Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prepared by
Dr.R.Jegatheesan
Professor, EEE Dept.
AC & DC circuits
Circuit parameters, Ohms law, Kirchhoff’s laws. Average and RMS values,
to three phase system – types of connection, relationship between line and phase
Definition of mmf, flux and reluctance, leakage flux, fringing, magnetic materials
laws, induced emfs and inductances, brief idea on Hysteresis and eddy currents.
induction motors – split phase, capacitor start and capacitor start & run motors).
Wiring & lighting
Types of wiring, wiring accessories, staircase & corridor wiring, Working and
TEXT BOOKS
1. Muthusubramanian R, Salaivahanan S, Muraleedharan K A, Basic Electrical, Electronics
Resistor Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
DC CIRCUITS
I=GV (1)
Very often we are more interested on RESISTANCE, R of the conductor, than the
conductance of the conductor. Resistance is the opposing property of the
conductor and it is the reciprocal of the conductance. Thus
1 1
R= or G = (2)
G R
V
Therefore I= (3)
R
The above relationship is known as OHM’s law. Thus Ohm law can be stated as
the current flows through a conductor is the ratio of the voltage across the
conductor and its resistance. Ohm’s law can also be written as
V=RI (4)
V
R= (5)
I
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length, inversely
proportional to its area of cross section. It also depends on the material of the
conductor. Thus
R=ρ (6)
A
where ρ is called the specific resistance of the material by which the conductor is
made of. The unit of the resistance is Ohm and is represented as Ω. Resistance of
a conductor depends on the temperature also. The power consumed by the
resistor is given by
P=VI (7)
When the voltage is in volt and the current is in ampere, power will be in watt.
Alternate expression for power consumed by the resistors are given below.
P = R I x I = I2 R (8)
V V2
P=Vx = (9)
R R
KIRCHHOFF’s LAWS
There are two Kirchhoff’s laws. The first one is called Kirchhoff’s current law,
KCL and the second one is Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL.
Kirchhoff’s current law deals with element currents meeting at a junction, which
is a meeting point of two are more elements.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law deals with element voltages in a closed loop also called
as closed circuit.
Kirchhoff’s current law
Kirchhoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of element currents meeting
at a junction is zero.
Consider a junction P wherein four elements, carrying currents I1, I2, I3 and I4, are
meeting as shown in Fig. 2.
I3
I1 Fig. 2 Currents meeting at a junction
I2 P
I4
Note that currents I1 and I4 are flowing out from the junction while the currents I2
and I3 are flowing into the junction. According to KCL,
I1 – I2 - I3 + I4 = 0 (10)
I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 (11)
From equation (11), KCL can also stated as at a junction, the sum of element
currents that flows out is equal to the sum of element currents that flows in.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of element voltages around
a closed loop is zero.
Consider a closed loop in a circuit wherein four elements with voltages V 1, V2, V3
and V4, are present as shown in Fig. 3.
+ V1 -
-
- V2
Fig. 3 Voltages in a closed loop
V4 +
+
+ V3 -
Assigning positive sign for voltage drop and negative sign for voltage rise, when
the loop is traced in clockwise direction, according to KVL
V1 - V2 - V3 + V4 = 0 (12)
V1 + V4 = V2 + V3 (13)
From equation (13), KVL can also stated as, in a closed loop, the sum of voltage
drops is equal to the sum of voltage rises in that loop.
Find the currents I 1 , I 2 , I 3 and I 4 in the circuit shown.
I4
10 A 2A
12 A I3 I2
I1 5A
Find the voltages V 1 , V 2 and V 3 in the circuit shown.
+ 8V -
+ - V2 + + 2V - +
+
V1 V3
5V -
- -
Resistors connected in series
Two resistors are said to be connected in series when there is only one common
point between them and no other element is connected in that common point.
Resistors connected in series carry same current. Consider three resisters R 1, R2
and R3 connected in series as shown in Fig. 4. With the supply voltage of E,
voltages across the three resistors are V1, V2 and V3.
R1 I R2 R3
+ V1 - + V2 - + V3 -
+ E -
V1 = R1 I
V2 = R2 I (14)
V3 = R3 I
R1 I R2 R3 Re q
I
+ V1 - + V2 - + V3 -
+ E - + E -
Fig. 4 Resistors connected in series
Applying KVL,
E = V1 + V 2 + V3 (15)
E = Re q I (17)
where E is the circuit voltage, I is the circuit current and Re q is the equivalent
resistance. Here
Re q = R1 + R2 + R3 (18)
This is true when two are more resistors are connected in series. When n numbers of
resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistor is given by
Re q = R1 + R2 + …………. + Rn (19)
Voltage division rule
+ V1 - + V2 -
+ E -
V1 = R1 I
V2 = R2 I
Total voltage of E is dropped in two resistors. Voltage across the resistors are
given by
R1
V1 = E and (20)
R1 R2
R2
V2 = E (21)
R1 R2
Resistors connected in parallel
Two resistors are said to be connected in parallel when both are connected
across same pair of nodes. Voltages across resistors connected in parallel will be
equal.
I2 R2
+ E -
E
I1 =
R1
(22)
E
I2 =
R2
I1 R1
Re q
A E
I1 =
R1
I2 R2
E I
I I2 =
R2
E
+ E -
Equivalent circuit
Applying KCL at node A
1 1
I = I1 + I 2 = E ( ) (23)
R1 R2
E
I= (24)
Req
where E is the circuit voltage, I is the circuit current and Re q is the equivalent
resistance. Comparing eq. (23) and (24)
1 1 1
(25)
R eq R1 R2
1 1 1
(25)
R eq R1 R2
1 R R2
From the above 1
Req R1 R 2
R1 R 2
Thus R e q (26)
R1 R 2
1 1 1 1
.......... ...... (27)
R eq R1 R2 Rn
Current division rule
I1 R1
A
E
I2 R2 I1 =
R1
(22)
I E
I2 =
R2
+ E -
Referring to Fig. 5, it is noticed the total current gets divided as I 1 and I2. The
branch currents are obtained as follows.
R1 R2 (29)
E = I
R1 R2
R2
I1 = I
R1 R2
(30)
R1
I2 = I
R1 R2
Example 1
Three resistors 10Ω, 20Ω and 30Ω are connected in series across 100 V supply.
Find the voltage across each resistor.
Solution
10Ω I 20Ω 30Ω
+ V1 - + V2 - + V3 -
+ 100V -
Solution I1 4Ω
I2 6Ω
30 A
6
Current through 4Ω = x 30 18 A
46
4
Current through 6Ω = x 30 12 A
46
Example 3
Four resistors of 2 ohms, 3 ohms, 4 ohms and 5 ohms respectively are connected
in parallel. What voltage must be applied to the group in order that the total power
of 100 W is absorbed?
Solution
1 1 1 1 1 60 40 30 24 154
RT 2 3 4 5 120 120
120
Resistance RT = 0.7792 Ω
154
E
Thus ( ) 2 x 0.7792 100 and hence E2 = 100 x 0.7792 = 77.92
0.7792
When a resistor is placed across a 230 V supply, the current is 12 A. What is the
value of the resistor that must be placed in parallel, to increase the load to 16 A?
Solution R1 R1
12 A 12 A
+ 230 V - 4A
16 A R2
+ 230 V -
To make the load current 16 A, current through the second resistor = 16 –12 = 4 A
Solution
7.2 A 50 Ω 7.2 A 50 Ω
When the line current is 12.1 A, current through third resistor = 12.1 – (7.2 + 3.6)
= 1.3 A
A resistor of 3.6 ohms is connected in series with another of 4.56 ohms. What
resistance must be placed across 3.6 ohms, so that the total resistance of the
circuit shall be 6 ohms?
Solution
3.6 Ω 4.56 Ω
R1
RT = 6 Ω
Solution
12 Ω
R
8Ω
Power dissipated = 70 W
+ 22 V -
Voltage across 6 Ω = 6 V
E
0.25 Ω
Solution
Current in 6 Ω = 6/6 = 1 A
4Ω 4Ω
6Ω
0.6 Ω 12 V
4 Ω ║ 6 Ω = 24/10 = 2.4 Ω
1.4 Ω ║ 3 Ω = 7.2/5.4 = 1.3333 Ω
An electrical network is arranged as shown. Find (i) the current in branch AF (ii)
the power absorbed in branch BE and (iii) potential difference across the branch
CD.
13 Ω B 11 Ω C
A
24 V
22 Ω
1Ω 18 Ω 5Ω
14 Ω
F D
E 9Ω
Solution
24 V
22 Ω
1
1Ω 18 Ω 14 Ω
14 Ω
F D
E
13 Ω B 11 Ω C
A
24 V
22 Ω 2
1Ω 18 Ω
7Ω
F E
13 Ω 11 Ω
24 V
22 Ω 2
1Ω 18 Ω
7Ω
F E
13 Ω B 18 Ω C
A
24 V
22 Ω
18 Ω
3
1Ω
F E
13 Ω B 18 Ω C
A
24 V
22 Ω
18 Ω
3
1Ω
F E
13 Ω B 22 Ω B
A A
24 V 24 V
22 Ω 22 Ω
1Ω
9Ω 4 1Ω 5
F E F E
24 V
11 Ω 6
1Ω
F E
Current in branch AF = 24/12 = 2 A from F to A
7
Voltage across CE in Fig. 1 = x 9 = 3.5 V
18
Referring Fig. given in the problem, using voltage division rule, voltage
5
across in branch CD = x 3.5 1.25 V
14
Example 11
Using Kirchhoff’s laws, find the current in various resistors in the circuit shown.
6Ω 3Ω
25 V 4Ω 45 V
Solution
Let the loop current be I1 and I2. We can find element currents in terms of loop
currents.
6Ω C 3Ω
B D
25 V 4Ω 45 V
I1 I2
A
6Ω 3Ω
C D
B
25 V 4Ω 45 V
I1 I2
A
Considering the loop ABCA, KVL yields
6 I1 + 4 (I1 – I2) – 25 = 0
3 I2 – 45 + 4 (I2 – I1) = 0
Thus 10 I1 - 4 I2 = 25
- 4 I1 + 7 I2 = 45
5Ω
6Ω B 3Ω
A C
25 V 4Ω 45 V
D
Solution
10 4 6 I 1 25
4 7 3 I = 45 : On solving
2
6 3 14 I 3 0
Using mesh analysis find the current i0 and the voltage v a b in the circuit shown.
1Ω 1.2 Ω
+ Vx -
4Ω
2Ω
8Ω 12 Ω
+
12 V 6Ω
3Ω
-
Answers: 2 V 1.92 W
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Introduction
A substance, which when suspended freely, points in the direction of north and
south is called a MAGNET. Magnet attracts iron fillings. It is also called as
permanent magnet. A current passing though a conductor (or a coil) also can
produce magnetic effect and it is called as Electromagnet.
A permanent magnet has one north pole and one south pole. The imaginary lines
which travel from north pole to south pole outside the magnet are called
magnetic lines of force. They are drawn by plotting successive directions pointed
out by a small compass needle in the magnetic field. Magnetic lines of forces are
shown in Fig. 1 and they pass through the magnet.
S N
The magnetic lines of force in the magnetic field is called Flux. Its unit is
Weber(Wb). 1 Wb = 108 magnetic lines. Flux is denoted by φ .
Magnetic flux per unit cross sectional area is called Flux density and it is
expressed in Weber / metre2. Flux density is denoted by B.
Magneto Motive Force (mmf) is the source of producing flux in the magnetic
circuit. It can be explained through Electromagnet. When a current of I ampere is
passed through a coil of N turns, results in a mmf of N I . This N I ampere turns is
called the mmf and its unit is ampere turns (AT).
Reluctance is the property of magnetic circuit that opposes the setting of flux.
mmf
Reluctance, S =
flux
The following table shows the similarities between magnetic and electric circuits.
Sl.
Magnetic circuit Electric circuit
No.
1 Magnetic flux, φ webers Electric current, I ampere
2 Magneto motive force, AT EMF, E volts
3 Reluctance, S AT / Wb Resistance, R ohm
mmf emf
4 φ= Current =
reluctance resistance
Leakage flux and Fringing effect
Usually we assume that all the flux lines take path of the magnetic medium. But,
practically, some flux lines do not confine to the specified medium. It is because,
to prevent the leakage flux, there is no perfect magnetic insulator. Some flux lines
can pass through air also.
The flux which do not follow the desired path in a magnetic circuit is known as
leakage flux.
All the magnetic flux which complete the desired magnetic circuit are the useful
flux.
S
Area at
iron path
Area at
air-gap path
Fringing effect increases the effective area of cross section of the air-gap and as
a result the flux density in the air-gap is reduced.
Problems involving simple magnetic circuits
NI
H=
µ=B/H
µ = µ 0 µr
NI NI NI NI
S ; Since H we get S
φ Ba μ 0 μ r H a a μ0 μr
1.Tolal reluctance of magnetic path = reluctance of iron path + reluctance of air gap path.
2. Total source mmf = mmf required to establish flux in iron path + mmf required to
establish flux in air gap.
Reluctance, S = ; Since it is air core = µr = 1
a μ0 μr
1.5708
Reluctance, S = 7
4.4217 x 108 AT / Wb
0.002827x 4 π x 10
20000
Flux, φ = 8
= 4.5231 x 10-5 Wb
4.4217 x 10
φ 4.5231x 10 5
(c) Flux density, B = = 0.016 Wb / m2
a 0.002827
Example 2
The flux produced in the air gap between two magnetic poles is 0.05 Wb. If the
cross sectional area of the air gap is 0.2 m2, find (a) flux density, (b) magnetic
field intensity, (c) reluctance and (d) permeance of the air gap. Find also the mmf
dropped in the air gap, given the length of air gap to be 1.2 cm.
Solution
0.05
(a) Flux density, B = 0.25 Wb / m2
0.2
NI
(b) Depending on the data H can be calculated either from H = or
B B 0.25
H= ; Magnetic field intensity, H = 1.9894 x 10 5
AT / m
μ μ 4 π x 10 7
0.012
(c) Reluctance, S = 7
4.7746 x 10 4 AT / Wb
a μ 0 0.2 x 4 π x 10
1 1
(d) Permeance, P = 4
2.0944 x 10-5 Wb / AT
S 4.7746 x 10
A ring has mean diameter of 15 cm, a cross section of 1.7 cm 2 and has a radial
gap of 0.5 mm cut in it. It is uniformly wound with 1500 turns of insulated wire and
a current of 1 A produces a flux of 0.1 mWb across the gap. Calculate the relative
permeability of iron on the assumption that there is no magnetic leakage.
Solution
φ = 0.1 mWb
I I
0.0005
Reluctance of air gap = 4 7
2.3405 x 10 6
AT / Wb
a μ 0 1.7 x 10 x 4 π x 10
A series magnetic circuit has an iron path of length 50 cm and an air gap of 1mm.
The cross section of the iron is 6.66 cm2 and the exciting coil has 400 turns.
Determine the current required to produce a flux of 0.9 mWb in the circuit. The
following points are taken from the magnetization curve for the iron.
Solution
Given ℓi = 0.5 m; ℓg= 1 x 10-3 m; a = 6.66 x 10-4 m2; N = 400; Flux = 0.9 mWb
1 x 10-3
Reluctance of air gap = 4 7
1.1949 x 106 AT / Wb
a μ 0 6.66 x 10 x 4 π x 10
Flux density in the iron path = 0.9x 10-3 / (6.66 x 10-4) = 1.3514 Wb / m2
Solution
Given r = 1 cm; Dm= 0.3 m; N = 250; µr = 800; I I
0.001
Reluctance of air gap = 7
2.5327 x 106 AT / Wb
a μ 0 0.0003142x 4 π x 10
0.9415
7
2.9807 x 106 AT / Wb
a μ 0 μr 0.0003142x 4 π x 10 x 800
8A 0.1 Ω
0.6 Ω E 0.6 Ω
0.4 Ω
Example 6
The magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 4 has the following dimensions: ℓ 1 = 10 cm,
-4
ℓ2 = ℓ3 = 18 cm, cross sectional area of ℓ1 path = 6.25 x 10 m2, cross sectional
-4
area of ℓ2 and ℓ3 paths = 3 x 10 m2, length of air gap = 1 mm. Taking the relative
permeability of the material as 800, find the current in the 600 turn exciting coil to
-6
establish a flux of 100 x 10 Wb in the air gap, neglecting leakage and fringing.
ℓ2 ℓ1 ℓ3
Fig. 4 - Example 6
Solution
Reluctance of path 1:
1 x 10-3
Reluctance of air gap = 4 7
1.2732 x 106 AT / Wb
a μ 0 6.25 x 10 x 4 π x 10
0.099
Reluctance of iron path = a μ 0 μr 6.25 x 10 4 x 4 π x 10 7 x 800
0.1576 x 10 6 AT / Wb
0.18
Reluctance of iron path = a μ 0 μr 3 x 10 4 x 4 π x 10 7 x 800
0.5968 x 10 6 AT / Wb
-6
100 x 10 Wb
1.2732 x 106 AT/Wb ((air gap)
Hysteresis loss
B M
Hmax, Bmax
N
P
H
O S
R
- Hmax, - Bmax
Q
- Hmax P O
S Hmax
Area of hysteresis loop gives the hysteresis loss per unit volume of the material.
About 4% addition of Slican to steel give rise to reduction in hysteresis loop area
and hence hysteresis loss.
Eddy current loss
Whenever a conducting material cuts the magnetic flux (armature core in the
case of rotating machines) an emf is induced in the core. This emf sets up
current through the solid mass. Such current is known as eddy current. Flow of
eddy current results in eddy current loss.
The eddy current loss is proportional to square of the thickness of the material.
This loss can be minimized by using a laminated core, which offers high
resistance for the flow of eddy current.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
G
A B
When the switch, K is closed from the open position, there will be induced
voltage and hence current in coil B as indicated by the galvanometer G. When the
key is opened from the closed position, the current flow will be in the opposite
direction. This illustrates the production of static induced emf.
Consider the setup shown in Fig. 10.
S N
A
Fig. 10 – Dynamic induced emf
When the conductor AB is moved from the top position in the downward
direction, it cuts the magnetic field at right angle. An emf is induced in the
conductor resulting current flow as indicated by the galvanometer. When the
conductor is moved from the bottom position in the upward direction, there will
be current flow in the opposite direction. This illustrates the production of
dynamic induced emf.
The results of the above two experiments can be summed up into two laws,
known as Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
First Law: Whenever the flux linking with a coil changes, a static emf is induced
in it and as such the emf lasts only for the time the change is taking place.
OR
When a moving conductor cuts the magnetic field, an emf induced in it which is
called as dynamic emf.
Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of
flux linkage. Flux linkage = Flux x Number ot turns having units as Wb. turns.
Induced emf
(i) The coil is stationary and the magnetic field is changing. Resulting
induced emf is known as static induced emf. Transformer works on this
principle.
(ii) The conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic field in such a way
that there is change in flux linkage. Resulting induced emf is known as
dynamic induced emf. Generator works on this principle.
In this case, the coil is held stationary and the magnetic field is varied. The
induced emf may be self induced or mutually induced.
A
G
A B
Two coils are wound over a magnetic specimen. Coil A is energized using a
battery. If switch K is initially closed, then a steady current of I ampere will flow
through the coil A. It produces a flux of φ Wb. Let us assume that the entire flux
links coils A and B. When the switch is suddenly opened, the current reduces to
zero and the flux linking both the coils becomes zero. As per Faraday’s law, emf
is induced in both the coils A and B. Such emfs are known as static induced
emfs. Static induced emf can be classified into two categories, namely self
induced emf and mutually induced emf.
Self induced emf
If a single coil carries a current, flux will be set up in it. If the current changes,
the flux will change. This change in flux will induce an emf in the coil. This kind of
emf is known as self induced emf. In other words, self induced emf is the emf
induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux linking it changes because of the
current changes in the same circuit.
dφ dψ
The magnitude of this self induced emf e = N
dt dt
Mutually induced emf is the emf induced in one circuit due to change of flux
linking it, the flux being produced by the current in another circuit.
Referring to Fig. 9, when a change in current though coil A occurs, we find the
flux linking coil B changes. Hence, an emf is induced in coil B and it is called as
mutually induced emf.
Dynamic induced emf
S N
A
Fig. 10 – Dynamic induced emf
Consider the experimental setup shown in Fig. 10.The magnetic poles, produce a
stationary flux density of B Wb. / m2. Let the conductor length be ℓ meters. The
conductor is moved at right angle to the field. Let the distance moved in dt
second be dx meters.
dx
Rate of change of flux linkage = B ℓ
dt
dx
where v = linear velocity =
dt
I F
B
S N
A
Fig. 11 – Force on current carrying conductor
Consider the setup shown in Fig. 11. When a current of I ampere flows in the
conductor from A to B, it will experience a force, F given by
F = B ℓ I Newton
This relation is true if the conductor is at right angle to the magnetic field. In case
if the conductor is an inclined direction, making an angle ө to the direction of
field, then
F = B ℓ I sin ө Newton
Self inductance of a coil, L is the rate of change of flux linkages with respect to
the current in it. Its unit is Henry. Thus
dψ dφ
L= = N Henry
dI dI
NI
Magnetizing force, H = AT / m
NI
Flux density, B = µ0 µr H = µ0 µr ( ) Wb. / m2 I
NI
Magnetic flux, φ = µ0 µr ( ) a Wb.
N2 I
Flux linkage = N φ = µ0 µr ( ) a Wb. Turns
dφ φ μ 0 μr N2 a N2
Self inductance, L = N =N = =
dI I ( / a μ 0 μr )
N2
=
Reluctance
dψ dφ N2
Thus self inductance L = = N =
dI dI Reluctance
Expression for self induced emf in terms of self inductance
dφ
The magnitude of self induced emf, e = N
dt
dφ d I
Thus self induced emf, e = N x
dI dt
dI
=L
dt
The self induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current in the same circuit.
Mutual inductance
Mutual inductance between two circuits is defined as the flux linkages of one
circuit per unit current in the other circuit.
I1 Coil 1 Coil 2
N1 I 1 N I
Flux in coil 1 φ1 = 1 1
Reluctance S
N1 N2 I 1
flux linkage of circuit 2 due to current in circuit 1 ψ21 = S
ψ 21 N1 N2
Mutual inductance M =
I1 S
Consider two air core coils having self inductances L 1 and L2 that are closer to
each other as shown in Fig. 12. When current passes through coil 1, flux φ is
11
produced in coil 1. Only a part of this flux links with coil 1 and the remaining flux
links both the coils 1 and 2. Generally, the flux linking both the coils is useful and
it is called mutual flux and represented by φ . The other part of the flux is called
21
leakage flux represented by φ . When the coil 2 carries current, flux produced in
ℓ1
I1 I2
φ 1 φ 2
φ 21
coefficient of coupling is always ≤ 1. If both the coils are far apart, then k = 0. On
the other hand if both the coils are wound over the same core, then k = 1. Similar
to the definition of self inductance, mutual inductances can be written as
d φ 12 d φ 21
M12 = N1 and M21 = N2
dI2 d I1
d φ 12 d φ 2 1 dφ22 d φ 11
Then M2 = N1 N2 = N1 N2 k k
dI2 d I1 dI2 d I1
d φ 11 dφ22
= k2 N1 N2 = k2 L 1 L 2
d I1 dI2
Thus M = k L1 L 2
Certain formulae
Static induced emf:
dφ dI
e=N volts e=L volts
dt dt
e = B ℓ v sin ө volts
F = B ℓ I sin ө Newton
Self inductance:
dφ N2
L=N Henry L= Henry
dI Reluctance
Mutual Inductance:
N1 N2
M= M= k L1 L 2
S
Example 7
A coil of resistance 150 Ω is placed in a magnetic flux of 0.1 m Wb. It has 500
turns and a galvanometer of 450 Ω resistance is connected in series with it. The
coil is moved from the given field to another field of 0.3 m Wb. In 0.1 sec. Find the
average induced emf and the average current through the coil.
Solution
Given Rc = 150 Ω; φ 1 = 0.1x 10-3 Wb.; N = 500 turns; Rg = 450 Ω; φ 2 = 0.3x 10-3 Wb.;
t = 0.1 sec.
dφ (0.3 x 10 3 0.1x 10 3 )
Induced emf, e = N = 500 x = 500 x 2 x 10-3 = 1.0 Volt
dt 0.1
Find also the value of induced emf when the conductor moves at an angle of 600
to the direction of the magnetic field.
Solution
Solution
Solution
Inductance, L = N2 / Reluctance
0.3
Reluctance, S = ℓ / ( a µ0) = 4 7
0.4775 x 109 AT/Wb
5 x 10 x 4 π x 10
4802
Inductance, L = 9
0.4825 x 10 3 0.4825 mH
0.4775 x 10
dI 8
Induced emf, e = L 0.4825 x 10 3 x 0.06433 V
dt 60 x103
Example 11
A current of 5 A when flowing through a coil of 1000 turns establishes a flux of
Solution
dφ 0.3 x 103
Self inductance, L = N 1000 x 0.06 H
dI 5
Example 12
A coil has a self inductance of 30 mH. Calculate the emf in the coil when the
current in the coil (a) increases at the rate of 300 A / sec. (b) raises from 0 to 10 A
in 0.06 sec.
Solution
Given L = 30 x 10-3 H;
dI
(a) Induced emf, e = L 30 x 10 3 x 300 9 V
dt
dI 10
(b) Induced emf, e = L 30 x 10 3 x 5V
dt 0.06
Example 13
The number of turns in a coil is 250. When a current of 2 A flows in this coil, the
flux in the coil is 0.3 m Wb. When this current is reduced to zero in 2 m sec., the
voltage induced in another coil is 63.75 V. If the coefficient of coupling between
the two coils is 0.75, find the self inductances of the two coils, mutual inductance
and the number of turns in the second coil.
Solution
k = 0.75
N1 = 250; I1 = 2 A; φ 1 = 0.3x 10-3 Wb.; I1’ = 0 ; dt = 2 m sec; e2 = 63.75 V; k = 0.75
dφ 1 0.3 x 10 3
Self inductance, L1 = N1 250 x 0.0375H
d I1 2
dI 1 2
Induced emf in coil 2, e2 = M Mx 63.75
dt 0.002
N1 = 250
Thus mutual inductance, M = 63.75 mH k = 0.75
Since M = k L1 L 2
2 2
I1 = 2 A; I1’ = 0
0.06375 = 0.75 x 0.0375 x L2 φ1 = 0.3 m Wb φ2 = 0.225 m Wb
’
φ1 = 0; φ2’ = 0;
Thus self inductance of coil 2, L2 = 0.1927 H dt = 2 m sec.
dφ 2 0.225 x 10 3
Also, e2 = N2 x N2 x 63.75
dt 2 x 10 3
Thus N2 = 567
FUNDAMENTALS OF AC
Electrical appliances such as lights, fans, air conditioners, TV, refrigerators, mixy,
washing machines and industrial motors are more efficient when they operate
with AC supply. The required AC voltage is generated by AC generator also called
as alternator.
Fig. 1
Alternating waveform is a waveform which reverses its direction at regular
intervals. Sinusoidal and rectangular waveforms shown above are alternating
waveforms. Let us see more details about sinusoidal waveform.
x(t)
xm
ωt
Fig. 2
The time taken by the sinusoid to complete one cycle is called the period (T) of
the sinusoid. When the supply frequency is 50 Hz, the sinusoid makes 50 cycles
in one second. Thus the period is 1/50 = 0.02 second. The frequency and the
period are related as
1 1
T= or f = (2)
f T
The angular frequency of sinusoid is represented by ω and its unit is radians per
second. In one cycle the angle covered is 2π radians. When the frequency is f
cycles per second, the angle covered in one second will be 2πf radians. Thus
ω=2πf (3)
While drawing a sinusoid, instead of ωt, time t can be taken in the x-axis.
Example 1
v(t) = 70 sin ( 60 t + 20 0 ) V
Find the amplitude, phase, angular frequency, frequency, period and the value of
voltage at time t = 0.25 s.
Solution
Amplitude v m = 70 V
Phase φ = 20 0
Angular frequency ω = 60 rad / s
ω 60
Frequency f = = 9.5511 Hz
2π 2π
1 1
Period T = = = 0.1047 s
f 9.5511
Voltage value at t = 0.25 s is
180
v (0.25) = 70 sin ( 60 x 0.25 x + 20 0 ) = 24.59 V
π
The two sinusoids shown in Fig. 3 are x(t) = x m sin ωt and x(t) = xm sin(ωt + φ)
x(t)
x(t) = xm sin(ωt)
x(t) = xm sin(ωt + φ)
ωt
Fig. 3
The sinusoid x(t) = xm sin(ωt + φ) leads the sinusoid x(t) = x m sin ωt by an angle
of φ. The sinusoids can also be written as
RMS Value
Form Factor = (7)
Average value
Peak Value
Peak Factor = (8)
R M S value
Consider a current waveform described by
Its positive half cycle and negative half cycle of such sinusoids are negative of
each other. Hence the area in one cycle is zero. For such sinusoidal wave form
the average value is the average value over half cycle.
Thus
Area of the curve = Im sin θ dθ = Im ( cos θ) = Im ( 1 1) = 2 Im
0 0
2 Im
Iav = = 0.6366 Im (10)
π
When we square the waveform i(t) = Im sin θ, the first and the second half of the
cycle will be same. Therefore while computing the R M S value of i(t) = I m sin θ it
is enough to consider only one half cycle.
I sin 2 θ dθ
2
Area of square curve = m
0
2
Im 2
Im sin 2 2
Im π 2
=
2
0
(1 cos 2 θ) dθ =
2
(θ-
2
)
0
=
2
[π – 0] =
2
Im
2
Im
Mean square value =
2
Im
RMS value = (11)
2
= 0.7071 Im (12)
Peak Value Im
Peak factor = = 1.414 (14)
R M S value 0.7071 Im
We may be calculating average and RMS values of waveforms in which inclined
straight line variations are present. Consider the waveform shown in Fig. 4. Its
square curve is shown in Fig. 5. Area A1 of the square curve can be calculated as
follows. v2
v
V2m
Vm
A1
t t
x x
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
2
vm v
Equation of the straight line is: v = t ; Then v2 = m
2
t2
x x
x
Vm2 2 2
vm t3 x 1 2
Area A1 = 2 t dt = 2 = Vm x
0 x x 3 0 3
It can be verified that the above result is true for the waveform shown in Fig. 6
also. v
Vm
t
x
Fig. 6
Example 2
Fig. 7
Solution
1 1 1 i2
Iav = x area of the triangle x x 5 x 2 2.5 A
2 2 2 25
1
Area of square curve = x 25 x 2 16.6663
3 2
Fig. 8
16.6663
Mean square value = 8.3332
2
Find the average and RMS value of the waveform shown in Fig. 9.
v
Vm
π
t
π/3 2π/3
Fig. 9
Solution
1π π 1π 2π
Area of positive half cycle = Vm Vm Vm = Vm
23 3 23 3
2
Average value = Vm 0.6667 Vm
3
V m2
The square curve is shown in Fig. 10.
A2
Area of square curve A1 A3
π 2π π
π 2 π 2 π 2 5
= Vm Vm Vm π Vm2 3 3
9 3 9 9
Fig. 10
5 2
Mean Square value = Vm ; Thus RMS value = 0.7454 Vm
9
Example 4
Find the average and RMS values of the half wave rectified sine wave shown in
Fig. 11.
i
Im
0 θ
π 2π
Solution Fig. 11
Total area = 2 Im + 0 = 2 Im
2 Im
Average value Iav = = 0.3183 Im
2π
π 2
As seen earlier, area of square of half sine wave = Im
2
π 2
Total area of square curve = Im
2
1 π 2 1 2 2
Mean of square curve = Im = Im = 0.25 Im
2π 2 4
Find the average and RMS values of the full wave rectified sine wave shown in
Fig. 12. i
Im
0 θ
π 2π
Solution Fig. 12
Total area = 2 Im + 2 Im = 4 Im
4 Im 2
Average value Iav = = Im = 0.6366 Im
2π π
π 2
As seen earlier, area of square of half sine wave = Im
2
1 1 2
Mean of square curve = π Im
2
= Im
2π 2
Im
RMS value IRMS = = 0.7071 Im
2
If the waveform is the sum of several waveforms, its AVERAGE value is the sum
of average values of its components and its RMS values can be obtained as
follows. Let
Example 6
Solution
E2
8Ω 3A
- +
+
+ -
E1 2V 5V
-
+ -
1A
5. Find the power delivered by the voltage source.
3kΩ
18 k Ω 8kΩ
6kΩ
20 k Ω
- +
12 V
6. Find the ampere turns required to produce a flux of 0.4 mWb. in the
air gap of 0.5 mm in a circular magnetic circuit. The iron ring has a
cross section of 4 mm2 and 63 cm mean length. Assume the relative
permeability of iron as 800. Neglect flux leakage.
0.5 x 10-2
Reluctance of air gap = 6 7
9.9472 x 10 7
AT / Wb
a μ 0 4 x 10 x 4 π x 10
Reluctance of iron path =
a μ 0 μr
63 x 10-2
6 7
1.5667 x 108 AT / Wb
4 x 10 x 4 π x 10 x 800
Sinusoidal
Sinusoidal
inputs of outputs of
Linear ac circuit
same same
frequency frequency
Fig. 1
The steady-state analysis of such circuits can be carried out easily using phasors.
A sinusoid is fully described when its maximum value, angular frequency and
A question may arise whether we should always deal with such sinusoidal time
function to represent voltage and current in ac circuits. When all the inputs are
sinusoidal time function with the same angular frequency ω, the voltage or the
current in any part of the circuit will also be of sinusoidal time function with the
ω, while representing voltages and currents in ac circuits. This idea gives birth to
π
x(t) = x m sin (ωt + φ) = x m cos (ωt + φ – ) and the corresponding phasor is
2
xm π
X = (2)
2 2
xm
If x(t) = - x m cos (ωt + φ) its phasor is X = φ- π (3)
2
xm π
If x(t) = - x m sin (ωt + φ) its phasor is X = (4)
2 2
Eqs. (1) to (4) are useful to find the phasor for a given sinusoid.
- sin
Fig. 1 is useful to locate
- cos cos
the quadrant in which
the phasor lies
sin Fig. 1 Quadrants for Phasor
A few sinusoids and the corresponding phasors are;
X
1
. The above Phasors are
shown in Fig. 2
X
6
X X
Fig. 2 Phasors of given sinusoids 3 4
X
2
The important motivation for the use of phasors is the ease with which two or
more sinusoids at the same frequency can be added or subtracted. In the
sinusoidal steady state, all the currents and voltages are of same frequency.
Hence phasors can be used to combine currents or voltages. KCL and KVL can
be easily interpreted in terms of phasor quantities.
Solution
In phasors corresponding to the sinusoids are:
V1 + V 2 + V 3 + V 4 = 45.8542 - j66.1073
= 80.4536 - 55.25 0
j3 j 1 900 j4 1
j3 j4 3 +j 4
3
COMPLEX NUMBERS
4+j3 - 3.3 + j 2.2 -3–j4 2.4 – j 4.4 are a few complex numbers.
4 j 3 5 36.870
- 3.3 j 2.2 4 146.30
j3
j 2.2
4 - 3.3
-3 2.4
-j4
- j 4.4
RESISTOR
Let the voltage v(t) across the resistor terminals be
v(t) V
i(t) m cos ω t (6)
R R
Vm
V 0 0 (7)
2
Vm
I 0 0 (8)
2R
The impedance of an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage across
it to the phasor current through it. Thus
V
Z (9)
I
V
For a resistor Z R 00 (10)
I
V = RI (11)
Representation of resistor in time frame and its phasor form are shown in Fig. 3.
i(t) R I R
+ v(t) - + V -
Fig. 3 Representation of a resistor
It is to be noted that as seen by the Eqns. (7) and (8),both the voltage V and the
current I have the same phase angle of 0 0 . The phasor diagram showing the
voltage and current in a resistor is shown in Fig. 4.
I
V
In the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 4, importance must be given to the phase
angles of the voltage V and the current I. The lengths of the phasors depend on
their magnitude and the scale chosen. In no occasion length of a voltage phasor
and the length of a current phasor can be compared since they have different
units. The scale for current phasors will be like
1 cm = x Volts while the scale for the voltage phasors will be like
1 cm = y Ampere.
di(t)
v(t) L (12)
dt
di(t)
Then v(t) L = - ωL Im sin ωt (14)
dt
Im
I 0 0 (15)
2
Im
and V ω L 900 (16)
2
The impedance of the inductor is given by
V
Z = ωL 90 0 = j ωL = j X L (17)
I
where X L = ωL (18)
V = j XL I (19)
Representation of inductor in time frame and its phasor form are shown in Fig. 5.
i(t) j XL
L I
+ v(t) - + V -
It is to be noted that as seen by the Eqns. (15) and (16), the voltage V leads the
current I by a phase angle of 90 0 . The phasor diagram showing the voltage and
current in an inductor is shown in Fig. 6. V
I
Fig. 6 Phasor diagram - inductor
V
It is to be noted that the voltage V leads the current I by 90° or we can also state
that the current I lags the voltage V by 90°. The steady state impedance
corresponding to the inductance L is jX L where X L = ωL. The quantity X L is
known as the INDUCTIVE REACTANCE.
CAPACITOR
dv(t)
i(t) C (20)
dt
dv(t)
Then i(t) C = - ωC Vm sin ωt (22)
dt
Vm
V 0 0 (23)
2
Vm
and I ω C 900 (24)
2
The impedance of the capacitor is given by
V
Z
I
1 j
= - 90 0 = - = - j XC (25)
ωC ωC
1
where XC = (26)
ωC
V = - j XC I (27)
Representation of capacitor in time frame and its phasor form are shown in Fig. 7.
i(t) C I - jX C
+ v(t) - + V -
It is to be noted that the current I leads the voltage V by 90° or we can also state
that the voltage V lags the current I by 90°. The steady state impedance
1
corresponding to the capacitance C is - jXC where XC = . The quantity XC is
ωC
known as the CAPACITIVE REACTANCE.
Solution
Here V = 80 55 0 and R = 25 Ω
V 80 55 0
Thus, current I = 3.2 55 0 A
R 25
Solution
V 20 1150
Current I = 4 205 0
A
Z 5 90 0
Solution
Phasor voltage V = 12 - 25 0 V
1 1
Impedance Z = - j j 6
j 200 Ω
ωC 100 x 50 x 10
V 12 25 0
Current I = A 0.06 65 0
A 60 65 0
mA
Z 200 900
A coil used in ac circuit will have its own resistance in addition to the inductive
reactance due to its inductance. One such coil is shown in Fig. 9.
R j XL
Z = R + j XL (28)
Now consider a case where a resistance R and a capacitance having a capacitive
reactance - j X C are connected in series as shown in Fig. 10.
R - j XC
Z = R - j XC (29)
The steady state impedance ( a complex quantity ) can be written in two forms,
namely Rectangular form and Polar form as
Rectangular form: Z = R + j X
Polar form: Z = Z
If two impedances Z 1 and Z 2 are connected in series as shown in Fig. 11, then
the equivalent impedance is
Z eq = Z1 + Z 2 (30)
Z1 Z2
Z eq
Z e q = Z 1 + Z 2 + …………….+ Z n (31)
1 1 1 1
.......... . (32)
Z eq Z1 Z2 Zn
Z eq Z1 Z2 …… Zn
1 1 1
(33)
Z eq Z1 Z2
Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2
Therefore
Z1 Z2
Z eq = (34)
Z1 Z 2
While dealing with the parallel circuit, it is also useful to define another quantity
called ‘admittance’. ADMITTANCE is defined as the reciprocal of the impedance
and it is denoted by Y. Thus
1
Y = (35)
Z
Y = G+jB (36)
When two impedances Z 1 and Z 2 are connected in parallel, referring to Eqn. (33)
the equivalent admittance Y e q is given by
Y eq = Y1 + Y 2 (37)
Z 2 respectively.
When n number of admittances Y 1 ,Y 2 ,…….., Y n are connected in parallel, Eqn.
(3.44) can by generalized as
Y e q = Y 1 + Y 2 +…………..+ Y n (38)
If there are n equal impedances Z are connected in series, then the equivalent
impedance is
Z eq = n Z (39)
Similarly if there are n equal admittances Y are connected in parallel, then the
equivalent admittance is
Y eq = n Y (40)
RL CIRCUIT
Having studied how to combine the series and parallel impedances we shall now
see how the RL, RC and RLC circuits can be analyzed.
Let us consider a simple circuit in which a resistor and an inductor are connected
in series as shown in Fig. 13.
I R j XL
+ VR - + VL -
E
Fig. 13 RL circuit
E E 0 0 (41)
Circuit impedance Z R j X L Z θ (42)
E E 0 0 E
Circuit current I θ (43)
Z Z θ Z
= I θ (44)
E
where I (45)
Z
Further VR R I R I θ (46)
VL j X L I X L I θ 900 (47)
The phasor diagram for this RL circuit can be got by drawing the phasors E, I, V R
and V L as shown in Fig. 14.
VL
E = E 00 V
II== I - θ 90 0
E
I= θ VL
VR = R I θ
IV=L = XL I θ 900
VR
I
I=
Fig.14 Phasor diagram of RL circuit
by I then R, X L and Z will form a triangle as shown in Fig, 15. This triangle
R
Fig. 15 Impedance diagram of RL circuit
RC CIRCUIT
Let us now consider the circuit in which a resistor and a capacitor are connected
in series as shown in Fig. 16.
- j XC
I R
+ VR - + VC -
E
Fig. 16 RC circuit
E E 0 0 (49)
E E 0 0 E
Circuit current I θ (51)
Z Z θ Z
= I θ (52)
E
where I (53)
Z
Further VR R I R I θ (54)
VC j X C I X C I θ 900 (55)
The phasor diagram for this RC circuit can be got by drawing the phasors V R , V C ,
E and I as shown in Fig. 17.
VR
I R
VC θ
θ XC
E
90
0 Z
by I then R, X C and Z will form a triangle as shown in Fig, 18. This triangle
1. When the current through a coil of 1000 turns is increased by 5 A, the flux in it
increases by 0.3 m Wb. Determine the self inductance of the coil.
2. The coefficient of coupling between coil A of 1200 turns and coil B of 1000 turns is
0.6. A current of 12 A in coil A establishes in it a flux of 0.12 m Wb. If the current in
coil A changes from 12 A to -12 A in 0.02 sec., what would be the emf induced in
coil B?
3. For the wave form shown, find the average value, RMS value, Form factor and
Peak factor.
v
12 V
0 2 sec. t (sec.)
5 sec.
When the current through a coil of 1000 turns is increased by 5 A, the flux in it
increases by 0.3 m Wb. Determine the self inductance of the coil.
dφ 0.3 x 10 3
L=N 1000 x 0.06 H
dI 5
The coefficient of coupling between coil A of 1200 turns and coil B of 1000 turns is
0.6. A current of 12 A in coil A establishes in it a flux of 0.12 m Wb. If the current in
coil A changes from 12 A to -12 A in 0.02 sec., what would be the emf induced in
coil B?
12 V
0 2 sec. t (sec.)
5 sec.
1 1
Average value = [ x 5 x 12 ] = 6 V
5 2
1 1 144
Area of square curve = ( x 2 x 144 ) ( x 3 x 144 ) x 5 240
3 3 3
240
Mean square = 48 ; RMS value = 48 6.9282 V
5
Peak value 12
Peak Factor = 1.7321
RMS value 6.9282
RLC CIRCUITS
Let E 0 0 be the supply voltage in an AC circuit. The supply current may lag or
lead the supply voltage. Let the supply current be I - θ. The supply current can
be resolved into two components (i) A component Ip in phase with the voltage
and (ii) A component Iq at right angle to the voltage as shown in Fig. 19.
E 00
θ Ip
Iq
I - θ0
Fig. 19 Power and Power factor
Current Ip is called the active or in-phase component while Iq is known as reactive
or quadrature component. As seen from Fig. 19
Iq = I sin θ (58)
It is to be noted that
I cos θ, I sin θ and I form three sides of a right angle triangle as in Fig. 20.
Ip
Iq
I
Fig. 20 Components of current
Active Power (P)
Active power is the real power consumed by the circuit. This is due to the in-
phase component.
Reactive power Q = E Iq
Similar to Fig. 20, real power P, reactive power Q and apparent power S form
θ P= E I cos θ
Q= E I sin θ
Q
S S= E I
E I cos θ
Thus power factor =
E I
= cos θ (62)
By the above definition, it is not possible to distinguish whether the load is
inductive or capacitive. If the load is inductive, the current is lagging the voltage
and the nature of the power factor is LAGGING. On the other hand if the load is
capacitive, the current is leading the voltage and hence the nature of the power
factor is LEADING.
2
P= E I cos θ = E I Z I I I R
(63)
Q E I sin θ = 0 (64)
In the case of pure inductor and pure capacitor, p.f. angle = 900 and hence
P= E I cos θ = 0 (65)
2
Q = E I sin θ = E I Z I I I X
(66)
Example 5
In a series circuit containing pure resistance and pure inductance, the current
2π 5π
and voltage are: i(t) = 5 sin (314t + ) and v(t) = 20 sin (314t + ). (i) What is
3 6
the impedance of the circuit? (ii) What are the values of resistance, inductance
and power factor? (iii) What is the power drawn by the circuit?
5 5 20 20
Current I = 120-90 = 300; Voltage V = 150-90 = 600
2 2 2 2
V 20 60
Impedance Z = 4 300 Ω ( 3.4641 j 2) Ω
I 5 30
Resistance R = 3.4641 Ω
2
XL = 2 Ω; 314 L = 2; L = H; Inductance L = 6.3694 mH
314
20 5
Power P = V I cos θ = x x 0.866 = 43.3 W
2 2
Example 6
Solution
10 A 1000 W |Z|
X
θ
2 1000
P = I R ; Resistance R = = 10 Ω R
100 250 V, 25 Hz
250
Z 25 Ω ; From impedance triangle X = 25 2 102 22.9128Ω
10
XL 22.9128
Inductance L = 0.1459 H
2πf 2 π x 25
R 10
From impedance triangle, power factor = 0.4 lagging
Z 25
Example 7
A resistance is connected in series with a coil. With a supply of 250 V, 50 Hz, the
circuit takes a current of 5 A. If the voltages across the resistance and the coil are
125 V and 200 V respectively, calculate (i) impedance, resistance and reactance
of the coil (ii) power absorbed by the coil and the total power. Draw the phasor
RC O XC O
diagram. 5A R
125 V 200 V
250 V 50 Hz
125
Resistance R = 25 Ω Fig. 21 Example 7
5
200 250
ZC O = 40 Ω ; ZT = 50 Ω
5 5
Since Z T = 50 Ω; (25 R C O ) j XC O 50
250 V
52.410
200 V
125 V
198.1 V
27.5 V
I
Fig. 22 Phasor diagram-Example 7
Example 8
When a resistor and a seriesly connected inductor coil, are supplied with 240 V, a
current of 3 A flows lagging behind the supply voltage by 37 0. The voltage across
the coil is 171 V. Find the value of the resistor, resistance and reactance of the
inductor coil.
RCO XCO
R
Solution
3 - 370 A
171 V
240 V
Fig. 23 Example 8
E
Circuit impedance Z = = 80 370 Ω = (63.8908 + j 48.1452) Ω
I
171
For the coil, Z CO 57 Ω ; From impedance triangle of the coil
3
Solution
120
Resistance R1 = 1.875 Ω
82
100
Impedance Z 1 12.5 Ω ; Therefore X1 = 12.5 2 1.8752 12.3586 Ω
8
500
Resistance R2 = 5Ω
10 2
100
Impedance Z 2 10 Ω ; Therefore X2 = 102 5 2 8.6603 Ω
10
Solution
10 6
Resistor R = 100 Ω; Reactance of the capacitor XC = = 63.662 Ω
2π x 50 x 50
E 200 0 0
Current I = 1.687132.48 0
A
Z 118.5447 32.480
I =1.6871 32.480 A
VR = 168.71 32.48 V
0
32.480
E = 200 00 V
900
VC = 107.4042 - 57.520 V
Fig. 24 Phasor diagram - Example 10
Example 11
In a circuit, the applied voltage of 150 V lags the current of 8 A by 40 0. (i) Find the
power factor (ii) Is the circuit inductive or capacitive? (iii) Find the active and
reactive power.
Solution
Circuit is capacitive.
Find the circuit constants of a two elements series circuit which consumes 700 W
with 0.707 leading power factor. The applied voltage is V = 141.4 sin 314 t volts.
Solution
141.4
P 700 W; V 99.9849 V ; cos θ = 0.707; Since Power P = V I cos θ
2
700 99.9849
I 9.9025 A and Z 10.0969 Ω
99.9849 x 0.707 9.9025
1
Capacitance C = 446.132 μ F
314 x 7.1385
Example 13
Solution
130 V Power P = 7000 W
130 2 200 V 50 Hz
( ) R 7000
R Fig. 25 Circuit – Example 13
1302 130
Resistance R = 2.4143 Ω ; Current I 53.8458 A
7000 2.4143
106
Capacitive reactance XC = 21.2207 Ω
2 π x 50 x 150
200
Current I = 14.0048 45.55 0 A Power factor = 0.7003 lagging
14.280845.55
In the circuit shown in Fig. 27, the current leads the voltage by 50 0. Find value of
R and the voltages across each circuit element. Draw the phasor diagram.
R 10 m H 5 μF
Solution
Circuit is capacitive
XL = 31.4159 Ω; XC = 63.662 Ω
R
Impedance Z = R + j 31.4159 – j 63.662 = R – j 32.2461 500
From the impedance triangle 32.2461 Ω
32.2461
tan θ = 1.19175 ; Thus Resistance R = 27.0578 Ω
R
V 200
Current I = = 4.7512 500 A
Z 42.0944 50
Voltage across R VR = R x I = 128.557 500 V
VL
VR
V = 200 0 0
II == 4.7512 500 A
I=
Fig. 28 Phasor diagram – Example 15
Example 16
2Ω j XL - j XC
Solution
Refer Fig. 29
250 V
XL = 2 π x 50 x 5 = 1570.7963 Ω 230 V 500 Hz
250 230
I 0.1592 A ; ZT 1444.7236 Ω ;
1570.7975 0.1592
1
If XC = 126.1 Ω circuit is INDUCTIVE; C= 25.243 μ F
2π x 50 x 126.1
1
If XC = 3015.5 Ω circuit is CAPACITIVE; C= 1.056 μF
2π x 50 x 3015.5
Example 17
Solution
V 247.4873 20
Impedance Z = R + j (XL – XC) = 23.3333400 Ω
I 10.6066 60
= (17.8743 + j 14.9984) Ω
Thus R = 17.8743 Ω
1
Therefore C = 0.2245 μ F
3000 x 1485.0016
Example 18
Solution
1
Circuit admittance Y = = (0.0092 – j 0.0289) = 0.03033 -72.34 mho
Z
Solution
Consider RLC series circuit with R = 100 Ω, L = 1.0 H and C = 1.0 µF. It is
connected to 500 V variable frequency supply. For a range of ω = 800 to 1200 rad.
per sec. in steps of 100 rad. per sec., compute the values of X L, XC, Z and I and
plot them. Mark the region of leading and lagging power factor. For ω = 1000 rad.
per sec., find the values of voltages across the inductance and capacitance.
Solution
ω rad. / sec. XL Ω XC Ω Z Ω Z Ω I A
R = 100 Ω
800 800 1250 100 – j 450 461 1.08
900 900 1111 100 – j 211 233 2.15 L = 1.0 H
1000 1000 1000 100 100 5.0
1100 1100 909 100 + j191 216 2.31 C = 1.0 μF
1200 1200 833 100 + 367 380 1.32
ω rad. / sec. XL Ω XC Ω Z Ω Z Ω I A
R = 100 Ω
800 800 1250 100 – j 450 461 1.08
900 900 1111 100 – j 211 233 2.15 L = 1.0 H
1000 1000 1000 100 100 5.0
1100 1100 909 100 + j191 216 2.31 C = 1.0 μF
1200 1200 833 100 + 367 380 1.32
o *
800 X 100 1.0
leading lagging
p.f. p.f.
ω
800 900 1000 1100 1200
Therefore
VL = j 1000 x 5 = j 5000 V
VC = - j 1000 x 5 = - j 5000 V
Even though the supply voltage is 500 V, voltages across the inductance and
capacitance are 5000 V.
VR
I
VC
Fig. 36 Phasor diagram
SERIES RESONANCE
L C j XL - j XC
R R
Z R 2 (X L X C ) 2 (68)
1 1
ω0 L = ; Thus ω0 = rad. / sec. (69)
ω0 C LC
1 1
Resonance frequency f0 = Hz (70)
2π LC
VL VC
Q Factor, Q = at resonance condition. (71)
E E
XL I XL ω0 L
Thus Q = (72)
R I R R
XC I XC 1
Also Q = (73)
R I R ω0 C R
BANDWIDTH
E
At resonance condition, the circuit current is maximum and is given by I0 = .
R
The entire power input is absorbed by R and this power is given by P 0 = I02 R. For
all other frequencies around ω0, circuit current is less than I0 and hence the
P0
power absorbed by the circuit will be less than P0. The power absorbed will be
2
1
when the circuit current is I0
2
I0
2
ω
ω1 ω2
Fig. 38 Bandwidth
Referring to Fig. 38,
Bandwidth ωB W = ω2 - ω1 (74)
R
It can be shown that ωB W = (75)
L
ω0 L ω0
Q= = (76)
R ωB W
Example 26
Solution
1 106
ω02 = 108 ; Therefore ω0 = 104 rad. / sec.
L C 0.01 x 1
ω0
Resonant frequency f0 = = 1591.55 Hz.; At resonance XL = XC = ω0 L = 100 Ω
2π
200
Circuit current at resonance I0 = = 20 A
10
X L 100
Quality factor Q = 10
R 10
R 10
Bandwidth ωB W = 1000 rad. / sec. = 159.155 Hz
L 0.01
Example 27
Solution
ω0 = 2 π x 50 = 314.1593
XL 825
Inductance L = 2.626 H
ω 0 314.1593
1 1
Capacitance C = F 3.8583 μF
ω 0 X C 314.1593 x 825
Example 20
Solution
240
IR 16 A ; 162 + I L 2
= 22.12; Thus I L = 15.245 A
15 Ι IL Ι
22.1 A
240 15.245
Therefore XL = 15.7429 Ω ; Thus L = 0.05011 H
15.245 2 π x 50 16 A
240
162 + I L 2
= 342; Thus I L = 30 A and XL = 8Ω Ι IL Ι
30 34 A
8
New frequency f = 25.4089Hz
2 π x 0.05011
Example 21
Solution
X L = 2 π x 50 x 0.05 15 Ω
200 V Ω, 50 Hz 20 Ω
= 15.708 Ω
XL
Taking supply voltage as
reference
Fig. 31 – Example 21
200
Current in the coil I1 = 6.3594 - j 6.6596 9.2083 - 46.320 A
15 j15.708
Solution
X L = 2 π x 800 x 0.006
40 Ω 50 Ω
100 V
= 30.1593 Ω
800 Hz 6 mH 4 μF
6
10
XC = 49.7359 Ω
2π x 800 x 4
Fig. 33 – Example 22
100
Current I2 = 1.0053 - j 1.0 1.418 44.85 0 A
50 j 49.7359
I2
44.850
V (Ref)
0
4.44
0
37.02 IT
I1
Fig. 34 – Phasor diagram - Example 22
Example 23
Solution
6 j8
Current I1 = x 15 (1.9672 j 8.3607 ) 8.589 76.760 A
16 j 7
10 j15
Current I2 = x 15 (13.0328 j 8.3607 ) 15.484 32.680 A
16 j 7
Two coils are connected in parallel across a voltage of 200 V, 50 Hz. The coils
have resistances of 10 Ω and 5 Ω and inductances of 0.023 H and 0.035 H
respectively. Find (i) current in each coil and total current and (ii) p.f. of the
combination.
Solution
The windings of three phase alternators are designated as AA’, BB’ and CC’. The
voltages generated in these windings are
e AA' E m cos ωt
e BB' E m cos( ω t 1200 ) (77)
e CC' E m cos( ω t 2400 )
The phasor descriptions of three voltages are shown in Fig. 39. Here E AA' is
taken as reference. Each voltage phasor is lagging the previous one by 120 0 .
E CC '
E A A' E0 0
EB B' E 1200
E C C' E 2400
E AA'
Em
E BB' E AA' EBB' E CC' E
2
Fig. 39 Phasor representation of 3 phase voltages
Generally E AA' is written as E A . Other phasors are represented likewise. Thus
E A E0 0
E B E 1200 (78)
E C E 2400
The three generator windings are connected either in STAR (wye) or in DELTA.
N O
E AB
IB A
C B
D
IC
Fig. 40 Star connected generator
E p h be the magnitude of line voltage and phase voltage. In case of star connected
system
Taking E A as the reference, the voltage phasors are shown in Fig. 41.
- EB
EC E AB
E A E ph 0 0
E B E ph 1200
E C E ph 2400
EA
The relationship between line voltage and phase voltage can be obtained as
follows.
E AB 3 E ph 30 0
E BC 3 E ph 90 0 (80)
E CA 3 E ph 1500
El 3 E ph
(81)
I l Iph
Above results are true for star connected load also, except that the power is
consumed by the load.
DELTA CONNECTED GENERATOR
A' IB A
C
B' D
IBC B
IC
In case of delta connected system, line voltage is equal to phase voltage. i.e.
E l = E ph (84)
Taking I BC as reference, current phasors are shown in Fig. 43.
I AB
I BC IBC Iph 0 0
ICA Iph 1200
I AB Iph 2400
I CA
IA
Fig. 43 Current phasors – Delta connected system
The above result can be seen from Fig. 43. Similar expression can be obtained for
I B and I C . Collectively, we have
IA 3 Iph 90 0
IB 3 Iph 2100 (85)
IC 3 Iph 30 0
Therefore Il = I A IB IC 3 Iph
E l = E ph
(86)
Il = 3 I ph
Above results are true for delta connected load also except that the power is
consumed by the load.
Working principle, construction and applications of DC Generator
Y YY
L
L A
A Z
O O
G G
A
A
AA AA D
D ZZ
Y YY
Y
L
A YY
Z Z L
O
G A O
A
ZZ AA A
D ZZ G
D
AA
Fig. 18 (c) Short shunt compounded
generator
Fig. 18 (d) Long shunt compounded
generator
Application of dc generators
Shunt generators are used in supplying nearly constant loads. They are used for
charging batteries and supplying the fields of synchronous machines.
Series generators are used as boosters for adding voltage to transmission lines
to compensate for the line drop.
Cumulative compound generators are used for drives which require constant dc
voltage supply.
In a dc motor, both the armature and the field windings are connected to a dc
supply. Thus, we have current carrying armature conductors placed in a
stationary magnetic field. Due to electromagnetic torque exerted on the armature
conductors, the armature starts revolving. Thus, electrical energy is converted
into mechanical energy in the armature.
When the armature is in motion, we have revolving conductors in a stationary
magnetic field. As per Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, an emf is
induced in the armature conductors. As per Lenz’s law, this induced emf opposes
the voltage applied to the armature. Hence it is called back emf. There will be
small voltage drop due to armature resistance. Thus, the applied voltage has to
overcome the back emf in addition to supplying the armature voltage drop. The
input power is used to produce necessary torque for the continuous rotation of
the armature.
Depending on how the Armature and Field windings are connected, we have
different types of dc motors. They are shown in Fig. 19.
Depending on how the Armature and Field windings are connected, we have
different types of dc motors. They are shown in Fig. 19.
+ +
YY YY
YY A
A DC Z
DC
supply M supply M
voltage voltage M
M AA ZZ
AA -
-
Fig. 19 (a) Series motor Fig. 19 (a) Shunt motor
Y YY
+
+ Y
DC A Z Z
DC YY
supply
G supply A
voltage
voltage ZZ
AA
ZZ G
-
AA
Fig. 19 (c) Short shunt compounded motor
-
Fig. 19 (d) Long shunt compounded motor
Application of dc motors
DC series motors are used in electric trains, cranes, hoists, conveyors etc. where
high starting torque is required.
Shunt motors are used where the speed has to remain constant under loaded
condition.
Compound motors are used for driving heavy tools for intermittent heavy loads
such as rolling mills, printing machines etc.
Working principle, construction and applications of 1- phase transformer
The transformer is a static apparatus used to transfer electrical energy from one
circuit to another. The two circuits are magnetically coupled. One of the circuits,
namely Primary, is energized by connecting it to an ac supply at specific voltage
magnitude, frequency and waveform. Then we have a mutually induced voltage
available across the second circuit, namely Secondary, at the same frequency
and waveform but with a desired voltage magnitude. These aspects are indicated
in Fig. 20.
dφ
EMF induced in primary side E1 = N1
dt
Since same flux is linking both the primary and secondary coils
dφ
EMF induced in primary side E2 = N2
dt
E 1 N1
Voltage ratio
E 2 N2
Since losses in the transformer are very less, Voltampere in both the sides are
equal. i.e.
E 1 I1 = E 2 I2
I 1 E 2 N2
Then the current ratio
I 2 E1 N1
Apart from primary and secondary windings, transformer has a good magnetic
core.
The transformer core is generally laminated and is made out of a good magnetic
material such as transformer steel or silicon steel. Such a material has high
relative permeability and low hysteresis loss. There are two types of transformer
cores. They are known as Core Type and Shell type. In core type transformer, L –
shaped stampings as shown in Fig. 21 are used. One core type transformer is
shown in Fig. 22.
(i) Power transformers located in Power Plants are used to step-up the
generated voltage to a high transmission voltage.
(ii) Transformers are used in distribution circuit to step-down voltages to
the desired level.
(iii) Almost all electronic circuits use transformers.
(iv) Potential transformers are used to measure high voltages and current
transformers are used to measure high currents.
(v) Furnace transformers and welding transformers are some special
applications of transformers.
Working principle, construction and applications of 3- phase
induction motor
According to Lenz’s law, the nature of the induced current is to oppose the cause
producing it. Here the cause is the relative motion between the rotor conductors
and the rotating magnetic field. Hence the rotor rotates in the same direction as
that of the rotating magnetic field.
In practice, the rotor speed never equals to the speed of the rotating magnetic
field. The difference in the two speeds is called the slip. The current drawn by the
stator gets adjusted according to the load on the motor.
Three phase induction motors are used in industry for very many purposes. They
are used in lathes, drilling machines, agricultural and industrial pumps,
compressors and industrial drives.
Rotor is the rotating part of the induction motor. The air gap between the stator
and rotor is as minimum as possible. The rotor is also in the form of slotted
cylindrical structure. There are to types of rotors, namely Squirrel Cage rotor and
Slip-ring or Wound rotor.
Fig. 26 shows the construction of a squirrel cage rotor.
Starting
resistance and
speed
controller
Im Main winding
Starting winding
Is
Single phase
a.c. supply
Rotor
S
α Is
θ
Im
I
Fig. 29 Phasor diagram of Resistance start induction motor
Capacitor-start induction motor
Starting winding
Is
Single phase
a.c. supply C
Rotor
S
Is
α
V
θ
I
Im
Fig. 31 Phasor diagram of capacitor-start induction motor
The phasor diagram of capacitor-start induction motor is shown in Fig. 31.
The following are the wiring material used for house wiring:
Conduit Wiring: In this system of wiring, V I R conductors are run inside metallic
pipes called conduit. The conduits are buried into the walls. This system of wiring
provides mechanical protection and good appearance. Nowadays instead of
metal, PVC pipes are used.
Staircase Wiring
P 1 1
S1 2 S2
2
S3 2 S4
2
S1 S2
P 1
1
L1 L2 L3
N
Incandescent bulbs are made in a wide range of sizes and voltages, from 1.5 volts to
about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment and have a low
manufacturing cost, and work well on either alternating current or direct current. As a
result the incandescent lamp is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for
portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative
and advertising lighting.
Fluorescent lamp
While larger fluorescent lamps have been mostly used in commercial or institutional
buildings, the compact fluorescent lamp is now available in the same popular sizes and
is used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.
Sodium vapor lamp
A Sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses sodium in an excited
state to produce light. There are two varieties of such lamps: low pressure and
high pressure. Because sodium vapor lamps cause less light pollution than
mercury-vapor lamps, many cities that have large astronomical observatories
employ them.
Mercury vapor lamps (and their relatives) are often used because they are
relatively efficient. Phosphor coated bulbs offer better color rendition than either
high- or low-pressure sodium vapor lamps. Mercury vapor lamps also offer a very
long lifetime, as well as intense lighting for several special purpose applications.
Earthing
Earthing provides safe discharge of electric current due to leakages and faults to
ground.
All metallic parts of electrical appliances shall be connected by earth wire made
of very good conductor and finally the earth wire is connected to ground.
Earthing can be done through G.I. pipe or G.I. plate buried in the ground and
surrounded by charcoal and common salt to provide good conductivity. To
ensure safety earth resistance should be checked now and then and it is kept at a
very low value.