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ELECTRICAL
PRINCIPLES
PETER PHILLIPS
4th edition
Electrical Principles © 2019 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
4th Edition
Peter Phillips Copyright Notice
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23 22 21 20 19
v
Brief contents
Preface x
Acknowledgements xi
About the author xii
Guide to the text xiii
Guide to the online resources xv
Chapter 1 The electric circuit 01
Chapter 2 Voltage sources and effects of an electric current 24
Chapter 3 Ohm’s law 43
Chapter 4 Electrical power 63
Chapter 5 Resistance and resistors 87
Chapter 6 The series circuit 107
Chapter 7 The parallel circuit 123
Chapter 8 The series–parallel circuit 141
Chapter 9 Basic meters 155
Chapter 10 Capacitance 186
Chapter 11 Magnetism and electromagnets 218
Chapter 12 Electromagnetic induction 249
Chapter 13 DC generators 269
Chapter 14 DC motors 299
Chapter 15 AC fundamentals 331
Chapter 16 Pure R, L or C in an AC circuit 357
Chapter 17 Series combinations of R, L and C 377
Chapter 18 Parallel AC circuits 400
Chapter 19 Single-phase power 419
Chapter 20 Three-phase power 437
Chapter 21 Transformers 476
Chapter 22 Three-phase motors 522
Chapter 23 Single-phase motors 558
Chapter 24 Synchronous machines 572
Chapter 25 Test equipment and batteries 598
Appendix 644
Solutions 649
Index 656
vi
Contents
Preface x
Acknowledgements xi
About the author xii
Guide to the text xiii
Guide to the online resources xv
Chapter 1 The electric circuit 01

1.1 The electrotechnology industry 02
1.2 Workplace safety laws 04
1.3 Sustainable energy principles 05
1.4 Voltage 06
1.5 Current 08
1.6 Resistance 09
1.7 Basic electric circuit 12
1.8 Circuit diagrams 13
1.9 Open-circuit and closed-circuit 15
1.10 Measuring voltage 17
1.11 Measuring current 18
1.12 Meter connections 20
Chapter 2 Voltage sources and effects

of an electric current 24
2.1 Producing a voltage 25
2.2 Effects of an electric current 32
2.3 Protection against effects of an electric current 40
Chapter 3 Ohm’s law 43

3.1 Resistance and conductance 44
3.2 Ohm’s law 44
3.3 Metric prefixes 51
3.4 Scientific and engineering notation 55
3.5 Using engineering notation 56
Chapter 4 Electrical power 63

4.1 Energy and work 64
4.2 Power 69
4.3 Electrical power 72
4.4 Transposing the power equation 73
4.5 Power and Ohm’s law 77
4.6 Power change with I, V or R changes 83
Chapter 5 Resistance and resistors 87

5.1 Factors that determine resistance 88
5.2 Resistors 93
5.3 Resistor colour code 100
5.4 Measuring resistance 103
Chapter 6 The series circuit 107

6.1 The series circuit 108
6.2 Current in the series circuit 108
CO N T E N T S vii
6.3 Resistance in the series circuit 109

6.4 Voltage in the series circuit 111
6.5 Summary of the series circuit 115
6.6 Power in the series circuit 116
6.7 Faults in the series circuit 119
Chapter 7 The parallel circuit 123

7.1 The parallel circuit 124
7.2 Voltage in the parallel circuit 125
7.3 Current in the parallel circuit 125
7.4 Resistance in the parallel circuit 128
7.5 Summary of equations 133
7.6 Power in the parallel circuit 135
7.7 Faults in the parallel circuit 136
7.8 Comparison to the series circuit 138
Chapter 8 The series–parallel circuit 141

8.1 Introduction 142
8.2 Resistance in the series–parallel circuit 142
8.3 Ohm’s law in the series–parallel circuit 146
8.4 Power in the series–parallel circuit 151
Chapter 9 Basic meters 155

9.2 Analog meter movement 156
9.3 Digital meter module 158
9.4 The ammeter 160
9.5 The voltmeter 163
9.6 Voltmeter loading 167
9.7 The ohmmeter 170
9.8 Multimeters 173
Chapter 10 Capacitance 186

10.1 Electrostatics 187
10.2 Charge and capacitance 188
10.3 Factors that determine capacitance 191
10.4 Types of capacitors 194
10.5 Capacitors in parallel 198
10.6 Capacitors in series 201
10.7 Safety precautions 205
10.8 The RC circuit 205
10.9 The RC time constant 208
10.10 Time constants 210
10.11 Universal time constant curve 213
Chapter 11 Magnetism and electromagnets 218

11.1 Magnetism 219
11.2 Magnetic effect of an electric current 227
11.3 The electromagnet 230
11.4 Magnetic circuit 234
11.5 Magnetisation curves 240
Chapter 12 Electromagnetic induction 249

12.2 Electromagnetic induction 250
12.3 Lenz’s law 255
viii CO N T E N T S
12.4 Inductance 256

12.5 Mutual inductance 262
12.6 The RL circuit 263
Chapter 13 DC generators 269

13.2 DC generator operating principles 270
13.3 DC machine construction 273
13.4 Separately excited DC generator 278
13.5 Self-excited generators 285
13.6 Calculations 291
Chapter 14 DC motors 299

14.2 DC motor operating principles 300
14.3 Types of DC motors 307
14.4 Losses and efficiency 313
14.5 DC motor control and protection 316
14.6 Other types of DC motors 323
Chapter 15 AC fundamentals 331

15.1 Introduction to AC 332
15.2 Waveforms 332
15.3 The sinewave 335
15.4 Sinewave values 340
15.5 Phase relationships 346
15.6 Tip-to-tail phasor diagrams 353
Chapter 16 Pure R, L or C in an AC circuit 357

16.1 Power in AC resistive circuits 358
16.2 Capacitance in an AC circuit 360
16.3 Capacitive reactance 362
16.4 Power in a purely capacitive AC circuit 367
16.5 Inductance 368
16.6 Inductive reactance 369
16.7 Power in a purely inductive AC circuit 373
Chapter 17 Series combinations of R, L and C 377

17.1 Series RL AC circuits 378
17.2 Series RC AC circuits 383
17.3 Series RLC AC circuits 388
17.4 Series resonance 393
Chapter 18 Parallel AC circuits 400

18.2 Parallel resistors and AC 402
18.3 L and R in parallel 403
18.4 R and C in parallel 406
18.5 R, L and C in parallel 409
18.6 Parallel resonance 412
Chapter 19 Single-phase power 419

19.2 Power in reactive–resistive circuits 420
19.3 Power in any AC circuit 423
CO N T E N T S ix
19.4 Power factor 426

19.5 Power factor correction 430
Chapter 20 Three-phase power 437

20.2 Three-phase power generation 439
20.3 Star connection 442
20.4 Delta connection 447
20.5 Three-phase loads 450
20.6 Three-phase power 457
20.7 Measuring three-phase power 463
20.8 Harmonics 467
20.9 Faults in three-phase power systems 470
Chapter 21 Transformers 476

21.2 The ideal transformer 477
21.3 The practical transformer 482
21.4 Transformer operation 489
21.5 Voltage regulation 493
21.6 Transformer performance 497
21.7 Transformer connections 503
21.8 Transformers in parallel 507
21.9 High voltage safety 512
21.10 Auto-transformers 513
21.11 Instrument transformers 515
21.12 Insulation resistance test 518
Chapter 22 Three-phase motors 522

22.1 Three-phase induction motor 523
22.2 Wound rotor induction motor 530
22.3 Induction motor load characteristics 537
22.4 Motor protection 544
Chapter 23 Single-phase motors 558

23.1 Single-phase induction motors 559
23.2 Capacitor motors 563
23.3 Shaded-pole induction motors 567
23.4 Universal motors 568
Chapter 24 Synchronous machines 572

24.1 Alternators 573
24.2 Synchronous motors 587
24.3 Other types of synchronous motors 594
Chapter 25 Test equipment and batteries 598

25.1 The oscilloscope 599
25.2 Electrical test equipment 614
25.3 Batteries 627
Appendix 644
Solutions 649
Index 656
x
Preface
This book, now up to its fourth edition, presents the core knowledge component for
the Electrical Trades course as required by Training Package UEE11. Like the previous
editions, this new edition is written with the student in mind. Electricity is a source of
invisible energy, which is why the Electrical Trades is different to many other areas
of learning. Therefore, it is important to make a textbook about electricity as easy to
understand as possible. As in all previous editions of this book, the writing style is aimed
at Certificate III level while retaining the terminology used in the Electrical Trades. As well,
the technical content never exceeds that of Certificate III level and there are over 800
illustrations or photos integrated with the text to explain a topic.
In preparing this fourth edition, I have been greatly helped by feedback from teachers.
While there are no major changes to the book, there are lots of smaller changes, many
based on teacher feedback. Most of the review questions are new, with a focus on real
world situations. All questions can be answered by referring to the text and the examples,
to avoid the frustration of being unable to find the necessary information. Some parts
have been rewritten to reduce the number of words or to add bullet points to improve
clarity. Many illustrations have been revised, and a few new ones have been added. Where
applicable, the technical content has been updated, especially in Chapter 25.
This book coincides with the 2018 edition of the AS/NZS 3000:2018 Wiring Rules,
and all references to these rules are now updated. An important aspect is safety, and there
is greater reference in this new edition to the safety aspects associated with electricity. A
new feature is the FYI margin boxes, which give additional and brief information about a
particular item or topic. Reference to sustainability is also increased. An important update
is including useful internet sites, in particular YouTube videos. There are many YouTube
videos on electrical theory, but a lot of these are poorly presented or are of too high a
level. All of the suggested YouTube videos and websites have been reviewed, and some
of these give an excellent overview of a topic. These can be accessed using a mobile
phone via a QR code.
The sequence of information in this book has not changed. The first eight chapters
cover DC theory, perhaps the most important part of electrical theory. Understanding
Ohm’s law and all its possibilities is essential to a full understanding of electricity, which
is why this topic occupies a third of the book. Teachers are not obliged to follow the
sequence in this book which is based on that followed by a number of colleges I have been
associated with. Topics are presented in chapters, which can be presented in the order
that suits the college. My sincere thanks to those teachers who have made suggestions
that make this fourth edition that little bit better than the previous editions.
Peter Phillips
xi
Acknowledgements
There are many people who have helped me over the years in preparing this book. My
particular thanks go to Greg Robinson and Frank Cahill from Miller TAFE and to Alan
Birse from Granville TAFE who all provided considerable help and guidance in the original
edition of this book, from which this fourth edition has evolved. Others who have been of
great help are Col Berry from Dubbo TAFE, and teachers from Ultimo TAFE who provided
important feedback when the second edition was first published. Numerous teachers
(listed below) participated in a review of the third edition, providing valuable guidance and
advice for this new edition.
Thanks in particular to the team at Cengage, publishers of this book. My thanks
to Raphael Solarsh who was the first point of delivery of each revised chapter, also to
Chee Ng for his support and belief in this book. As well, thanks to the production team,
graphic artists, the sales team and the many others working behind the scenes. It’s through
the team effort of us all that saw the last edition of this book win two important awards.
The author and Cengage would also like to thank the following reviewers for their
incisive and helpful feedback:
Terry Buckridge, TAFE NSW
Derek Bailey, TAFE NSW
Garry Barbuto, TAFE NSW
Rodney Chant, Riverina Institute of TAFE
Jim Loughran, TAFE QLD
Paul Mansfield, TAFE SA
Marcus Lock, SA TAFE
Kevin Langham, Tasmanian Polytechnic
Carlo Gnaccarini, Gordon Institute of TAFE
Max Adams, West Coast Institute
Aldo Vergan, Endeavour Energy
Mick Jordan, TAFE SkillsTech
xii
About the author

Peter Phillips began his working life as an apprentice electrical fitter at a large
manufacturing plant at Lithgow NSW. After completing his apprenticeship, he spent over
eight years working in various power stations, before starting his TAFE NSW teaching
career in 1974, where he taught a wide range of electrical subjects in various colleges
in NSW. He held numerous teaching and supervisory positions and became involved
in curriculum development during the 1990s, when the National Curriculum was being
introduced. In 1994, after leaving TAFE NSW, he started his own company that offered
services ranging from curriculum development to producing training resources.
He has written extensively for technical magazines and helped develop various Training
Packages and their support documentation, along with working in curriculum areas
associated with the manufacturing sector. As a result, he travelled extensively throughout
Australia, visiting a wide variety of manufacturing industries and RTOs. His first textbook,
Electrical Fundamentals, was released in 1993, and became a bestseller. It was followed
by a series of books for the Electrotechnology industry, with the series winning an award
in 1998. The second edition of Electrical Principles won two awards in 2014 and the third
edition was also equally awarded.
Peter remains actively connected to the electrical industry, and meets regularly
with trainers and others involved with the Electrical Training Package. He maintains his
connections with TAFE NSW and is widely known through his writings and involvement
in tertiary education. He holds a Bachelor of Education (Distinction) and a wide range
of technical qualifications including Electrical Trades, Advanced Diploma of Engineering,
Industrial Electronics and other Certificate IV qualifications. He was awarded a doctorate
by Sydney University in 2017.
xiii
Guide to the text

As you read this text you will find features in every chapter
to enhance your study of Electrical Principles and help you
understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
CHAPTER OPENING FEATURES
1
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
4 E L E CT R I CA L P R I N C I P L E S
This chapter provides an introduction to the electrotechnology
Identify the key concepts that the industry and two important laws that cover the entire workforce:
workplace safety and environmental legislation. The meaning of
terms such as voltage, current and resistance, the difference between
chapter will cover in the Introduction a conductor and an insulator, and what is meant by an open-circuit
and a short-circuit are also described. The electric circuit and some
electrical component symbols are presented, but first we look at how
and Chapter Outline. electrical power reaches our homes.
Chapter outline
1.2 Workplace safety laws

1.1 The electrotechnology industry
1.3 Sustainable energy principles
1.4 Voltage
FYI Workplace safetyCurrent applies to all areas of the workforce, and all Australian states and territories
1.5
1.6 Resistance
A hazard is and New Zealand have legislation that covers the rights and responsibilities of employers and
1.7 Basic electric circuit
anything that can employees. Those undertaking
1.8 Circuit diagrams a Certificate III (trades) course will learn about workplace health
cause harm to 1.9 Open-circuit and closed-circuit
and safety (WHS) 1.10 Measuring voltage as part of the course. In general, WHS legislation imposes a duty of
legislation
people, plant or
the environment. care on employers and certain
1.11 Measuring current
obligations on employees. Briefly, employers are required to ensure
1.12 Meter connections
the health, safety and welfare at work of all employees and others who come into the workplace.
Employees are obliged to take care of the health and safety of co-workers, cooperate with
employers in matters of health and safety, work safely and to notify their supervisor of actual or
C H A P T E R 2 Vopotential
lTa g E S o hazards.
u r c E S Essentially,
a n d E f f E this cT S means
o f a n that E l E the
cT rWHS
I c c ulegislation
r r E n T places 2 5an obligation on every
person associated with a workplace in any way to ensure 4 his or her E L Eown
CT Rworkplace
ICAL PRIN health
C I P L Eand
S safety.
Working with electricity has its own special hazards, as well as those associated with other
industries. For example, working on a roof near overhead power lines, where there’s a risk of
falling and a risk of electric shock. The important thing, before starting any electrical work, is
to first identify the hazards and assess the risk associated with each hazard. Some employers
require work teams to complete hazard and risk identification paperwork before starting a
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
2.1 Producing a voltage job. This requires all team members to identify the potential hazards and their associated risk,
As explained further in Chapter 4, electricity is a form

determine how the risks will be dealt with (controlled), and when everyone agrees, to sign the
of energy.
completed form.A basic law, called the Conservation 1.2 Workplace safety laws
Use the Safety icons for
of Energy, says that energy 6cannot
SAFETY
beE L E CT
created R I
orCA L P R IUse
InN the
destroyed. P L Ethe
C I However,
S
above FYI
energyicons
example, can
theberisk for
converted
of falling from
is high, and FYIpotentially fatal. TheWorkplace safety applies to all areas of the workforce, and all Aus
control measures
one form to another. This means that electrical energy
wouldhas to come
include from aother
wearing safety sources
harness of energy,
plus other personal A hazard protective
is and New
equipment Zealand
(PPE), along have legislation that covers the rights and respo
important tips on safe process. Thehighlighted
by a conversion
Safety issues
most commonlyin
are
used more
energy sources useful
for this information
are: anything
with being very aware of the hazard and taking appropriate care. The electricalemployees. that can hazard would Those
alsoundertaking a Certificate III (trades) course will l
work practices.• mechanical needabout the topic.
chapters where cause harm to
to be controlled in a manner that ensures your safety. As a job proceeds, andyousafety (WHS)
might findlegislation as part of the course. In general, WHS
they apply. people, plant or
• chemical some of the control measures are not providing sufficient the safety, so a review becomes necessaryand certain obligations on employees. Briefly, emp
environment. care on employers
• heat and changes need to be made. The risk management process is shown in Figurethe 1.3,health, safetytoand welfare at work of all employees and others wh
and applies
Sustainability icons
• light. every job, whether outdoors or indoors.
Energy efficiency refers to using less energy for the same outcome. Products
Employees are obliged to take care of the health and safety of
include those with
SUSTAINABILITY
aKey concepts employers in matters of health and safety, work safely and to notify
highlight key energy Producing electricityFoften involves
E 1 . 3 several
I GSustainable
UR energy processes, high
suchefficiency
as rating, energy
first converting are
heat toefficient
mechanical lamps, andKEY in CONCEPT
particular, light emitting diode (LED) lamps
in fluorescent lamps and all types of filament 7lamps. 1 Essentially, this means that the WHS legislation
potential
C H A P T E R 4 E L E CT R I C A L P O W E R hazards.
issues are energy
highlighted which are replacing The fluorescent
basic cycle tubes, compact
energy, then using theRisk
sustainability issues
Figure 2.1, where an energy
mechanical
management is a to produce
in chapters where
source is converted to
emphasised
New
electrical
electricity.
buildings
energy, have
which to
is
inthen
the
conform
is shown
1toidentify
converteda set by hazards
ofanstandardsHeat and light
designed to reduce
person associated with a workplace in any way to ensure his or her own
energy and water usage.
constant process are both forms of Working with electricity has its own special hazards, as well as
they apply.
relevant to the electrical
electrical
appliance into another form of energy, such In margin
as heat. Southfor
New Wales, easythese are known as BASIX.‘radiant’ Other states
energyand territories and New Zealand
industries. For example, working on a roof near overhead power l
have similar legislation. is there a regulation, advisory standard,
industry. reference and revision.
WHS and environmental legislation have been
industry code or other guidance about
F I Gbriefly
U R E described
2.1
falling and a risk of electric shock. The important thing, before sta
before we start looking at
the identified hazards? to first identify the hazards and assess the risk associated with ea
electrical theory, as it is very important to be aware of these
Electrical energytwo is items of legislation, and to
energy source load that converts require work teams to complete hazard and risk identification p
(mechanical, chemical, understand
electrical energy your responsibilities.
5 monitor electrical energy to
produced by converting
EXAMPLE 4.4 other forms of energy job. This requires all team members to identify the potential hazar
radiant) and reviewheat, light, etc. follow the regulation,
determine how the risks will be dealt with (controlled), and when
Examples demonstrate Find the power (P) of a motor that is delivering 20 Nm of torque when standard,
it is codeat
running or 1440 RPM. 2 assess risks
completed form.
Key points... guide
step-by-step solutions to Solution • a Electrical power is 20
sentNm fromand power generators
SAFETY
In the above example, the risk of falling is high, and potentially
As you saw in ChapterValues1, torque
voltage (T) 5
is ‘electrical pressure’ current is a flowtoof electrons.• The Thevarious stateSafetyandissuesterritory
are WHS and include wearing a safety harness plus other personal protec
would
numerical problems that
current does the work (lights a substations
lamp,RPM
makes(n) over5 high
a motor1440 voltage
turn), as atransmission
voltage by itself lines and a pressure
is simply Environmental Protection
highlighted in Acts imposewith obligations
being very aware of the hazard and taking appropriate care. The
distributed
power to ofusers
(P) 5 ? over andlower voltage
Thatpower lines.energy ison both employerschapters andwheretheir employees.
need to be controlled in a manner that ensures your safety. As a j
you will face in source.
the So, electrical energy•is aThe combination
electrotechnology
voltage current.
industry has 4over
is, electrical
20
implement control •
used
Sustainable they 3apply.
energy is
decidemadethe up of two parts:
some of the control measures are not providing sufficient safety, so
(or more correctly, transformed) only when 2πcurrent
nT 6.28 3 20 31440
flows.
P5
Equationqualifications,
electrical industry. This means the energy source to produce 60 each
5 requiring a knowledge
electrical energy
60 is only measures
being of used when current renewable energy control
andmeasures
energy efficiency.
and changes need to be made. The risk management process is shown
flows. For instance, a Answer electrical
battery that’s power principles.
not connected5 3014 to watts
anything is not supplying electrical energy, every job, whether outdoors or indoors.
even though there’s a voltage developed across its terminals. Here’s a brief look at the various
ways of producing electricity. All these methods convert one form of energy into electrical FIGURE 1.3
energy.
Efficiency Risk management is a
1.4 Voltage constant process 1 identify hazards
The source of energy to power a motor has to come from another energy source. In Example 4.4,
Mechanical to electrical
the motor is delivering slightly Theover
three3 most
kW ofcommon
mechanicalelectrical
power.quantities are voltage,
This is called current and resistance. These three
the output
is there a regulation
industry code or oth
power. The input power is the termspower are closely
taken related,
by the motorwhich
frommeans that source.
its energy if any two are present,
If there were the third is also present. For the identified hazard
Mechanical energy is movement. The three main ways to convert mechanical movement into
no losses in the motor, it would instance,
requireif voltage
the same andinput
resistance
power are as
bothitspresent,
output so is current.
power. That
electrical
Copyright 2019 Cengage energy are:
Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole orbyina part. WCN 02-200-202
is, the motor would be 100 per cent A voltage is electrical pressure. As an example, lightning is caused
efficient. very high 5 monitor
voltage (or
• friction between two materials electrical Earth. When the pressure isand review follow the regulation,
It is impossible for any machine to bepressure) between
100 per cent a cloud
efficient, as and
thereanother point,
are always suchinasthe
losses high
• mechanical stress process
applied ofto converting
a piezo-electric element
enough, there’s a lightning strike. standard, code or 2 ass
energy from one form to another. In the caseAofcaran battery develops
electric motor, thea losses
voltage of 12 volts; there’s 230 volts
guide
xiv G U I D E TO T H E T E X T
KEY POINTS...
• All forms of energy can be classified as either • Efficiency of a machine equals its power out
potential or kinetic. divided by its power in, multiplied by 100.
• Kinetic energy is energy in motion. • Efficiency gives a measure of the losses in a
• Potential energy is energy in storage. machine and is expressed as a percentage.
• Power is the rate of doing work. It has the symbol P
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS and is measured in watts.
TASK 4.1
Practice your electrical 1 Calculate the force required to lift a toolbox weighing 15 kg.
calculations by 2 How much work is done if you lift the 15 kg toolbox through a vertical distance
of 1.5 m?
answering the questions
3 When tightening a bolt, the manufacturer specifies a maximum torque of 60 Nm.
in the Task feature. How much force can you apply if you hold the spanner at a point 200 mm from
the bolt head?
Find the answers in 4 You weigh 60 kg and are carrying tools weighing 5 kg. How much power do you develop
the Solutions section at if you climb a 20 metre long ladder in 30 seconds?
5 A machine requires 500 W of power and delivers 450 W of useful output power.
the end of the book.
72 E L E CT R I CA L P R I N C I P L E S Calculate the losses and the efficiency of the machine.
Review your understanding 4.3

of the mostElectrical
important power
points with the Key points box at the
end of each topic. As already explained, the power is one watt if one joule of energy is transformed in one second. Electrical
energy is used only when a voltage causes a current to flow (kinetic energy). Electrical power is the
rate at which electrical energy is transformed into another form, such as heat.
KEY POINTS... Electrical power, like mechanical power, is measured in watts. One watt of electrical power is
dissipated in a resistor when ae Lvoltage of one volt causes a current of one ampere to flow through
• All forms of energy can be classified as either
5 9 6 • eEfficiency
cT r i cA L P r i n c i P L e S
the resistor. (By Ohm’s law, the resistance isofone a machine
ohm.) equals its power out
potential or kinetic. The general equation to find electricalbypower
divided its power is: in, multiplied by 100.
• KEY energy
Kinetic CONCEPTis energy in motion.
power 5 voltage 3 current•(P Efficiency
5 VI) gives a measure of the losses in a
• Potential energy is energy in storage.
Calculating machine and is expressed as a percentage.
where:
• Power is the rate
electrical powerof doing work. It has the symbol P • Amortisseur windings, also called damping bars, are fitted to the rotor of a synchronous motor
and is measured in watts.
P 5 power in watts to prevent it hunting, and to also provide a means of starting the motor. In this case, the bars
V 5 voltage in volts allow the motor to start as an induction motor.
• When the load on a synchronous motor is increased, the rotor speed remains constant, but the
I 5 current in amperes. rotor shifts backwards by an amount called the torque angle.
•
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TASK 4.1 excited motor has a lagging power factor, an over-excited motor has a leading power factor. The
optimum exciting current gives the minimum stator current for that load at unity power factor.
EXAMPLE 4.6
1 Calculate the force required to lift a toolbox• weighing
Because power factor can be determined by excitation, synchronous motors are sometimes
END-OF-CHAPTER2 FEATURES
15 kg.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
These worksheets give you the opportunity to You may use these worksheets to assess your
Synchronous_motor
assess your knowledge and consolidate your students’ understanding of key concepts in
understanding of the concepts learned in this this chapter.
chapter. • Download the student and instructor version
COMPLETE WORKSHEET TWENTY-FOUR

• Please contact your instructor for the
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xv
Guide to the online resources

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xvi G U I D E TO T H E O N L I N E R E S O U R C E S
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• Video 4 – Power and resistance in a stove • Video 14 – Three-phase balanced and unbalanced
• Video 5 – Series and parallel circuit installations: circuits
LED lights • Video 15 – Compressor motors
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• Video 7 – Case study: The house with the dimming transformers
lights • Video 17 – How do three-phase induction motors work?
• Video 8 – Understanding solenoids and their uses • Video 18 – Replacing faulty capacitors
• Video 9 – Lenz’s law and its everyday use
• Video 10 – Case study: Power correction in a factory
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1
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
This chapter provides an introduction to the electrotechnology

industry and two important laws that cover the entire workforce:
workplace safety and environmental legislation. The meaning of
terms such as voltage, current and resistance, the difference between
a conductor and an insulator, and what is meant by an open-circuit
and a short-circuit are also described. The electric circuit and some
electrical component symbols are presented, but first we look at how
electrical power reaches our homes.
Chapter outline
1.4 Voltage
1.5 Current
1.6 Resistance
1.8 Circuit diagrams
1.9 Open-circuit and closed-circuit
1.10 Measuring voltage
1.11 Measuring current
1.12 Meter connections

Electricity is our most convenient form of energy. In Australia, coal and gas-fired power stations
produce about three quarters of the nation’s electrical power, supplemented by wind farms, solar
panels, hydro, solar thermal and biogas power generation. Electricity is transmitted from these
many generating sources to all parts of the country over high voltage power transmission lines.
These lines supply power to substations, which convert the high voltage to a more suitable voltage
and distribute the electrical power to homes, industry and commerce.
Figure 1.1 is a simplified diagram showing how power is distributed by way of overhead and
underground cables. Substation, pole mounted and street transformers change the voltage at each
stage, so that homes are supplied with 230 V AC. There’s a lot more to it, and a common factor in
the electrotechnology industry is the need to understand the principles of electricity.
FIGURE 1.1
Electrical power is transmission
transmitted at high substation
voltages, and after
stepping down to lower
voltages, is distributed 230 V
power generation power transmission
400 V
to homes and industry
at high voltage power
(e.g. 132 kV, 330 kV) distribution
(e.g. 33 kV, 66 kV)
11 kV zone substations
commerce kV
22
11 kV
230 V
industry
V
400
The electrotechnology industry can be divided into two industrial groups – electrical and
electronic. There are nearly 20 electrotechnology career opportunities, and knowing about
electricity is important in all of them.
The electrical industry

The electrical industry can be divided into three main areas:
• Electrical supply covers power generation, transmission and distribution and includes power
stations, the transmission of electrical power throughout the country and the distribution of
electrical power to homes and industry. The supply industry includes statutory authorities
such as Transgrid (in New South Wales), Powerlink (Queensland), Western Power (Western
Australia), SA Power Networks (South Australia) and AusNet Services (Victoria) which are
responsible for operating and managing the high voltage networks that connect generators,
distributors and major end users such as large industries. The state-owned transmission
networks are interconnected and are under the management of Australia’s National Electricity
Market (NEM) authority. Power distribution is done by energy companies, who are responsible
for distributing electrical power to all end users, including commerce, industry and homes.
• Industrial which involves installing and maintaining electrical machinery and electrical wiring
in factories and industrial complexes. Large industries, such as mining, often employ fulltime
C H A P T E R 1 T H E E L E CT R I C C I R C U I T 3
electricians. This sector includes instrumentation, which can involve installing, calibrating
and maintaining measuring instruments typically used in the manufacturing and processing
industries. An important sector is the lift industry, which involves installation, commissioning
and maintaining lifts, escalators, motorised walkways and the like. The refrigeration industry
is also part of the electrical industry, and includes installing and servicing refrigeration and air
conditioning systems.
• Commercial and domestic covers the installation of wiring (lighting, power, data) and the
installation and repair of appliances such as stoves, lighting installations and some types of
motorised equipment. Those working in this field are usually known as electrical contractors, and
are required to have a licence when installing wiring that connects to the electrical supply lines.
The electronics industry

The electronics and electrical industry groups are closely related. Sometimes the tasks are similar,
such as installing cabling, where an electrician might install the power wiring and an electronics
technician is responsible for installing other wiring, such as phone lines, computer networks and the
like. Similarly, an electrician would service and repair electric motors, while an electronics technician
might look after the motor’s electronic control system. It is not unusual for those working in the
electrotechnology industry to learn both sets of skills. The electronics industry is divided into various
areas such as:
• data and voice communications which includes radio and TV stations, telecommunications
(telephones, satellite links), marine and aviation communications, mobile phones, taxis, police
and other communication systems
• consumer electronics such as repair and maintenance of TV/video systems, sound equipment,
radio and other electronic appliances used in the home
• commercial electronics such as repairing and servicing photocopiers, cash registers and
similar electronic equipment used by business and light industry
• computer system installation, repair and servicing (IT industry)
• industrial which covers working with electronic systems used in industry, such as electronic
motor control systems, computer controlled machinery, conveyor systems and so on.
• security which includes installation, repair and maintenance of domestic and commercial
security systems.
FIGURE 1.2
These are some of
the main areas in the
electronics industry
computers
domestic appliances security
telecommunications
Shutterstock.com/cobalt88
iStock.com/sweetym
appliances servicing Shutterstock.com/Mindscape studio
industrial domestic and commercial Getty Images/Jeffrey Coolidge
iStock.com/by_nicholas
Shutterstock.com/drpnncpptak

FYI Workplace safety applies to all areas of the workforce, and all Australian states and territories
A hazard is and New Zealand have legislation that covers the rights and responsibilities of employers and
anything that can employees. Those undertaking a Certificate III (trades) course will learn about workplace health
cause harm to
and safety (WHS) legislation as part of the course. In general, WHS legislation imposes a duty of
people, plant or
the environment. care on employers and certain obligations on employees. Briefly, employers are required to ensure
the health, safety and welfare at work of all employees and others who come into the workplace.
Employees are obliged to take care of the health and safety of co-workers, cooperate with
employers in matters of health and safety, work safely and to notify their supervisor of actual or
potential hazards. Essentially, this means that the WHS legislation places an obligation on every
person associated with a workplace in any way to ensure his or her own workplace health and safety.
Working with electricity has its own special hazards, as well as those associated with other
industries. For example, working on a roof near overhead power lines, where there’s a risk of
falling and a risk of electric shock. The important thing, before starting any electrical work, is
to first identify the hazards and assess the risk associated with each hazard. Some employers
require work teams to complete hazard and risk identification paperwork before starting a
job. This requires all team members to identify the potential hazards and their associated risk,
determine how the risks will be dealt with (controlled), and when everyone agrees, to sign the
completed form.
In the above example, the risk of falling is high, and potentially fatal. The control measures
SAFETY
Safety issues are would include wearing a safety harness plus other personal protective equipment (PPE), along
highlighted in with being very aware of the hazard and taking appropriate care. The electrical hazard would also
chapters where need to be controlled in a manner that ensures your safety. As a job proceeds, you might find
they apply. some of the control measures are not providing sufficient safety, so a review becomes necessary
and changes need to be made. The risk management process is shown in Figure 1.3, and applies to
every job, whether outdoors or indoors.
FIGURE 1.3
Risk management is a
constant process 1 identify hazards
is there a regulation, advisory standard,

industry code or other guidance about
the identified hazards?
5 monitor
and review follow the regulation,
standard, code or 2 assess risks
guide
4 implement control 3 decide the

measures control measures

Applying sustainable energy principles means minimising damage to the environment, reducing
waste and using resources in the most efficient way possible. As a concept, it incorporates all
aspects of human activity that have an environmental impact. Among these is energy production;
others include anything that compromises the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. Sustainable energy is made up of two parts: renewable energy and energy efficiency. It is
energy which can be replenished within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damage to the
environment.
All Australian states and New Zealand have legislation that covers air, land and water
pollution. Environmental legislation usually includes protection for animals and plants that are in
danger of extinction and also covers noise pollution, waste disposal and any aspect to do with the
environment. Penalties can be very high, for both corporations and individuals.
Industrial organisations will have an environmental management plan, which sets out ways of
ensuring the organisation’s activities have minimum impact on the environment. For example,
if a job involves digging a trench to lay cables, the fill taken from the trench must be stored so
it cannot run into the local street drains (the stormwater system). This could mean building a
sediment fence around the dirt pile to prevent runoff during rain.
A particular environmental and health hazard is asbestos, often used as wall cladding, roofing
material and concrete water pipes. Others include oil spillage, chemical waste spillage or anything
that enters the stormwater system. It is illegal to discharge anything other than clean water into a
stormwater system. Electricity suppliers will also have an environmental incident management plan,
to deal with the many potential situations that could pose a threat to the environment.
FIGURE 1.4
Environmental
incidents. Fallen power
pole with transformer
leaking oil, and a pad
mount transformer
on fire.
Waste disposal is a particular issue for the electrotechnology industry, due to the widespread
use of batteries, computers, electronic equipment, oils, chemicals and other environmentally
unfriendly items. Because these items are toxic to the environment, they cannot be disposed of
as landfill.
In general, sustainable energy principles refers to adopting a lifestyle and work habits that
enable the present generation to meets its needs while maintaining a healthy environment for
future generations. Sustainable energy technologies are helping make this possible, in which
electric power is now being increasingly produced from renewable energy sources. (Energy sources
that produce electricity are discussed in Chapter 2.)
SUSTAINABILITY Energy efficiency refers to using less energy for the same outcome. Products include those with
Sustainable energy a high efficiency rating, energy efficient lamps, and in particular, light emitting diode (LED) lamps
issues are highlighted which are replacing fluorescent tubes, compact fluorescent lamps and all types of filament lamps.
in chapters where New buildings have to conform to a set of standards designed to reduce energy and water usage.
they apply.
In New South Wales, these are known as BASIX. Other states and territories and New Zealand
have similar legislation.
WHS and environmental legislation have been briefly described before we start looking at
electrical theory, as it is very important to be aware of these two items of legislation, and to
understand your responsibilities.
Key points...
• Electrical power is sent from power generators to • The various state and territory WHS and
substations over high voltage transmission lines and Environmental Protection Acts impose obligations
distributed to users over lower voltage power lines. on both employers and their employees.
• The electrotechnology industry has over 20 • Sustainable energy is made up of two parts:
qualifications, each requiring a knowledge of renewable energy and energy efficiency.
electrical principles.
1.4 Voltage
The three most common electrical quantities are voltage, current and resistance. These three
terms are closely related, which means that if any two are present, the third is also present. For
instance, if voltage and resistance are both present, so is current.
A voltage is electrical pressure. As an example, lightning is caused by a very high voltage (or
electrical pressure) between a cloud and another point, such as Earth. When the pressure is high
enough, there’s a lightning strike. A car battery develops a voltage of 12 volts; there’s 230 volts
present at a power outlet in a house; a torch battery produces 1.5 volts.
A simple way to describe a voltage is to compare it with the water pressure produced by a water
pump, as illustrated in Figure 1.5. A water pump, such as that used in a swimming pool, produces
a pressure that forces water through the pool filter. A battery produces electrical pressure (voltage)
that causes an electric current to flow when a circuit is connected to the battery.
FIGURE 1.5
Electrical pressure and
terminals
water pressure both
provide a force that
causes flow
water pump battery
water pressure electrical pressure
It’s important to understand that a voltage always occurs between two points. Notice that
the battery in Figure 1.5 has two terminals. The value of the voltage produced by a battery is
determined by the materials that make up the battery. Batteries are described in Chapter 25.
There are many ways to produce a voltage, which is caused when one point (or terminal) has more
or fewer electrons than the other point. Electrons are incredibly small, negatively charged particles
that orbit around the nucleus of an atom, as shown in Figure 1.6.
An atom is the smallest part of an
element. An element is a substance made FIGURE 1.6
entirely from atoms of the same type. There Electrons orbit around
are 92 natural elements (such as copper, the nucleus of the atom
oxygen or gold), which means there are

92 different types of atoms. Scientists have nucleus
used nuclear bombardment to produce other
elements. These also have atoms with a
different (but unique) structure compared to
those in the natural elements. Each different electrons
type of atom has a certain number of
electrons. The simplest element (hydrogen)
has one electron. Copper has 29.
The nucleus of an atom contains protons
(which have a positive charge) tightly bonded
with neutrons (no charge). The nucleus, therefore, has a positive charge, balanced exactly by the
negative charge of the orbiting electrons. Electrons are about three times larger than protons, but
protons are over 1800 times heavier. Electrons can move more easily than the heavier protons,
and are attracted by the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Because an electron has a negative charge, a point with more electrons has a negative potential
compared to one with fewer electrons. The point with fewer electrons has a positive potential. See
Figure 1.7. (The term ‘potential’ is another word for voltage.) There’s always a voltage, or potential
difference, between two points that have a different number of electrons.
FIGURE 1.7
There is a voltage when
negative positive
voltage one point has more
more electrons fewer electrons
electrons than another
voltage
source
Voltage is measured in volts (after Alessandro Volta, who invented the electric cell). The symbol
for volts (and for voltage) is the letter V. A car battery has a voltage of 12 volts, written as 12 V.
We can also write V (voltage) 5 12 V. The voltage from a voltage source (such as a battery) is also
called its electromotive force (EMF). The symbol for EMF is the letter E.
Key points...
• Voltage is electrical pressure between two points.
• Voltage is measured in volts.
• The symbol for voltage (and for volts) is V.
1.5 Current
Current is a flow of electrons. You could think of water flowing in a pipe as being like an electric
current, just as a water pump is similar to a voltage source, such as a battery. Remember that you
need a voltage to make the current flow, just as water pressure is needed to make the water flow.
Without a voltage there can be no current flow.
FIGURE 1.8
An electric current is
like water flow, except it
is a flow of electrons
current
pump (water pressure)
water flow
battery
(electrical pressure)
Although electrons are one of the smallest particles known, in quantity they drive motors,
make lamps light up and operate electrical (and electronic) appliances. Although an enormous
number are needed, it’s still impossible to see an electric current, no matter how large the current
is. What you can see is the effect of an electric current. Lightning is an electric current flowing
through ionised air, and the bright flash you see is the ionising effect the electrons have on the air.
Because current is a flow of electrons, the electrons flow from the point where there are more
electrons to the point where there are fewer electrons. That is, electrons flow from the negative
potential to the positive potential. However, because the nature of electricity was not understood
when it was first discovered, it was assumed that current flowed from positive to negative.
So, even though electrons flow from negative to positive, by convention we assume that
current flows from positive to negative, as in Figure 1.9. (A confusing hangover from the past!)
Conventional current flow is used in this book.
FIGURE 1.9
current
By convention, current (positive)
flows from positive to
negative and electrons
flow from negative to
electrons ‘conventional’
positive current flows
the opposite
way to the
current electron flow
(negative)
electrons
An electric current is measured in amperes (after André Ampere, a French scientist). One
ampere is equal to 6.24 3 1018 electrons flowing past a point in one second. As 1018 is another
way of writing 18 zeros, there are obviously a lot of electrons. This number of electrons is called
one coulomb of electric charge. The coulomb is the unit for charge, and a flow of one coulomb per
second is one ampere. The symbol for charge is the letter Q. The symbol for coulomb is C. An
electrical charge is stationary. For example, charge is stored in a cloud before lightning discharges
it. So current is charge in motion, or electrons (negative charge) moving in a conductor.
The symbol for current is the letter I (which originally stood for Intensity). The symbol for
ampere is A. For example, a current of two amperes might be written as 2 A, or as I 5 2 A. The
starter motor in a car takes about 100 A, a torch globe about 0.1 A.
Key points...
• Current is a flow of electrons. • Current is measured in amperes (A).
• Current flows only if there’s a voltage and a • The symbol for current is I.
conducting path. • One ampere is one coulomb (C) per second.
1.6 Resistance
For current to flow, there must be a path for the electrons. (Remember, a voltage must also be
present.) Some materials let electrons flow more easily than others, and some materials don’t
allow electron flow at all. All materials can be classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors.
A conductor is a material that lets electrons flow fairly easily because of the atomic structure
of the material. In the 1920s, Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, developed a model of the structure
of an atom. His model has a nucleus made up of a certain number of protons (positive charge) and
neutrons (no charge), with the corresponding number of electrons orbiting the nucleus in paths
called shells (or energy levels).
Each shell can only contain a certain number of electrons, and the outer shell often has less
electrons than it is capable of housing. The outer shell is called the valence shell, and the number
of electrons in this shell gives a valency number for that atom. The lower the valency number the
more easily the atom can gain or lose electrons, so a conductor will have a low valency (3 or less),
while an insulator will have a high valency (greater than 5). Semiconductors have a valency of 4.
Figure 1.10 shows the atomic model for a copper atom, which has 29 protons in the nucleus,
and 29 electrons orbiting the nucleus. The electrons are arranged in four orbits labelled K (centre)
to N (valence shell). Because there is one electron in the valence shell, copper has a valency of 1,
indicating that copper is a good conductor.
FIGURE 1.10
Copper atom with
29 electrons orbiting
one electron the nucleus in four
in valence shell shells: K, L, M and N
nucleus K L M N
(protons and
neutrons)
In a conductor, electrons can easily move from one atom to the next (if there’s a voltage
present to cause the electrons to move). This is shown in Figure 1.11, where an electron entering
a conductor pushes an electron out of an atom, then replaces it by orbiting around that atom. The
electron pushed out of orbit in turn replaces an electron in the next atom, and so on.
FIGURE 1.11
Electron movement in a negative electron flow, from negative to positive positive
conductor
conductor
electron from previous atom
Conductors include most metals, in particular silver, copper, gold and aluminium. Metals are
used in various ways in the electrotechnology industry, some of which are described below.
• Silver is the best conductor of all the metals, and is also expensive. It is mainly used in switch
contacts, sometimes alloyed with copper to give it better wear resistance.
• Copper is the next best conductor and is widely used in the electrical field. Copper is relatively
weak in its natural state, and is refined to remove impurities and often alloyed with other
SAFETY
metals to give it the required physical strength. It is used in most electrical cables, in motor
Lead is a toxic metal.
Wear safety gloves windings and on printed circuit boards.
when handling, and • Gold has less conductivity than copper, but does not easily corrode and is often used as the
regard it as a poison. contact material on plugs and sockets, on some relay contacts, and in situations where a
(The chemical symbol
corrosion free contact surface is required.
for lead is Pb.)
• Aluminium has about 60 per cent of the conductivity of copper, but because of its relative
lightness, it is used extensively in high voltage power transmission lines. To get the required
SAFETY
Be extra careful
strength, these cables have a steel core. Aluminium oxidises easily, which causes an insulating
with wet clothing. layer of oxide to form on the surface, requiring special methods of connection.
Normally cotton or • Nickel has around a quarter of the conductivity of copper, but is used as an alloy with other
wool won’t conduct metals such as chromium to make a resistive conductor that produces heat when current is
electricity, but when
wet, these materials
passed through it, as in an electric heating element.
can become a good • Iron’s conductivity is 18 per cent that of copper, and it rusts easily. Iron is rarely used in its
conductor. So if you pure form, and is usually alloyed with other metals to give steel, which is widely used in the
are working with electrical industry to construct motors, transformers, switchboard boxes and tools.
electricity, beware of
liquids - including • Lead is a poor conductor of electricity, but is often found in solder, a metal alloy that melts at
tap water. a relatively low temperature. It is also used in lead-acid batteries, such as car batteries.
Some liquids are also good conductors, such as salt water, acids and alkalis. Pure water doesn’t
SAFETY conduct electricity, but tap water usually has enough impurities to turn it into a conductor.
Water and electricity An insulator is a material in which electron transfer between atoms is generally impossible,
is a dangerous
combination.
due to its high valency (above 4). However, if the voltage is high enough, an insulator will break
down and conduct electricity. Air is a good insulator, but will conduct electricity if the voltage is
high enough. Lightning is the effect of air breaking down and conducting (ionising) due to a high
voltage. In many cases, insulating materials are destroyed when they break down, and they go on
conducting electricity even when the voltage is reduced to its normal value.
Table 1.1 shows various insulators in the order of their breakdown voltage. For example, air
breaks down if a voltage of 30 kV (30 000 V) is applied between two points separated in air by
10 millimetres (10 mm). Impurities in any of these insulators will reduce their breakdown voltage.
INSULATORS AND THEIR BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE T A B L E 1 .1
Insulator Breakdown voltage (kV/cm)

mica 2000
glass 900
paper 500
rubber 275
oil 145
porcelain 70
air 30
A semiconductor is neither a conductor nor an insulator. The most common semiconductor

material is silicon. Germanium is another. When these two semiconductors are ‘doped’ (a special
treatment that changes their atomic structure), they can be used to make solid state components
such as transistors and diodes. Carbon is also a semiconductor and is used to make resistors.
Resistance is the term used to describe how easily a material conducts an electric current.
A conductor has much less resistance to an electric current than an insulator. As shown in
Figure 1.12, silver has the least resistance and mica the most.
FIGURE 1.12
least resistance carbon most resistance Conductors have
silicon much less resistance
germanium to electron flow than
silver, copper, gold … … air, paper, glass, mica
insulators
conductors semiconductors insulators
Resistance as an electrical quantity is defined as opposition to current flow. It is measured in

ohms (after Georg Ohm, a German physicist). Its symbol is R. In writing, the term ohm is often
replaced with the Greek letter Ω (omega). A resistance of two ohms is written as R 5 2 Ω.
In a plumbing system, a fully open tap offers very little resistance to the flow of water. As the
tap is turned off, it offers more resistance to the water flow and the flow of water decreases. Notice
that as the resistance increases the flow decreases.
So, if voltage doesn’t change, the higher the resistance the less the current.
Key points...
• Resistance is opposition to current flow. • An insulator has a high resistance.
• A conductor has a low resistance. • Resistance (R) is measured in ohms (V).
FA
T I GBUL R
E E1 1
. 2. 1 5 SUMMARY OF VOLTAGE, CURRENT, CHARGE AND RESISTANCE
Quantity Symbol for Measurement Symbol for unit
quantity unit
EMF E volt V
voltage V volt V
current I ampere A
charge Q coulomb C
resistance R ohm Ω

An electric circuit is a number of electrical components connected with conductors such that
current can flow through the circuit when it’s connected to a voltage source. The circuit in
Figure 1.13 is a simple example in which a lamp
FIGURE 1.13 (the load) is connected with conductors (wires) to a
A basic electric circuit battery (voltage source). The lamp and the conductors
has a voltage source, a lamp
are the path for the current. The battery provides the
path for the current and (load)
electrical pressure (voltage) to cause current to flow
a load
current in the circuit.
In this circuit, the lamp stays on as there’s no way
to stop the current flow. By adding a switch to the
+
voltage conductors circuit, the current path can be broken by turning

source the switch off. The switch, therefore, determines
whether current is flowing in the load or not, as in
Figure 1.14.
FIGURE 1.14
on off
Adding a switch to
the circuit allows the
current to the load to
be turned on and off
current
+ +
It is usual to have some form of electrical protection in a circuit in case a fault occurs. The
simplest protection device is a fuse, which in principle consists of a thin wire held in a former of
some sort. The fuse wire is much thinner than the circuit conductors, and is selected so the fuse
wire heats and eventually ‘blows’ or operates if the current in the circuit is too high. The diagram
in Figure 1.15 shows how a fuse is connected in a basic electrical circuit.
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are set forth. In the opinion of the present writer that is not a
satisfactory account of the part played by the Chronicler. It does not
make sufficient allowance for the singular homogeneity of style and
purpose throughout the book. Torrey’s work is of value as a warning
against the danger and difficulty of the analysis which Benzinger and
Kittel have essayed. Frequently the points which are adduced as
evidence for distinction of sources are too few or too subjective to
provide adequate ground for the analysis—see the detailed
examination of the Hebrew provided in the edition by Curtis. But,
whilst it should be admitted that this uniformity of style carries great
weight and must receive careful consideration, it does not, we think,
follow that Torrey’s sweeping conclusion is correct, and that behind
the non-canonical passages there is nothing save the imagination of
the Chronicler. To begin with, if that were true, the Chronicler would
be unparalleled amongst ancient historians. The originality of ancient
chroniclers was shown in the manner in which they combined,
modified, and embellished the nucleus given by tradition, but they
did not invent de novo to the extent required by this theory. Even if
that be an over-statement, we can at least assert that they did not
shut themselves up to their own imagination, if any traditions relating
to their subject were current. On the contrary, they made use of all
such available material, good or bad. And it is quite incredible that
historical interest in Jerusalem regarding the old days of the
Kingdom was confined to the compilation of Kings until suddenly the
Chronicler produced this startlingly different account. There is very
strong probability that the version given in Chronicles has a long
chain of antecedents behind it. For consider, further, the general
situation. The vicissitudes of time and fortune had caused great
changes in the population of Jerusalem, but none that made
absolutely impossible the continuance of traditions not represented
or only partially represented by the narratives crystallised in Kings.
Thus “we may safely assume that the overthrow of Edom (2
Chronicles xxv. 5‒13) and the leprosy of Uzziah (2 Chronicles xxvi.
16‒23) were once told more fully than in the brief verses of 2 Kings
xiv. 7, xv. 5. We may surely allow links between the impression left
upon tradition by these events and the stories that have been
preserved by Chronicles” (S. A. Cook, in the Journal of Theological
Studies, xii. 470). It is now generally recognised that the
depopulation of Jerusalem in 586 b.c. was not nearly so complete as
was once thought, and considerable continuity of tradition may have
been maintained. Moreover, the influx of South Judean families in
the exilic and post-exilic times must have meant an extension of
popular tales concerning Judean affairs. It is therefore significant that
the South Judean “strain” is a marked feature in the Chronicler’s
history. Again, it is practically certain that Levitical predecessors of
the Chronicler felt somewhat the same interest as he displays in the
origins of their order and institutions. Are we to suppose that they
made no attempts to gratify their curiosity, or to find historical
grounds for their claims? Surely they would seize with interest on
any and all current traditions, and would be constantly collating them
with the well-known version in Kings, adding whatever they could to
the total, and no doubt tending to retell the whole—at least the
popular and edifying portions of the narrative—in terms more
agreeable to the ideas and practices of their own time. We cannot
suppose that the Chronicler was the first and only Levite who
attempted to satisfy the obvious need (§ 6) for an orthodox
ecclesiastical version of Judean history. Features of the genealogies,
and in particular the Levitical data, suggest the existence of
statistical records, if of nothing more. One further small but
interesting point deserves mention. In 1 Chronicles iv. 9, vii. 23, xii.
18 there are sayings which cannot possibly originate with the
Chronicler, for they are written in an archaic style utterly foreign to
his manner of speech. Of these xii. 18 is poetical in form, while the
other two are sentences of a type made familiar to us by early
passages in Genesis. These verses, then, are certainly not the
invention of the Chronicler, and, even if they are only isolated
fragments, their existence is at least significant. In fine, the natural
supposition is that in post-exilic Jerusalem there were various
traditions which were drawn partly, but not exclusively, from the
particular recension of history preserved in Kings, and which
continued to develop in form and perhaps in content after the “Kings”
recension was relatively fixed. Whether these developments of
traditions, canonical and otherwise, preserve any genuine history or
not (§ 7), their existence in popular and priestly circles of the
Chronicler’s time is, we think, almost certain; and it is quite certain
that, if they were in existence, the Chronicler would utilise them. On
this view, then, the sources of the Chronicler were:
(a) The canonical books.
(b) Variant forms of a few narratives in Kings; traditions of South

Judean origin, recording movements of population and hostilities
with southern tribes; popular midrashic tales; family statistics and
genealogies, particularly of the Priests and Levites; records or
traditions relating to the Temple, the fortifications of Jerusalem, and
the repair of certain Judean towns—some of this material being
really independent of the traditions in Kings.
The problem raised by the stylistic uniformity of the new

passages in Chronicles must now be considered. Probably the
material indicated in (b) above may at times have crystallised into
definite midrashic writings. (Thus, when the Chronicler speaks of the
“History of the Kings of Judah and Israel,” we may believe that he
refers to some such document, one that was either extant in his own
age or was generally known to have existed.) Probably, however, it
was also to a large extent in a fluid oral condition—matter of
common knowledge and of common talk in Levitical circles. Certainly
it is legitimate to think that with this material, written or oral or both,
the Chronicler was intensely familiar; and that he could easily have
related it in his own words. We may surmise that his procedure was
somewhat as follows: He made the well-known narrative of Samuel‒
Kings the basis of his version, altering its words as little as possible,
yet, if necessary, exercising great freedom, so as to make it fully
orthodox in accordance with the ecclesiastical standards of his time.
Into this groundwork he wove with admirable skill new material of
fact and narrative, drawn from the sources set forth in (b) above; and
all this new material he selected, revised, and related in such a
fashion as might best serve the very definite religious, moral, and
ecclesiastical ends (§ 6) which his history was designed to meet. It
passed, in fact, freely and effectively through the medium of his
mind; so that it appears, if not wholly in his own words, at least
coloured by his distinctive turns of speech. A second way in which
we can explain the uniform style of the new matter in Chronicles and
escape the conclusion that it has all been derived from the
imagination of the Chronicler is to suppose that for some time past it
had been transmitted through the talk or writing of Levites like-
minded with the Chronicler and sharing the same ecclesiastical
fashion of speech; that, in fact, much of Chronicles was built up by
chroniclers before the Chronicler. There may be some truth in this
argument; for, as was said above, the Chronicler was surely not the
first Levite to feel the need for an “orthodox” history. The two
explanations can be regarded as supplementary rather than
alternative; but the present writer considers that stress should be laid
chiefly upon the first.
This investigation of the structure of Chronicles yields the

following general result. The position here taken is opposed to the
theory that the whole of the new material was the product of the
Chronicler’s imagination and literary skill. It leaves open the valuable
possibility that the new material may preserve historical facts and
traditions independent of those in Kings. On the other hand it admits
that the Chronicler has had an important share in shaping the
material and that (a) the consequent uniformity of style renders any
attempt to analyse the new matter into its proximate sources
precarious (observe, however, that the immediate history of the
sources behind the new material is not of such primary importance to
us as is the fundamental conclusion that there were such sources):
and (b) whilst each part of the new matter is entitled to a thorough
examination on its merits, great care must be exercised to determine
exactly what part the Chronicler has played. Thus it is probable that
some features of the narratives in Chronicles may originate with the
Chronicler: that is only what we should expect from a man able to
plan and carry through a work so clearly intentioned and on such a
large scale as Chronicles‒Ezra‒Nehemiah. He may have told his
tale not only in his own words, but in his own way. We must be on
our guard therefore to make allowance for the strength of his
convictions, for his conception of the course of history and for the
intentions with which he wrote. How far these considerations affect
the historical value of his work will be dealt with below (§ 7).
This discussion of the sources may conclude by emphasising the

remarkable skill of the composition. The passages taken direct from
the earlier Scriptures have been so admirably combined with the
new material that the component parts have been wrought into a real
unity. It is evident we are dealing with an author of strong personality.
What the aim and purpose of this writer were we may now proceed
to consider.
§ 6. The Purpose and Method of the

Chronicler
(1) In the time of the Chronicler the position of the orthodox party
in Jerusalem, whose interests, civil and ecclesiastical, were bound
up with the worship at the Temple on Mt Zion, was one of
considerable difficulty. During the Greek period (from 330 b.c.) the
mental horizon of the Jews in Jerusalem had expanded even more
than under the Persian rule (538‒330 b.c.). They were now able to
realise their isolation and political insignificance, whilst at the same
time the communities of Jews scattered in all the leading countries of
the ancient world were rapidly growing in size, influence, and in
cosmopolitan outlook. Even the religious supremacy of Jerusalem
was threatened. We now know that there was an important Jewish
Temple at Elephantine in Egypt, which the Jewish community there
was eager to maintain. But far more serious was the Samaritan
schism and the Temple to Jehovah erected by them on Mt Gerizim.
We can well imagine that a rival Temple on Palestinian soil claiming,
no doubt with some show of justice, that there were true Levitical
families among its priests, that its ritual was correct and its
observance of the Law every whit as sound as that in Jerusalem,
was a matter of vital importance to the ecclesiastical orders at
Jerusalem. Undoubtedly the feud was bitter in the Chronicler’s time;
and there are strong grounds for holding that Chronicles‒Ezra‒
Nehemiah were written with the immediate object of confuting the
ecclesiastical pretensions of the Samaritans and of showing that in
Jerusalem only ought men to worship. Certainly Chronicles is well
adapted for that end. A virulent polemic would have been discounted
as a party document. The Chronicler instead has skilfully retold the
story of the past, so as to leave two main impressions. In the first
place, by ignoring the affairs of the Northern Kingdom, save where
he intimates that its people were religiously degenerate from the
start (see 2 Chronicles xiii. 5‒12), that they were grievously
decimated by a great disaster (2 Chronicles xiii. 13‒17), and that in
general their attitude on the subject of mixed marriages was
scandalously lax (see Ezra and Nehemiah), he has subtly but
forcibly created the impression that the Samaritans were little better
than “a heterogeneous mob of heathen.” Secondly and chiefly, his
history was intended to show that Jerusalem, with its Temple on Mt
Zion, is the one place which Jehovah has chosen, and where He has
set His Name. There alone was His worship properly and legitimately
established, and there alone can it still be carried on. Jerusalem too,
like Samaria, had suffered for its sins, but the disaster of the exile,
the break in the succession, was repaired, he argues, through the
return from Babylonia of that company of Israelites of pure descent
whom Ezra led back: the genealogies which are so noticeable a
feature of Chronicles‒Ezra‒Nehemiah are given as irrefutable proof
that the Jerusalem community of the Chronicler’s day—Levites and
laymen—were the true and only descendants of the nation of old. It
followed that by them alone could the worship of Jehovah be lawfully
conducted.
It seems very probable that the Chronicler’s work was directed

specifically against the Samaritans. But in any case it is undoubtedly
true that the essential purpose of the book was to vindicate the
religious supremacy of Jerusalem, and to exalt the honour and the
privileges of its priesthood and its Temple.
(2) In seeking to achieve this aim, the Chronicler inevitably dwelt
upon those aspects of life and thought in which he specially
believed. Thus we may distinguish various features of his work which
subserve the main purpose:
(a) He was anxious, for instance, to uphold the political

supremacy of Jerusalem, no easy matter in his time. To Jews of the
Greek period, fully aware of the pomp and power of heathen states,
the achievements of even such national heroes as David or Solomon
probably seemed pale and insignificant, as they are related in
Samuel or Kings. In order to create a due sense of their importance,
and to mitigate the depressing effects of Jerusalem’s present
impotence, the Chronicler retold the glories of the past in terms
commensurate with the notions of the present. To this end he
idealised the great men of Israel. Thus the life of David is related by
him as a career of almost unbroken success and of consistent piety.
Thus also the sacrifices offered by Solomon at the dedication of the
Temple are said to have been on a scale that might well have
astonished Alexander the Great.
(b) Chiefly, however, the Chronicler was concerned with the

religious pre-eminence of Jerusalem. He delights therefore in
magnifying to the full the glories of the Temple, its ritual and its
officers. It is quite clear that his interest in this theme is far wider
than any immediate polemical aim, and the subject deserves careful
attention. When he describes the Temple of Solomon in terms of
surpassing splendour, he is not merely seeking to cast down the
pride of Samaritan rivals, he is also gratifying the longings of his own
heart—how poor in comparison the outward form of the Temple he
himself served so faithfully! Perhaps also he hoped thereby to excite
his own love for its well-being among the less ardent of his brethren.
More important was the question of ritual and the Law. We have
already said (p. xx) that the Chronicler lived at a time when the
Pentateuch had for a long while existed in its final form, when the
ritual and Law of Israel were regulated in accordance with its fully
elaborated precepts; the whole complex system being supposed to
have been imparted to Israel by Moses. Now, when the Chronicler
and others like him turned to the historical records of their people,
the books of Samuel and Kings, they found many things which must
have sorely puzzled them. For those records constantly relate events
in ways which run counter to the provisions of the completed
Pentateuch, sometimes ignoring, sometimes contradicting and
breaking, its laws and practices. It is utterly unlikely that he and his
fellows were aware that those books reflect the customs of an earlier
period; so that in altering their narrative (as he does) he was not
conscious of falsifying history. Even if he was, we must not judge his
conduct by the opinions of our own time, but remember that “he lived
in an age when certain accepted theories were regarded as more
authentic than recorded facts” (Kent, Student’s O.T. vol. ii. 23). It is
fair, however, to believe that in the inconsistencies of the older
histories with the observances of his own day he saw only an
astonishing ignorance or carelessness in matters of the Law on the
part of the older writers—a state of affairs which called loudly for
correction. For the good name of David and Solomon, for the honour
of the pious Kings of Judah, as well as for the edification of his
contemporaries (and, maybe, for the confusion of the Samaritans),
such flagrant blemishes had to be removed. And in Chronicles he
has produced a thorough revision of the history of Judah in
accordance with the principles and provisions of the completed
Pentateuch. Throughout the entire work this aim is consistently
pursued. It must be therefore considered a main feature of the
Chronicler’s purpose. The alterations of the text of Samuel‒Kings
which he has made on this account will be so frequently pointed out
in the notes that here one simple example will suffice. In 2 Samuel
viii. 18 it is said, “And the sons of David were priests.” Since in the
Chronicler’s time it was unthinkable that any could be priests save
members of Levitical families, this statement was corrected to read,
“And the sons of David were chief about the king” (1 Chronicles xviii.
17). Finally, in the officials of the Temple—Priests and Levites—the
Chronicler manifests the deepest interest. Throughout his narrative
he is vigilant to exalt the honour and privileges of those classes. In
particular, he brings the guilds of Levitical singers into prominence so
frequently that it is generally supposed he was himself a member of
that order of Levites.
These remarks on the principal features of the book indicate in
general the purpose and method of the Chronicler. Yet in a sense
they do so externally, and behind all else, as the animating force,
there lies the Chronicler’s religious faith, his zeal for God. That truly
is his ultimate motive; but it will be convenient to reserve what may
be said concerning it until a later stage (§ 8).
§ 7. The Historical Value of Chronicles
Until recent times the burning question in the exposition of
Chronicles has been the problem of reconciling its statements with
those in Samuel‒Kings, finding explanations for the inconsistencies,
and combining the additional matter given in Chronicles so as to
form one harmonious narrative. So baffling was the task that even
the Talmudists, masters in the arts of subtle exegesis, doubted the
accuracy of Chronicles, and were inclined to treat it, not as an
authority for the history, but as a book for homiletic interpretation
(see references in the Jewish Encyclopedia iv. 60). As soon as the
character and purpose of the book, the circumstances and opinions
of the writer, are understood, the demand for harmonising the variant
accounts at all costs is seen to be mistaken, and the exposition of
Chronicles is thereby freed from a burden by which it has been
sorely hampered. The question of the historical value of its narratives
remains one of great importance, but on literary and scientific, not on
religious, grounds (compare p. xxx).
It will make for clearness if we approach the subject by

considering first (A) the direct historical value of Chronicles, i.e. its
worth as a history of Judah; and secondly (B) its indirect historical
value as a work of the period to which we have assigned its
composition, 300‒250 b.c. Under (A) our discussion may
conveniently be divided into a consideration of: (I) those parts which
reproduce or are apparently based on Samuel‒Kings; (II) the
material wholly or apparently independent of canonical Scripture.
A.
Direct Value.
(I) If the Chronicler’s version of the history was to gain
acceptance at all, it was necessary to make the older well-known
histories the basis of his work. And indeed he himself no doubt
conceived his version not as contradictory of the older narratives but
only as a more careful account of the history of Judah, paying
adequate attention to the religious affairs in which he was specially
interested. Hence, wherever the text of Samuel and Kings was
suitable for his purpose he reproduced it exactly ¹: an example is 2
Chronicles xviii. 3‒34 = 1 Kings xviii. 4‒35. The historical value of
passages which are merely transcriptions must be discussed not
here but in their original setting: obviously their value is that which
they possess there—neither more nor less. We proceed therefore to
consider the changes introduced by the Chronicler in using canonical
sources. They are of various kinds:
¹ It must not be assumed that where the text of Chronicles and

Samuel‒Kings now coincides, it has done so always. That
conclusion is only generally true. Sometimes, it seems, the
original text of Chronicles was altered to conform more
closely with Kings, and vice versa the present text of Kings is
sometimes the result of assimilation to Chronicles
Unfortunately the evidence of the extant Greek versions
(§ 10) is quite insufficient to tell us how far the present text of
Chronicles has been modified by this assimilating tendency,
except in the last two chapters of 2 Chronicles where the
evidence of the Greek is peculiarly full. It is clear, however,
that some by no means unimportant changes have taken
place in the course of transmission: see § 10, and the
remarks on p. xxii.
(i) A great number of minor alterations have been made,

conforming the older material to the Chronicler’s point of view. A few
instances may be given: 2 Samuel v. 21, “And [the Philistines] left
their images there, and David and his men took them away” = 1
Chronicles xiv. 12, “And [the Philistines] left their gods there, and
David gave commandment, and they were burned with fire.” Again, 2
Samuel xxiv. 1, “And the anger of the Lord was kindled against
Israel, and he moved David against them, saying, Go, number Israel”
= 1 Chronicles xxi. 1, “And Satan stood up against Israel and moved
David to number Israel.” Again, 1 Kings ix. 12, “The cities which
Solomon had given him (Huram)” = 2 Chronicles viii. 2, “The cities
which Huram had given to Solomon.” Compare further 2 Samuel viii.
18 = 1 Chronicles xviii. 17 (quoted above, p. xli f.); 2 Samuel vi. 12 =
1 Chronicles xiii. 13; 2 Samuel xxiv. 24 = 1 Chronicles xxi. 25.
(ii) In some instances the alterations are so many or of so radical

a nature that the whole tenour of the passage has been transformed
—e.g. the conspiracy against Athaliah which resulted in the
coronation of the youthful king Joash (2 Kings xi.) is rewritten (2
Chronicles xxiii.) to agree with the usages of the Temple in the
Chronicler’s time. Similarly in the passage which follows (2
Chronicles xxiv. 4‒14), which is certainly based on 2 Kings xii. 4‒16,
only some 30 words of the original have been kept, so freely has it
been revised. Again, the account of the destruction of Jehoshaphat’s
fleet (1 Kings xxii. 48 f.) is remarkably altered in 2 Chronicles xx. 35‒
37. Compare further 1 Chronicles xv. 25‒28 = 2 Samuel vi. 12‒15; 2
Chronicles xxii. 7‒9 = 2 Kings ix. 27, 28; 2 Chronicles xxxii. 1‒23 = 2
Kings xviii. 13‒xix. 37 (a free abridgment).
(iii) Another noteworthy feature in the Chronicler’s treatment of

the canonical sources is his omissions. These call for mention here
because they are not only significant of his feelings and principles,
but they also have an immense effect on the impression conveyed
by his narrative as compared with that of his source. Not a word, for
instance, is said that would detract from the picture of David as the
man after God’s heart and the ideal monarch of Israel. The perils of
his youth, Saul’s enmity and the long struggle against Ishbosheth are
omitted ¹. His murder of Uriah and the disastrous rebellion of
Absalom are ignored; but the result is a David very different from the
great yet sometimes erring monarch depicted in Samuel (see the
head-note to 1 Chronicles xxviii.). Another significant omission is 2
Kings xviii. 14‒16, Hezekiah’s payment of tribute to Babylonia, a
tradition which doubtless seemed to the Chronicler a sign of
weakness and lack of faith incredible in a king so pious and
successful. Above all, we notice the omission of the affairs of the
Northern Kingdom, except for a few derogatory notices. The
consequence is that if Chronicles stood alone, our conception of the
relative importance of Judah as compared with Israel would be very
far removed from the actual facts. It is a simple matter to see how
imperative it is that the impression given by Chronicles should here
be corrected by the records in Kings, and the student will find it
instructive to consider the point with some care.
¹ Such omissions are very skilfully managed by the Chronicler.

Even so, they generally entail some abrupt transition or
obscurity, as in the present instance for which see the note
on 1 Chronicles xi. 1. Here the cause of the obscurity can be
shown by direct comparison of the earlier history in Samuel.
Mark how usefully Chronicles thus demonstrates the
legitimacy of the argument that similar difficulties elsewhere
in the Old Testament are perhaps due to a similar cause,
although the earlier source may not be extant to prove that
the conjecture is correct.
The conclusions to be drawn from the above are clear. First, in

passages of the type instanced in (ii) above, where the differences
between Kings and Chronicles are considerable and not confined to
changes made on transparently religious grounds, the possibility that
we have to do with a variant form of the tradition in Kings should be
carefully considered. If there be any such distinct traditions, even
though they are few or in a late stage of development, they are of
high value, for they may be as worthy of consideration as the form in
Kings. Moreover a slight variation in a tradition may occasionally
suffice to indicate the existence of a different standpoint towards an
important topic or period in the history. But in the majority of all cases
included under this heading (I) it appears that the changes in the
narratives were arbitrarily made in consequence of the standpoint,
beliefs, and purpose (§§ 1 and 6) of the Chronicler, and they can
make no claim to rest on historical facts. For the detailed arguments
upon which this general conclusion is based, the reader is referred to
the notes on the text.
(II) The additional matter of Chronicles includes a variety of
subjects. These may be roughly but conveniently summarised under
the following headings—(1) genealogical lists (1 Chronicles ii.‒ix.,
xxiii.‒xxvii., etc.); (2) topographical and other archaeological notices
(e.g. 1 Chronicles xi. 41‒47; 2 Chronicles xvii. 7‒10, xix. 4‒11, xxvi.
6, 49, xxxii. 30, xxxiii. 14, and notably the organisation of the Levites,
1 Chronicles xxiii., xxiv., and details regarding the building of
Solomon’s Temple, e.g. 2 Chronicles ii.‒iv., passim); (3) letters and
speeches (1 Chronicles xvi. 8‒36, xxii. 6‒19, xxviii. 2‒10, xxix. 1‒20;
2 Chronicles xv. 1‒7, xvi. 7‒10, xxi. 12‒15); (4) national events,
especially religious affairs and wars (e.g. 1 Chronicles iv. 34‒43, v. 6,
xxiii. ff.; 2 Chronicles xvii. 7‒10, xix. 4‒11, xxix. 3‒xxx. 27), such
topics being sometimes related in the style of (5) Midrashim—i.e.
edifying tales describing marvellous deliverances from foes and
splendid religious ceremonies (2 Chronicles xiii. 3‒20, xiv. 9‒15, xxx.
13‒27, and especially xx. 1‒30 ¹). If, as Torrey contends, the whole of
this is simply the product of the Chronicler’s imagination working
upon the canonical sources only and freely interpreting events in
accordance with his own convictions, then, we must frankly admit, its
historical value as a record of the past it purports to describe is nil. If,
however, according to the view taken in this volume (see § 5), much
of this material is drawn from a body of tradition, oral and written,
current in the Jerusalem of the Chronicler’s day, and not represented
in canonical writings, the question of historical value is still open. Our
task, then, is to consider whether among the extra-canonical
traditions some genuine historical facts may have been preserved.
The problem is not easy, and, as yet, it does not admit of so exact
and definite a reply as we should like to give. Obviously the answer
requires a thorough consideration of each item of the new material, a
task which would far exceed the scope of this introduction. There
are, however, some general observations which throw light upon the
problem. These we shall give here, reserving the discussion of
individual passages for the notes. Taking the subjects enumerated
above in order, we have:
¹ The subjects thus classified are not, of course, mutually
exclusive—thus a letter or speech and statements of alleged
historical events will frequently be a part of the contents of
some midrashic passage.
(1) The new genealogical lists, which are so prominent a feature

of Chronicles. Some of these lists are certainly not trustworthy
records of pre-exilic times ¹. But others, e.g. parts of the Calebite and
Levitical genealogies, probably embody facts concerning the
kinships and distribution of various South Judean families in pre-
exilic and exilic times, and furnish valuable evidence of a northward
movement (see S. A. Cook, 1 Esdras, p. 12 in Charles’s Apocrypha,
or his articles on Caleb, Judah, Levites in Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹).
It is certain that in post-exilic Jerusalem a considerable part of the
population were descendants of these south Judean clans. Surely it
would be surprising if no valid traditions of their relationships, their
movements and fortunes, had been preserved amongst them. There
is therefore good reason for holding that some historical information
(e.g. 1 Chronicles iv. 34‒43) may be found in these lists, and it is
possible that a close study of certain of the genealogies will yield
most valuable light on some of the main questions of Old Testament
history and literature. Unfortunately the study of the intricate
problems involved is not yet sufficiently advanced to permit
conclusions which meet with general acceptance.
¹ On the other hand they may have historical value as regards

the families of Judah and Jerusalem in or about the
Chronicler’s own generation—a point, however, which
properly falls to be discussed under B below.
(2) Much of the topographical and archaeological information

scattered here and there in the books of Chronicles does not inspire
confidence, but part may rest on old tradition; compare the headnote
to 1 Chronicles xii. 1‒22. Many of the references in chapters i.‒ix.
(e.g. vii. 24, viii. 12, etc.) to Judean townships, whether explicitly
mentioned (e.g. 1 Chronicles vi. 54 ff.), or lightly disguised in the
genealogical tables (e.g. 1 Chronicles ii. 18 ff., 50 ff.), are valuable
not only for information regarding the relationship of Jewish families
and movements of southern peoples, Edomites and Arabians (see
(1) above, and the note on 1 Chronicles ii. 42), but also as evidence
of the extent (small indeed!) of the territory occupied by the post-
exilic Jewish community (compare Hölscher, Palästina, pp. 18‒23,
26‒31). It is further plausibly suggested that notices of certain tribes
of the Northern Kingdom (e.g. Ephraim and Manasseh) may be
regarded as indications of the extension of Judaism in Samaria and
Galilee about the Chronicler’s period (see note on 2 Chronicles xv.
9). The Chronicler was singularly interested in building operations
(see, e.g. 2 Chronicles xxvi. 9, xxxii. 30, xxxiii. 14) and some of his
references to the building of fortified townships in Judea (2
Chronicles xi. 5 ff., xiv. 6, xvi. 1‒6, xvii. 12) and to the origin of
buildings and gates in Jerusalem may be correct (see 2 Chronicles
xxvi. 5‒10, note).
(3) As regards the letters and speeches which are ascribed by

the Chronicler to various kings and prophets—e.g. David, Elijah,
Azariah, etc.—these cannot be deemed authentic. For example, the
great song of praise attributed to David in 1 Chronicles xvi. 7 ff. is
wholly composed of quotations from Psalms of late date. Such
speeches or letters are examples of a device constantly and
legitimately employed by ancient historians as a method of imparting
vividness and spirit to their narrative. The letters and speeches
represent simply what ought in the historian’s opinion to have been
written or spoken. The Greek historian, Thucydides, carefully states
the practice: “I have,” he writes, “put into the mouth of each speaker
the sentiments proper to the occasion, expressed as I thought he
would be likely to express them....” (Thucydides i. 22) ¹.
¹ The practice is not peculiar to Chronicles, and these remarks

are generally true of the correspondence between Solomon
and Hiram and the long prayer of Solomon, found in 1 Kings
v. 2‒9, viii. 22‒50, and transcribed (with some expansions) in
2 Chronicles ii. 3‒16, vi. 12‒42.
(4) National events, such as religious ceremonies (e.g.
Hezekiah’s Passover, 2 Chronicles xxix.‒xxxi.) and wars (e.g. 2
Chronicles xx. 1‒30) constitute as a rule the subject-matter of (5) the
pious midrashic passages; so that (4) and (5) may conveniently be
treated together. Midrash is not serious history, and very probably
was not intended to be regarded as such even by its author. It is
earnest moral and religious teaching presented in a quasi-historical
dress. In all these passages the form of the tale is unhistorical, and
all midrashic features, such as the incredibly and often impossibly
large numbers given in Chronicles, must without hesitation be set
aside; but it does not follow that the tale has no historical foundation
whatever, that the events around which it was written were originally
unreliable. In an ancient writing mythical features do not afford a
proper ground for rejecting a tale as historically worthless—a fact
which requires to be emphasised. An interesting example is found in
the extraordinary legends which attached themselves to the life of
Alexander the Great and rapidly spread throughout Europe and Asia
(see Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹ vol. i. pp. 550 f.).
Perhaps the most striking instance in Chronicles is the amazing

and bloodless victory vouchsafed to Jehoshaphat over certain
Bedouin tribes who invaded Judah from the desert by the southern
end of the Dead Sea (2 Chronicles xx. 1‒30, where see notes). As
told in Chronicles, the story is a Midrash, preaching the duty of trust
in God and of obedience to His will at all hazards; but it is evident
that the moral and religious form of the story has been built on and
around a tradition of a desert raid on Judah. Now this nucleus of the
tale may easily rest on historical fact. Fierce but undisciplined
invaders, advancing from the desert through the difficult country of
south Judah, a land of cliffs ravines and caves, might be sorely
harassed by the guerilla attacks of the shepherd population of that
region, and finally broken up by the outbreak of internal dissensions,
before the main Judean army from Jerusalem had arrived to oppose
their advance in force. Such an event would quickly fade from the
military recollections of Jerusalem, but might be long perpetuated as
a local tradition among the shepherd class of the district where the
victory was won. Thus we should have, on the one hand, a reason
for its non-appearance in the earlier strata of memories embodied in
Kings. On the other hand, when the South Judean families had
moved northward to Jerusalem in the exilic and post-exilic days, the
story would gain currency, and one can easily see how suitable it
was for development into just such a religious narrative as we find in
Chronicles. The raid, then, is probably a genuine tradition, but, even
so, a word of caution is required. It is necessary still to consider the
question whether the story is correctly associated with the time of
Jehoshaphat. Perhaps, yes; but possibly several such raids took
place, and the memories of them may have been confused and
combined into one; or, again, the names of the original foes may
have been changed into those of more recent opponents. Other
important passages of this type are discussed in the notes on 2
Chronicles xiii. 3‒20, xiv. 9‒15, xxxiii. 11‒13.
One point calls for special mention. In the later chapters of 2

Chronicles the Chronicler’s account of the history, particularly as
regards the relations of the Judean kingdom with the Edomites and
Arabians to the south, is characterised by a freshness and
independence which suggests that he was here relying on definite
and valuable traditions (see notes pp. 257 f., 262, 280 f., 286 f.,
292).
These results do not provide the complete material for an

estimate of the historical value of Chronicles. To them must first be
added the conclusions noted below, under B.
B.
Indirect Value.
Although the Chronicler says not one word directly of his own
times, indirectly his work gives us much useful information
concerning that obscure period. In very many ways Chronicles is a
mirror reflecting the thoughts, hopes, and circumstances of the
orthodox community in Jerusalem, circa 300‒250 b.c. Indirect and
unconscious though the evidence may be, it is still precious, for our
knowledge of the period is so slight that all fragments of information
are most welcome.
Some of the genealogical lists yield information regarding the

post-exilic population of Judah and Jerusalem. Certain references
(see p. xlviii) perhaps imply the extension of Judaism in Palestine.
From the descriptions of the Temple and its organisation, facts can
be gleaned regarding the Temple of the Chronicler’s own age. Thus
in 1 Chronicles xxiii ff. where the Chronicler ascribes to David
(unhistorically, see notes pp. 51 f., 136, 145) the origination of the
Levitical arrangements in the Temple, he gives an elaborate
description of their organisation; and therein we can see a picture of
the complex system and duties of the Priests and the Levites (with
the subordinate classes of doorkeepers and singers) as these were
finally determined in the late post-exilic Temple. Some interesting
inferences can be drawn from Chronicles regarding the instruction of
the people in matters of religion. When in 2 Chronicles xvii. 7‒9
arrangements for teaching the Law throughout Judah are said to
have been instituted by Jehoshaphat, we may be sure that some
such system was in vogue in the Chronicler’s day, or, at the very
least, that the Chronicler and his fellow-Levites were anxious to see
it fully carried out. Perhaps schools for instructing the people had
already been established in Jerusalem, and it was desired to extend
them throughout the countryside as well. Significant in the same
connection is the remark ascribed to Azariah the prophet (2
Chronicles xv. 3): “Now for long seasons Israel hath been without the
true God and without a teaching priest and without law” (compare 2
Chronicles xxxv. 3). Similarly from 2 Chronicles xix. 4‒11 we may
infer the existence of, or the desire to establish, a careful system of
courts of justice under the control of the Levitical order. Again,
Chronicles contributes to our knowledge of the evolution of public
worship. The subject is so obscure, the details so unknown, that we
may be grateful for anything which helps us to discern even broad
stages in the development. Undoubtedly those flagrant abuses of
worship which called forth the denunciations of Isaiah and Jeremiah
had passed away. One gathers that public worship in the Temple had
become an affair of truly religious significance. The prayer of
Solomon is repeated from Kings, but in addition the Chronicler
ascribes similar utterances of praise, supplication, and thanksgiving
to David and Hezekiah, and the good kings (especially Hezekiah and
Josiah) are represented as zealously active in ordering and
arranging for great services of worship which the people were to
attend. All this, of course, is related of the past, but from it we may
infer facts of the Chroniclers present. We infer, then, a community
accustomed to gather constantly at the Temple for the worship of
their God. The main elements of public worship can be traced. There
was, of course, the ancient ritual of animal sacrifice, hallowed for the
Jews by its vast antiquity, and grown the more impressive in
proportion as the literalism of the past was forgotten and men felt
more vividly that the offering was symbolic of things of the spirit—of
the mystery of life, of forgiveness, and of recognition that all things
are the gift of God. Undoubtedly there was public prayer. It is hardly
possible to read the prayers of the great kings in Chronicles and not
feel that they echo a liturgy of prayer—for the individual and for the
nation. There was a great and impressive service of song and of
music, compare 2 Chronicles v. 12, 13: that is writ large indeed on
the pages of Chronicles; and 1 Chronicles xvi. 8 ff. is enough to tell
us that the Psalter was the book of praise. We have a sufficient hint,
too, that to the songs at least, if not to the prayers also, the people
were expected to respond—“And all the people said, Amen, and
praised the Lord” (2 Chronicles xvi. 36). Probably arrangements
were in vogue for regular reading of the Law, although Chronicles
alone would hardly suffice to establish the point (2 Chronicles xxxiv.
31 is insufficient evidence). Even if it be thought that this picture
represents rather the ideals of the Levites than the actual
attainments of the community, it is still important that such a
standard of worship was conceived by the priests and set before the
people. One recalls the words of the great prophet of exilic or post-
exilic times who wrote: “for mine house shall be called a house of
prayer for all peoples” (Isaiah lvi. 7). His was a vision of the Temple
as the centre of the whole world’s worship. To the Chronicler it had at
least become a true “house of prayer” for Israel. Other details might

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Chapter 1 The electric circuit 01

Chapter 2 Voltage sources and effects of an electric current 24

Chapter 3 Ohm’s law 43

Chapter 4 Electrical power 63

Chapter 5 Resistance and resistors 87

Chapter 6 The series circuit 107

Chapter 7 The parallel circuit 123

Chapter 8 The series–parallel circuit 141

Chapter 9 Basic meters 155

Chapter 10 Capacitance 186

Chapter 11 Magnetism and electromagnets 218

Chapter 12 Electromagnetic induction 249

Chapter 13 DC generators 269

Chapter 14 DC motors 299

Chapter 15 AC fundamentals 331

Chapter 16 Pure R, L or C in an AC circuit 357

Chapter 17 Series combinations of R, L and C 377

Chapter 18 Parallel AC circuits 400

Chapter 19 Single-phase power 419

Chapter 20 Three-phase power 437

Chapter 21 Transformers 476

Chapter 22 Three-phase motors 522

Chapter 23 Single-phase motors 558

Chapter 24 Synchronous machines 572

Chapter 25 Test equipment and batteries 598

Chapter 1 The electric circuit 01

Chapter 2 Voltage sources and effects

Chapter 3 Ohm’s law 43

Chapter 4 Electrical power 63

Chapter 5 Resistance and resistors 87

Chapter 6 The series circuit 107

6.3 Resistance in the series circuit 109

Chapter 7 The parallel circuit 123

Chapter 8 The series–parallel circuit 141

Chapter 9 Basic meters 155

Chapter 10 Capacitance 186

Chapter 11 Magnetism and electromagnets 218

Chapter 12 Electromagnetic induction 249

12.4 Inductance 256

Chapter 13 DC generators 269

Chapter 14 DC motors 299

Chapter 15 AC fundamentals 331

Chapter 16 Pure R, L or C in an AC circuit 357

Chapter 17 Series combinations of R, L and C 377

Chapter 18 Parallel AC circuits 400

Chapter 19 Single-phase power 419

19.4 Power factor 426

Chapter 20 Three-phase power 437

Chapter 21 Transformers 476

Chapter 22 Three-phase motors 522

Chapter 23 Single-phase motors 558

Chapter 24 Synchronous machines 572

Chapter 25 Test equipment and batteries 598

About the author

Guide to the text

CHAPTER OPENING FEATURES

and Chapter Outline. electrical power reaches our homes.

Chapter 2 Voltage sources and effects

Chapter 22 Three-phase motors 522

Chapter 23 Single-phase motors 558