and KV base
values.

Per unit impedance of transformer unit

The ohmic values of impedance of a transformer depend on whether they are

measured on the high or low tension side of transformer. In the per unit system, the
per unit impedances of a transformer is the same regardless of whether it is
determined from ohmic values referred to the high tension or low tension side of the
transformer.

Z1 in pu=Z2 in pu

In per unit calculations involving transformer in three phase system, we follow the
same principles developed for single phase system and require the base voltage on
the two sides of the transformer to have the same ratio as the rated line to line
voltage on the two sides of the transformer. The base KVA is the same on each side.

To transfer the ohmic value of impedances from the voltage level on one side of3
phase transformer to the voltage level on other, the multiplying factor is the square of
the ratio of line to line voltages regardless of the transformer connection

In forming a pu diagram, the following are th eprocedural steps involved:

1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data

2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present
5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R, X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.

Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the system shown in figure below. Choose a base
of 11 KV, 100 MVA in the generator circuit.

Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is considered as shown in figure.

Selection of base quantities:

100 MVA, 11 KV in the generator circuit(Given); the voltage bases in other sections
are:

11 (115/11.5) = 110 KV in the transmission line circuit

110 (6.6/11.5) = 6.31 KV in the motor circuit.

Calculation of pu values:
XG = j 0.1 pu,

Xm = j 0.2 (100/90) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.243 pu.

Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (100/50) (11.5/11)2 = j 0.2185 pu.

Xt3 =Xt4 = j 0.1 (100/50) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.219 pu.

Xlines = j 20 (100/1102) = j 0.1652 pu.

Eg = 1.0 pu, Em = (6.6/6.31) = 1.045 pu

Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure

ALTERNATORS

Electric power is generated using three phase alternators.

Constructional Features:

Their two basic parts in an alternator: (i) Stator, (ii) Rotor.

Stator is the stationary part and Rotor is the revolving part.

There are two possibilities that (i) The armature can be the stator and the field
system can be the rotor, and (ii) The armature can be the rotor and the field system
is the stator. In practice large alternators are of the first type where in the stator is
the armature and the rotor is the field system. And this type is called the
“REVOLVING FIELD TYPE”.

Revolving field types (stationary armature) are preferred due to the following
reasons:

(i) More conductors can be easily accommodated and with these high voltage
and higher power capacity can be achieved.
(ii) Armature conductors can be easily braced over a rigid frame.
(iii) It is easier to insulate a stationary system.
(iv) Cooling of the conductors will be very effective with proper cooling ducts /
vents in the stationary part.
(v) Power can be tapped easily without any risk from the stationary part through
terminal bushings.
(vi) The armature conductors are totally free from any centrifugal force action
which tends to drag the conductors out of the slots.
Revolving field type alternators are further classified into two types:

(i) Salient pole type, (ii) Non-salient pole type or Cylindrical rotor type.

Figs. (a), (b) and (c) shows the constructional features of the Alternator. Fig.
(a) Represents the stator, the core of which is made of steel laminations with
slots cut in its inner periphery and all the stator stampings are pressed together
and are fixed to the stator frame. Three phase windings are accommodated in
these slots. These coils are identical to each other and are physically distributed
such that they are displaced from each other by 120 degrees.

The filed system of an alternator is excited from a separate source of 125 or

250 V d.c. supply. The excitation is ususlly provided from a small d.c. shunt or
compound generator known as exciter, mounted on the shft of the alternator
itself. The field system of the alternator is rotated within the armature ring and is
known as rotor. The exciting current is supplied to the rotor through two slip rings
and brushes. The polarities of the field produced are alternately North and South.

(i) Salient Pole Type Rotor:

The salient pole type rotors are usually used in low and medium speed
alternators (120 to 400 r.p.m) because of the following reasons

(a) The salient field poles would cause an excessive windage loss if driven
at high speed and would tend to produce noise.
(b) Salient pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand
the mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher
speeds.
In this, the rotor is like a flywheel and a number of alternate North and
South poles are bolted to it as shown in fig (b). The salient or projecting
poles are made up of thick steel laminations, rivetted together, and are
fixed to the rotor by a dove-tail joint. The pole faces are so shaped that
the radial air gap length increases from the pole centre to the pole tips
so that the flux distribution over the armature is sinusoidal and the
waveform of the generated emf is sinusoidal. The field coils are placed
on the pole pieces and connected in series. The ends of the field
windings are connected to a d.c source through slip rings carrying
brushes and mounted on the shaft of the field structure.
The salient pole field structure has the following special features:
(i) They have large diameter and short axial length
(ii) The poles and pole-shoes are laminated to minimize heating
due to eddy currents.
(iii) The pole-shoes cover about 2/3 of the pole pitch.
(iv) They are used with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.
(v)
(ii) Smooth Cylindrical Type or Non-Salient Pole Type Rotors:
 The rotors of this type are used in very high speed turbo alternators
(alternators driven by steam turbines).
The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged steel cylinder having a number
of slots milled out at regular intervals along the outer periphery (and
parallel to the shaft) for accommodating field coils. Such rotors could be
designed for 2-pole (or 4-pole) turbo generators running at 3600 rpm (or
1800 rpm). The rotor of a 4-pole turbo generator is shown in fig (c). The
regions forming the central polar areas are left unslotted.
Field windings occupy the slots as shown. They are so arranged around
the central polar areas that the flux density is maximum on the central
polar area and gradually reduces on either side. It is clear that the poles
are non-salient, i.e., they do not project out from the surface of the rotor.
The diameters of such rotors have to be very small; however axial length
has to be very long for better dynamic balance and stable operation.
Windage losses are also reduced. D.C excitation to the field windings are
provided through slip rings and brushes.

Principle: Whenever a coil is rotated in a magnetic field an EMF will be induced in

the coil. This is called the dynamically induced EMF.

Alternators are also called as Synchronous Generators due to the reason that
under normal conditions the generator is to be rotated at a definite speed called
“SYNCHRONOUS SPEED”, Ns R.P.M. in order to have a fixed frequency in the
output EMF wave.

is related with the frequency as ,where f is the frequency and P is the

total number of poles.

Frequency f

The following table gives the idea of the various synchronous speeds for various
numbers of poles for the fixed frequency of 50 Hz.

P 2 4 6 8 10 12 16 ……….
Ns 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 375 ……….
rpm

Emf Equation of an alternator:

In an alternator let

Where, and

………(i)

Substituting for N in the equation (i) we get

We introduce two constants Kd = distribution factor and KP = Pitch factor to account

for short pitched coils and distributed windings
 Volts

known as winding factor.

If

Therefore

volts

Winding Factors:

1. Distribution Factor (Kd):

Distribution factor is defined as the ratio of emf induced in distributed winding
to the emf induced in concentrated winding

Distribution factor is also given as,

where,

Advantages of Distributed windings:

1. The waveform of emf becomes nearly sinusoidal
2. Results in copper savings
3. Helps in easy dissipation of heat
4. Helps in increasing current density
5. Helps in reducing

2. Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (Kp):

Pitch factor is defined as the ratio of emf induced in a short pitched coil to that
of emf induced in a full pitched coil.

Pitch factor is also given as,

where,
 Voltage Regulation:

The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in the terminal

voltage between no load and full load at a specified power factor, without any change
in the speed and excitation.

The idea of voltage regulation is necessary to judge the performance of an

alternator. Lesser the value of the regulation better will be the load sharing capacity
at better efficiency.

TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMER is a static device which transfers electric energy from one electric
circuit to another at any desired voltage without any change in frequency.

Principle of Operation of Transformers:

The transformer has primary and secondary windings tightly coupled magnetically.
When primary is connected to an A.C supply V 1 an alternating current flows through
the primary winding P and this current produces an alternating flux φ which passes
through the core of the transformer. This alternating flux conducted by the core of the
transformer links with both primary and secondary windings inducing emf in them. If
N1 is the number of turns in primary and N 2 is the number of turns in secondary, then
primary induced emf

And emf induced in secondary

The transfer of energy from primary to secondary takes place electromagnetically by
virtue of magnetic coupling between the circuits. The entire operation takes place at
constant frequency and power.

The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage

Where K is known as the voltage transformation ratio.

In a transformer primary power is equal to the power on the secondary side. That is

For a step-up transformer K>1

Step-down transformer K<1

For 1:1 transformer K=1

References
1. “Basic Electrical engineering “ by D.C.Kulshreshtha, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited
2. “Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering” by Rajendra Prasad, PHI learning
private limited
3. “Electric Circuits”, by M.Nahvi and J A Edminister, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited
4. “ Engineering Circuit Analysis”, William H.Hayt & Jack E.Kemmerly, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited
5. “ Elements of power systems” by William D Stevenson, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited
6. “Modern power system analysis” nagarath and Kothari, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited