Electrical Machine Design V.

Rajini
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/electrical-machine-design-v-rajini/
 About Pearson
Pearson is the world’s learning company, with presence across 70 countries
worldwide. Our unique insights and world-class expertise comes from a long
history of working closely with renowned teachers, authors and thought leaders,
as a result of which, we have emerged as the preferred choice for millions of
teachers and learners across the world.
We believe learning opens up opportunities, creates fulfilling careers and hence
better lives. We hence collaborate with the best of minds to deliver you class-
leading products, spread across the Higher Education and K12 spectrum.
Superior learning experience and improved outcomes are at the heart of
everything we do. This product is the result of one such effort.
Your feedback plays a critical role in the evolution of our products and you can
contact us - reachus@pearson.com. We look forward to it.
Electrical Machine
­Design
Electrical Machine
­Design

V. Rajini
V. S. Nagarajan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SSN College of Engineering, Chennai
Copyright © 2018 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd

Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128, for-
merly known as TutorVista Global Pvt. Ltd, licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the pub-
lisher’s prior written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher
reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 978-93-325-8557-7
eISBN 9789353063689

Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade Tower, Plot No. 1, Block-C, Sector 16,
Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS-140, Blocks 2 & 9,
Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India.
Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060
Website: in.pearson.com, Email: companysecretary.india@pearson.com
Dedicated to Our Parents
—V. Rajini and V. S. Nagarajan
 Contents
Forewordxv
Preface xvii
About the Authorsxix

1. Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines 1.1

1.1 Principles of Design 1.1
1.2 Factors for Consideration  1.1
1.3 Classification of Design Problem 1.2
1.3.1 Need for Computer-aided Design 1.3
1.4 Specifications and Standards 1.3
1.5 Constraints of Design 1.5
1.6 Dimensions and Rating of Machines 1.8
1.7 Output Equation 1.8
1.7.1 DC Machine 1.8
1.7.2 AC Machine 1.9
1.8 Materials for Electrical Machines 1.11
1.8.1 Conducting Materials 1.11
1.8.2 Resistive Materials 1.15
1.8.3 Magnetic Materials 1.16
1.8.4 Insulation Materials 1.21
1.9 Heat Dissipation Modes 1.25
1.10 Types of Cooling (Ventilation) 1.29
1.10.1 Cooling of Turbo Alternators 1.38
1.11 Types of Enclosure 1.42
1.12 Quantity of Coolant 1.44
1.13 Types of Duties and Ratings 1.47
1.14 Determination of Temperature Rise and Fall 1.55
Review Questions 1.68
Multiple-choice Questions 1.68
Short Type Questions 1.74
Long Type Questions 1.79
Problems 1.80

2. Design of Magnetic Circuits 2.1

2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.1.1 Analysis of Series Composite Magnetic Circuit 2.2
x Contents

2.1.2 Analysis of Parallel Composite Magnetic Circuits 2.4

2.1.3 Comparison Between Magnetic Circuit and Electric Circuit 2.6
2.2 Determination of Reluctance and MMF of Air Gap 2.7
2.2.1 Contraction of Air Gap Area Per Pole (Effective Air Gap Area)  2.13
2.2.2 Effect of Pole Saliency 2.14
2.3 Determination of MMF of Teeth 2.22
2.4 Real Flux Density and Apparent Flux Density 2.32
2.5 Iron Loss Calculation 2.36
2.5.1 Hysteresis Loss 2.36
2.5.2 Eddy Current Loss 2.37
2.5.3 Total Iron or Core Loss 2.40
2.5.4 Pulsation Loss 2.40
2.6 Magnetic Leakage 2.43
2.7 Estimation of Specific Permeance and Leakage Reactance 2.47
2.7.1 Parallel-sided Slot 2.49
2.7.2 Parallel-sided Slot with Double Layer Windings 2.51
2.7.3 Tapered Slot 2.53
2.7.4 Circular Slot 2.55
2.7.5 T Bar Slot (Induction Motor) 2.58
2.8 Magnetic Pull 2.59
2.8.1 Radial Magnetic Forces 2.61
2.8.2 Radial Magnetic Forces and Unbalanced Magnetic Pull 2.62
2.8.3 Determination of Unbalanced Magnetic Pull 2.65
2.8.4 Significance and Minimization of Unbalanced Magnetic Pull 2.68
Review Questions 2.69
Multiple-choice Questions 2.69
Short Type Questions 2.71
Long Type Questions 2.77
Problems 2.78

3. Design of Transformer 3.1

3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.1.1 Based on Voltage Ratio 3.2
3.1.2 Based on Construction 3.2
3.1.3 Based on Application 3.5
3.1.4 Based on Number of Phases 3.6
3.2 Specifications of a Transformer 3.8
3.3 Design of Transformer 3.8
3.3.1 Output Equation of Single-phase Transformer 3.8
3.3.2 Output Equation of Single-phase Transformer (Core-type) 3.9
3.3.3 Output Equation of Single-phase Transformer (Shell-type) 3.11
3.3.4 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer 3.12
 Contents xi

3.3.5 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer (Core-type) 3.12

3.3.6 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer (Shell-type) 3.14
3.4 Volt Per Turn of Winding 3.16
3.5 Choice of Flux Density 3.17
3.6 Choice of Current Density 3.18
3.7 Design of Core  3.18
3.7.1 Square Core 3.20
3.7.2 Stepped Core 3.21
3.8 Design of Yoke 3.24
3.9 Window and Core Proportions 3.24
3.10 Overall Dimensions 3.24
3.10.1 Single-phase Core-type Transformer 3.24
3.10.2 Three-phase Core-type Transformer 3.25
3.10.3 Single-phase Shell-type Transformer 3.25
3.10.4 Three-phase Shell-type Transformer 3.27
3.11 Design of Windings 3.28
3.11.1 Type and Choice of Windings 3.29
3.12 Resistance Calculation 3.46
3.13 Reactance Calculation 3.47
3.13.1 Leakage Reactance of a Core-type Transformer with ­
Concentric LV and HV Coils of Equal Height or Length 3.48
3.14 Flowchart for Overall Design of Transformer 3.52
3.15 No Load Current of a Transformer 3.60
3.15.1 Single-phase Transformer 3.62
3.15.2 Three-phase Transformer 3.62
3.15.3 Magnetizing Volt – Ampere and Alternate Expression
for ­Magnetizing Current 3.63
3.16 Transformer Losses 3.67
3.17 Effects of Change in Frequency in Parameters of the Transformer 3.68
3.18 Optimum Design 3.69
3.19 Cooling of Transformer 3.72
3.20 Temperature Rise and Design of Cooling System 3.75
3.21 Temperature Rise in Plain-walled Tank 3.75
3.22 Temperature Rise in Tank with Tubes 3.75
3.23 Design of Tank with Tubes 3.76
3.23.1 Flow Chart for Design of Cooling System 3.77
3.24 Mechanical Forces 3.86
3.25 Computer-aided Design of Transformer 3.87
Review Questions 3.104
Multiple-choice Questions 3.104
Short Type Questions 3.113
Long Type Questions 3.124
Problems 3.125
xii Contents

4. Design of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.1

4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Construction 4.1
4.3 Specifications 4.3
4.4 Output Equation of 3φ Induction Motor 4.4
4.5 Choice of Specific Loadings 4.6
4.5.1 Choice of Specific Magnetic Loading,‘Bav’4.6
4.5.2 Choice of Specific Electric Loading, ‘ac’4.8
4.6 Calculation of Main Dimensions (Separation of D and L)4.8
4.7 Design of Stator of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.9
4.8 Calculation of Length of Air Gap 4.28
4.9 Design of Rotor of 3φ Induction Motor 4.29
4.9.1 Design of Squirrel Cage Rotor 4.30
4.9.2 Design of Wound or Slip-ring Rotor 4.41
4.10 Estimation of Operating Characteristics 4.47
4.10.1 Core Loss Component 4.47
4.10.2 Magnetizing Component 4.47
4.11 Harmonic Torques 4.49
4.11.1 Loss Component 4.52
4.12 Short Circuit Current 4.52
4.12.1 Stator Resistance 4.53
4.12.2 Rotor Resistance 4.53
4.13 Circle Diagram 4.54
4.14 Dispersion Coefficient 4.56
4.15 Computer-aided Design of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.66
Review Questions 4.74
Multiple-choice Questions 4.74
Short Type Questions 4.81
Long Type Questions 4.95
Problems 4.95

5. Design of Single-phase Induction Motor 5.1

5.1 Introduction 5.1
5.2 Construction 5.1
5.2.1 Split Phase Motors 5.1
5.2.2 Shaded Pole Motors 5.3
5.2.3 Repulsion Motors 5.3
5.3 Design Considerations 5.3
5.4 Specifications 5.4
5.5 Constructional Features 5.4
5.6 Design of Single-phase Induction Motor 5.5
5.6.1 Output Equation 5.5
 Contents xiii

5.6.2 Choice of Specific Loadings 5.7

5.6.3 Separation of D and L 5.7
5.6.4 Design of Stator 5.8
5.6.5 Design of Rotor 5.10
5.6.6 Magnetic Circuit Calculations 5.11
5.6.7 Calculation of Resistance and Leakage Reactance 5.12
5.7 Performance Calculation 5.13
5.7.1 Equivalent Circuit Method 5.13
5.7.2 Analytical Method (Veinott’s Method) 5.14
Review Questions 5.40
Short Type Questions 5.40
Long Type Questions 5.41

6. Design of Synchronous Machine 6.1

6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Types of Synchronous Machine 6.1
6.2.1 Types of Synchronous Generators 6.2
6.3 Constructional Aspects of Synchronous Machines 6.2
6.4 Construction of Hydro Generators 6.4
6.5 Construction of Turbo Generator 6.5
6.6 Synchronous Motor 6.6
6.7 Specifications 6.6
6.8 Output Equation 6.6
6.9 Choice of Specific Loadings 6.7
6.9.1 Choice of Bav (Specific Magnetic Loading) 6.7
6.9.2 Choice of ac (Specific Electric Loading) 6.8
6.10 Design of Salient Pole Machine 6.8
6.10.1 Main Dimensions 6.8
6.10.2 Types of Poles  6.8
6.11 Design of Turbo Generator 6.50
6.12 Computer-aided Design of Three-phase Synchronous Machine 6.54
Review Questions 6.61
Multiple-choice Questions 6.61
Short Type Questions 6.66
Long Type Questions 6.73
Problems 6.73

7. DC Machine 7.1
7.1 Introduction 7.1
7.2 Construction 7.1
7.2.1 Field or Excitation System 7.1
7.2.2 Rotor 7.3
xiv Contents

7.2.3 Specifications of DC Machine 7.4

7.3 Output Equation 7.4
7.3.1 Estimation of Power, Pa7.5
7.4 Choice of Specific Loadings of DC Machine 7.6
7.4.1 Choice of Specific Magnetic Loading (Bav)7.6
7.4.2 Choice of Specific Electric Loading (ac)7.7
7.5 Choice of Number of Poles 7.9
7.5.1 Guidelines for the Selection of Poles 7.14
7.6 Limitations of D and L 7.14
7.6.1 Limiting Values of Core Length (L)7.15
7.6.2 Limiting Value of Armature Diameter (D)7.16
7.7 Separation of D and L 7.16
7.8 Estimation of Length of Air Gap 7.26
7.8.1 Factors Affecting Air Gap Length 7.26
7.8.2 Estimation of lg 7.26
7.9 Design of Armature 7.27
7.10 Design of Commutator and Brushes 7.34
7.10.1 Brush Dimensions 7.34
7.10.2 Commutator Losses and Temperature Rise 7.35
7.11 Design of Field System of DC Machine 7.51
7.11.1 Design of Pole 7.51
7.11.2 Design of Shunt Field Winding 7.54
7.11.3 Design of Series Field Winding 7.56
7.12 Design of Interpoles 7.62
7.13 Computer-aided Design of DC Machine 7.65
Review Questions 7.71
Multiple-choice Questions 7.71
Short Type Questions 7.77
Long Type Questions 7.88
Problems 7.89

8. Computer-aided Design and Analysis of Electric Motors 8.1

8.1 Introduction  8.1
8.2 Salient Pole Synchronous Motor 8.2
8.3 Induction Motor 8.19
8.4 Separately Excited DC Motor 8.30

IndexI.1
 Foreword
It gives me great pleasure to write the foreword to the book entitled, “Electrical Machine
Design”.
Electrical machines play a vital role in domestic and industrial fronts. Hence, it is
essential that students of electrical engineering have a strong grounding in electrical
machines. Conventional courses in electrical machines are not adequate for the purpose
of understanding as they throw light on the construction, principle, characteristics and
testing. A deeper understanding is possible only when they study the design aspects and
their influence on the performance of the machines. It is thus necessary to have a course
on electrical machine design, suitable for study by undergraduate students of electrical
engineering.
This book is designed to meet the needs of a textbook for a course in electrical machine
design. It gives a comprehensive design aspects of DC and AC machines with an appropriate
introduction to basic design considerations and the magnetic circuits involved. Introduction
to the design and analysis of the machines using the finite element analysis is also included
as one chapter, to enable the readers to have a much deeper understanding. A design process
always involves a long iterative process and a designer is required to take decisions in
conflicting situations. The design procedure of all the machines is given as simple flowcharts
for the reader to understand the iterative nature of design process. In addition to the worked
examples, most chapters include number of problems designed to test the grasp of the
subject. The readers will also appreciate the pedagogical practices followed in this book.
This book is the outcome of the long experience of the authors in teaching electrical
machines and allied courses. The authors have made a commendable effort to present the
contents in a clear and lucid form.
I hope this book will be well received by students, teachers and practicing engineers.

Dr V. Kamaraj
Professor and Head
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SSN College of Engineering
Chennai
 Preface
Electric machines have become a part and parcel of our day-to-day lives. They play an
inevitable role, right from a small toy to an electric power plant. Hence, the knowledge
of their operating characteristics and performance is essential to Electrical Engineering
graduates. Also, it is important for them to learn the design of these machines considering
various technical and economical aspects. Hence, this book is intended to serve as a textbook
for those who are interested in learning the design of electrical machines.
The target audience also include academicians, students of B.E./B.Tech. (Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering and Instrumentation
and Control Engineering) and industrial employees.
Flow chart based approach has been employed for problem solving. A large number of
examples with increasing order of difficulty have been incorporated with a step-by-step
procedure for solving. The examples cover university questions of all Indian universities.
Matlab and C programs have been provided for computer-aided design of different
electrical machines. Finite element simulations using MotorSolve software will provide
a new perspective in-depth understanding of concepts. Multiple-choice questions with
answers covering syllabus of GATE and UPSC exams also find a place in this book. Two
mark questions have been provided with answers, which will help the readers enhance the
understanding of the subject.
This book is divided into 8 chapters. Chapter 1 deals with basic design considerations
of electrical machines, which is inclusive of constraints, standards, choice of materials and
cooling requirements. Design of magnetic circuits involving different types of slots and
magnetic pull effects are dealt in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 covers the design of transformer
encompassing core, yoke, window, winding and cooling design requirements. Concepts
related to stator and rotor design of three-phase induction motor are covered in Chapter 4.
Chapter 5 provides an insight into the design of single-phase induction motor. Topics related
to construction, pole design and design of turbo machines under synchronous machines are
discussed in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 discusses about the design of DC machine comprising
the aspects of field winding, commutator and brush arrangement and interpole design.
The computer-aided design of electrical machines using finite element analysis software,
MotorSolve, is detailed in Chapter 8.

Acknowledgements
This book consumed huge amount of work, patience and dedication. Still, implementation
would not have been possible if we did not have the support of many individuals
and organizations. Therefore, we would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all. We
would like to sincerely thank our Principal, Dr S. Salivahanan, and the Management of
SSN College of Engineering, Chennai, for their constant encouragement and providing
necessary facilities for completing this project. We are grateful to our HOD, Dr V. Kamaraj,
for his encouragement in bringing out this book, our colleagues Dr R. Arumugam and
Dr M. Balaji, for obtaining and making the infolytica softwares available for use in
xviii Preface

Chapter 8 of this book and Dr R. Deepalaxmi, for helping us in reviewing certain chapters
of this book. We are also thankful to our students, especially S. Sivaramakrishnan, R. Rahul,
R. Gayathri, C. Ramaseshan, B. Shiva Shankar, M. Lohit, Shreyas Srivatchan, P. Praneeth,
M. Karthik, S. Narendran, R. Bharath Kumar, R. Vedha Vyass, R. Manovenkatesh,
N. Ajithbalaji, S. Krishnamurthy, S. Joselin Jebalamalar, R. Kavitha and M. Premkarthik
who had helped us in matlab and C coding, creation of figures, content enhancement,
proof correction and review.
We are indebted to Sojan Jose, R. Dheepika and M. Balakrishnan of Pearson India
Education Services Pvt. Ltd, Chennai, for bringing out this book successfully in a short span
of time.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our family for the continuous support,
patience and motivation. A heartfelt thanks to our family members, R. Harikrishnan,
H. Harshini, H. Karunya, V. Nagalakshmi, L. Santhanakrishnan, Dr L. V. Chandramohan,
V. Sureshkumar, T. S. Sasikaladevi, family friends, S. Premalatha, Secretary & Correspondent,
Mahatma Montessori Schools, Madurai, R. Panneerselvam, President, Mahatma Montessori
Schools, Madurai, for inspiring and encouraging us in writing this book.
We would like to dedicate this book to parents Shri. G. Veeraraghavalu and V. Saroja,
grand parents, L. Venkatesan, T. S. Swaminathan and S. Vardhini without whom none of
our success would have been possible. We would also like to dedicate this book to Professor
C. Palani, Annamalai University for laying the foundation for Electrical Machines and
Prof. Raman Nair, Annamalai University for making us believe anything is possible.
We will appreciate any constructive suggestions and feedbacks from the readers for
further improvement of this book.

V. Rajini
V. S. Nagarajan
 About the Authors
V. Rajini has been working as a Professor in the Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SSN College of Engineering.
She has 22 years of teaching and research experience. She was
graduated from Annamalai University in 1992 and subsequently
obtained her Ph.D. in High Voltage Engineering from Anna
University in 2008. She has published over 90 research publications
in referred journals. She has completed various projects funded by
SSN Trust and AICTE and MNRE. She is currently working on the
fields of Insulating Materials, High Voltage Applications in Process
Technologies, Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Power Electronics for HV
Applications, Solar Photovoltaic and Wind Energy Systems.
She has received Best paper awards in various conferences,
has also received the Best teacher awards. Ms Rajini is the recipient of CTS – SSN Best
Faculty Award – 2011 and distinguished scientist award – 2016 by VIRA foundation for her
contributions in the field of high voltage engineering. She is a senior member of IEEE and
Life member of ISTE.

V. S. Nagarajan has been working as an Assistant Professor in the

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering since June
2014. He did his B.E. (EEE) in SSN College of Engineering and was
ranked 2nd in the college and 21st in the Anna University. After
his graduation, he joined CTS as Programmer Analyst and worked
there for about a year. Later, he did his Masters in Power Electronics
and Drives in SSN College of Engineering scoring a CGPA of 9.34
out of 10 and was ranked 2nd in the college and 4th in the Anna
University. He is currently pursuing Ph.D. in the field of Electrical
Machine Design and Control under Anna University. He was the
recipient of merit scholarship both for B.E. and M.E. and also the
merit scholarship by Ministry of Human Resources and Development, Govt. of India (For
GATE score). He has been awarded with four silver medals and one gold medal for being the
topper of the department in various semester examinations. He has also been awarded with
“The Chairman’s Silver Medal” and “College Silver Medal” for securing Anna University
ranks in B.E. and M.E., respectively. He has published six papers in National/International
Journals and Conferences.
 1
Basic Design
Considerations of
Electrical Machines
1.1 Principles of Design
An electric machine is an electromechanical device that comprises the stationary and moving
parts combined together to generate, transform or utilize the mechanical/electrical energy.
Electric machines are used in applications like transportation, aerospace, defence and industrial
automation industries. Electric motor-driven systems that drive pumps, fan, blower systems and
air compression have become common in industries. Good engineering design is the heart of all
such applications. Engineering design is the application of science, technology and invention to
produce machines to perform specified tasks with optimum economy and efficiency.
All the machines are made up of elements or parts and units. Each element is a separate
part of the machine and it may have to be designed separately and in assembly. Each element
in turn can be a complete part or made up of several small pieces which are joined together
by riveting, welding, etc. Several machine parts are assembled together to form what we
call as complete machine. This physical realization of a complete machine has to meet the
required performance conditions at optimum economy and efficiency.
Hence, the objective of a design is to obtain the complete dimensions of all the parts of
the machine. It must be carried out to meet the specifications using the available materials,
at optimal cost, size and weight without compromising the performance and durability.

1.2 Factors for Consideration

The three key factors of design are given below:
1. Economy
2. Durability
3. Compliance with the specifications and standards
1.2 Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines
1.2 Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines
A design process involves lot of engineering calculations done in an iterative manner.
When designing
A design machine,
process one
involves lotcannot apply rigid
of engineering rules to done
calculations get the best
in an design manner.
iterative for the
machine at the lowest possible cost. A designer may have
When designing machine, one cannot apply rigid rules to get the best design for to take decisions under
the
conflicting requirements. For example, designing a machine to meet out
machine at the lowest possible cost. A designer may have to take decisions under conflictingall the three key
factors is highly
requirements. impossible.
For example, For example,
designing a highly durable
a machine to meetmachine would
out all the threeobviously make
key factors is
use of high-quality materials, by increasing the cost of the machine.
highly impossible. For example, a highly durable machine would obviously make use of Hence, compromise
between durability
high-quality andbyeconomy
materials, increasing is the
required
cost ofdepending
the machine. upon the compromise
Hence, application, between
besides
meeting the specifications. Compromise is also required between
durability and economy is required depending upon the application, besides meeting the ideal design and thea
design which will comply with the manufacturing conditions, environmental
specifications. Compromise is also required between the ideal design and a design which conditions,
convenience
will comply with in production, transport,
the manufacturing maintenance,
conditions, safety, reliability
environmental conditions,and customer’s
convenience in
need. One should also understand the limitations of design. The designer’s
production, transport, maintenance, safety, reliability and customer’s need. One should primary
also
responsibility
understand theislimitations
to allot suitable space
of design. for frame, primary
The designer’s core, airgap, winding,is insulating
responsibility and
to allot suitable
cooling medium in the machine. He/She should also make appropriate
space for frame, core, airgap, winding, insulating and cooling medium in the machine. He/ choice of electric,
magnetic,
She shouldinsulating
also makematerials subject
appropriate choice toofavailability, characteristics
electric, magnetic, andmaterials
insulating cost consistent
subject
with the specifications.
to availability, characteristics and cost consistent with the specifications.

1.3 Classification
1.3 classification of
of Design
Design Problem
Problem
A
A machine
machine has
has field
field and
and armature
armature winding
winding supported
supported byby stator
stator and
and rotor.
rotor. It
It also
also has
has
dielectric
dielectric materials for insulating the live parts, cooling system and mechanical parts for
materials for insulating the live parts, cooling system and mechanical parts for
support.
support. Hence,
Hence, the
the basic
basic components
components ofof design
design are
are shown
shown in
in Fig.
Fig. 1.1.
1.1.

Magnetic
circuit

Mechanical Electric
system circuit
Basic
components
of design

Thermal Dielectric
system system

fig. 1.1
Fig. 1.1 || Basic
Basic components
components of
of design
design of
of electric
electric machine
machine

1.
1. Magnetic design
Magnetic design or
or magnetic
magnetic circuit
circuit design
design
The design of magnetic circuit must establish
The design of magnetic circuit must establish thethe required
required flux
flux with
with minimal
minimal ampere
ampere
turns. It should also produce less core loss.
turns. It should also produce less core loss.
2. Electric circuit design
 Specifications and Standards 1.3

2. Electric circuit design

This deals with the design of armature and field windings with suitable winding
arrangement such that the required emf is produced. The copper loss in these
windings should also be less.
3. Dielectric system design
This deals with the design of insulation required to isolate various parts operating at
different potential so that the current is confined to the required paths.
4. Thermal system design
The design of thermal system includes the design of cooling system, ventilating
ducts, etc., so that the heat generated in the machine due to losses is dissipated and
safe operation of the machine at the specified temperature is ensured.
5. Mechanical system design
This involves the design of frame, shaft and bearings. The design should be robust.

1.3.1 Need for Computer-aided Design

The design process involves a number of assumptions and constraints and so, the solution
can be obtained only by iterative methods. Computer plays a vital role in finding the solution.
The Finite Element Method (FEM) can be used to study the effect of a single parameter on
the dynamical performance of the machine. Also, some tests, which are not even feasible
in laboratory setup, can virtually be performed by FEM. Hence, the design problems using
FEM are done in Chapter 8 and they are of different nature from the design worked out in
detail in respect of any machine. However, these example problems provide adequate basic
skills required for design.

1.4 Specifications and Standards

Standardization of electrical machines manufactured by several industrial plants facilitates
in stream-lining the production line and acquiring easier replacements and spares for the
consumer. These benchmark specifications, typically acknowledged along with their year of
issue, are continually amended as per the modern requirements.
The Indian Standard (IS) specifications are laid down by the Indian Standard Institution
(ISI) in conformation with the international norms stipulated by International Organization
for Standardization (ISO). As per ISI, the name plate of any electrical machine should bear
the succeeding details:

•• kW/kVA rating of machine

•• Rated voltage of machine (or voltage ratio in transformers)
•• Full-load current
•• Number of phases, if any
•• Operating frequency/rated speed
•• Type of connection (wye/delta in AC machine) or Field excitation (shunt/series/
compound in DC machine)
•• Class of insulation provided
•• Type of enclosure of the machine
•• Frame size of machine
•• Manufacturer’s name and serial number of the product
1.4 Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines

Some of the standards relating to electrical machines published by IS are enlisted as

follows.
(a) For rotating electrical machines:

IS No. Year Title specification

900 1965 Code of practice for installation and maintenance of 1φ and 3φ induction
motors
2254 1965 Dimensions of vertical shaft motors for pump applications
3682 1966 Flame-proof AC motors utilized in mines
4029 1967 Guidelines for testing 3φ induction motors
4691 1968 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures for rotating electrical
machines
4722 1968 Guidelines for testing of DC motors
4728 1968 Terminal marking for rotating electrical machines
4729 1968 Measurement and evaluation of vibration of rotating electrical machines
4889 1968 Methods of determination of efficiency of rotating electrical machines
6362 1971 Description of methods of cooling for rotating electrical machines
1885 1973 Electro technical vocabulary – Rotating machines
(part 35)
7132 1973 Guidelines for testing synchronous machines
1231 1974 Dimensions of 3φ foot-mounted induction motors
7572 1974 Guidelines for testing 1φ AC and universal motors
7306 1974 Methods for determining synchronous machine parameters from tests
7538 1975 Specifications for 3φ squirrel cage induction motor for centrifugal pumps
in agricultural industry applications
7816 1975 Guidelines for testing insulation resistance of rotating machines
325 1978 General specifications for 3φ induction motors
8789 1978 Values of performance characteristics for 3φ induction motors
5422 1996 Specification for high power turbo-generators

(b) For transformers:

IS No. Part Year Title specification

3639 – 1966 Fittings and accessories for power transformers
5142 – 1969 Guidelines for continuously variable voltage autotransformers
1180 – 1972 Specification of 3φ distribution transformers with a rating till 100
KVA, 11 KV

(Continued)
 Constraints of Design 1.5

Table | (Continued)
IS No. Part Year Title specification
6600 – 1972 Guidelines for loading of oil immersed transformers
1885 28 1973 Electro technical vocabulary of transformers
2026 1 1977 Power transformers: General specifications
2026 2 1977 Power transformers: Temperature rise specifications
2026 3 1977 Power transformers: Insulation levels and dielectric test
specifications
2026 4 1977 Power transformers: Terminal markings, circuit tapping and
connections

(c) Supplementary general specifications of electrical machines:

IS No. Part Year Title specification

1271 – 1958 Classification of insulating materials and components utilized in
machines as per their thermal stability in operation
4800 1 1968 Specifications of enamelled round wires
4685 1 1968 Specifications of varnish glass fibre covered copper conductors
6160 – 1971 General specifications of rectangular conductors employed in
rotating machines
7404 1 1974 Specifications of round paper covered copper conductors
7404 2 1974 Specifications of rectangular paper covered copper conductors
12063 – 1987 Classification of degree of protection provided by the enclosures
in machines

1.5 Constraints of Design

The limitations imposed on the design of electrical machines are listed in Fig. 1.2. These
constraints are due to the dependability of the performance of machine on various factors
and do not include limitations in the availability of material and other facilities required for
manufacturing.
Efficiency

•• Total efficiency of a machine indirectly influences its capital and running costs.
•• When efficiency is high, the power losses are low and hence the running costs will
be less.
•• But, to limit the electric and magnetic losses, the specific electric and magnetic
loadings ought to be as low as possible.
•• This in turn formulates a need for a machine with an excessively large active material
(such as iron for magnetic parts, copper and aluminium for winding conductors),
which results in an increased initial investment (capital) cost.
•• Thus, machines with enhanced efficiency will have substantially low running cost at
the expense of higher capital cost.
1.6
1.6 Basic
BasicDesign
DesignConsiderations
Considerationsof
ofElectrical
ElectricalMachines
Machines

Commutation Efficiency

Electromagnetic Temperature
saturation rise

Power factor Design limitations Insulation

Stress on Mechanical Consumer

bearings components Specifications
specifications

Shaft Standard
limitations Air gap
specifications

fig.1.2
Fig. 1.2 || Limitations
Limitationsimposed
imposedon
onthe
thedesign
designof
ofelectrical
electricalmachines
machines

Temperaturerise
Temperature rise

••• Temperature
Temperaturerise riseisiscaused
causedin inan
anelectrical
electricalmachine
machinedue duetotothe
theheat
heatgenerated
generatedby bythethe
flowof
flow ofelectric
electriccurrent
currentin inconductors
conductorsand andflux
fluxlinking
linkingthetheiron
ironparts.
parts.
••• Elaborate
Elaborate cooling cooling arrangements
arrangements are are to
to be
be made
made ifif the
the temperature
temperature rise
rise isis excessive.
excessive.
Thisincreases
This increasesthe thecapital
capitalcost
costof
ofthe
themachine.
machine.
••• Also,
Also, the the type
type ofof insulation
insulation provided
provided largely
largely affects
affects the
the machine’s
machine’s operating
operating lifelife as
as
eachof
each ofthe
theinsulating
insulatingmaterials
materialsusedusedhas hasaalimiting
limitingtemperature
temperaturelimit.
limit.
••• IfIfoperated
operatedabove abovethisthislimit,
limit,the
thelongevity
longevityof ofinsulating
insulatingmaterial
materialreduces
reducesconsiderably,
considerably,
therebydeteriorating
thereby deterioratingthe themachine’s
machine’slifetime
lifetimeandandcost-effectiveness.
cost-effectiveness.
••• ItIt isis therefore
therefore required
required to to provide
provide appropriate
appropriate cooling
cooling andand ventilation
ventilation methods,
methods, to to
maintainthe
maintain thetemperature
temperaturerise risewithin
withinthe thepermissible
permissiblelimits.
limits.
Insulation
Insulation
The insulating materials used in a machine must endure the following stresses:
The insulating materials used in a machine must endure the following stresses:
• Electrical stress – Inflicted by the continually varying high operating voltage
•• Electrical stress – Inflicted by the continually varying high operating voltage
• Mechanical stress – Due to the flow of short circuit currents in secondary windings as
•• Mechanical stress – Due to the flow of short circuit currents in secondary windings as
they induce large radial and axial forces as in the case of transformers
they induce large radial and axial forces as in the case of transformers
 Constraints of Design 1.7

•• Thermal stress – Caused by the heat developed (due to power losses) in the machine
components
•• The type of insulation to be fitted is determined principally by the maximum operating
temperature of the machine components to avoid any thermal breakdown.
•• Furthermore, the size of insulation is influenced by the maximum voltage stress
(electrical stress) and the size of conductors used (mechanical stress).

Power factor
•• For the same power rating of a machine, a poor factor leads to larger values of current
(as they are inversely proportional).
•• Hence, the conductor size (and cost) increases to accommodate this increased current
flow.
•• Conversely, for the power factor to be kept high (for reduced current levels and stress),
■■ the specific magnetic loading should be less, i.e. the volume of active material has
to be increased
■■ the air gap should be as small as mechanically possible which in turn increases the
fabrication cost of rotors
•• Eventually, the size and capital cost increase anyhow and power factor is used rather
as a limiting factor influencing the air gap length, winding conductor size and flux
density and saturation in the core.
•• The effect of power factor is a key consideration in the design of induction motors.

Electromagnetic saturation
•• Since ferro-magnetic materials are used as stator/rotor cores, their saturation level
determines the maximum allowable flux density.
•• A high value of flux density is achieved by reducing the air gap, but it results in
saturation of the core, thereby depleting the power factor and also causes an increased
excitation resulting in higher cost for the field system.

Mechanical components
The physical dimensions and shape of the mechanical components deeply influence the
limits of parameters of electrical machine such as critical speed, power factor, etc.
The three primarily influential mechanical portions are as follows:
•• Air gap: It must be kept as low as mechanically possible to have a high power factor
and flux density.
•• Central rotor shaft: Longer shaft lengths lead to excessive Unbalanced Magnetic Pull
(UMP) when deflected and disrupt the running mechanism. Thus, rotor shaft must be
short and rigid to downplay any deflection in running conditions and void the effect
of UMP, if any. In large machines, the shaft size is determined by the critical speed
which in turn depends on shaft deflection.
•• Bearings and rotating parts: Typically, they are subjected to external loads, inertial
forces, rotor weights caused by unbalanced rotors and forces due to UMP. Thus, these
factors play a vital part in the selection of bearing types in machines along with the
mounting used (vertical/horizontal).
1.8 Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines

Commutation
•• In DC machines where commutation is involved, commutating difficulties (production
of sparks) and drawbacks increase directly with the output power (Po).
•• Thus, commutation acts as a limiting factor and presently the maximum power
output that can be efficiently obtained from a single DC machine is 10 MW.
Specifications
Some restrictions are imposed on the manufacturer to produce electrical machines such as
(i) Consumer specifications: Different applications such as pumps, cranes, fans,
automobiles have different requirements for electric machines (constant torque/
power or constant speed or constant load) which have to be met by the manufacturer,
along with the economic, maintenance and serviceability constraints.
(ii) Standard specifications: These benchmark specifications (duly explained later),
concerning safety measures, voltage ratings and torque requirements are stipulated
by ISO and ought to be fulfilled by the manufacturer before commercializing their
machines.

1.6 Dimensions and Rating of Machines

The power rating of a rotating machine is related to its main dimensions, namely the
armature diameter and armature length. A few general equations developed are applicable
to all types of rotating machines like DC, induction and synchronous machines. However,
it must be mentioned that the design process of different machines cannot be demonstrated
with a set of few general equations.

1.7 Output Equation

The output equation for DC and AC machines is derived in the following sections. The
output equation relates the main dimensions of any rotating machine to its power rating.

1.7.1 DC Machine
In general, the output power developed by a DC machine is given by

Po = EI a (1.1)
From machine design point of view, it is required to express the above equation in terms
of main dimensions [diameter, D and length, L], specific electric and magnetic loading and
speed of operation. Hence, the following steps are followed to obtain the output equation in
relation with the above stated parameters.
We know that,
Emf induced in armature of DC machine is given by

φ pZN φ pZn  N 
E= = ∵ = n (1.2)
60 A A  60 
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Cuareim River with Quarahim, Brazil, and its Great Southern
Railway running northward. At Salto there is considerable
interchange of traffic with Argentina through Concordia opposite, an
important railway junction and city. At Cabellos connection is made
with the Uruguay Northern, another road running to the Brazilian
Boundary, the terminus San Eugenio.
The Uruguay East Coast Railway with 78 miles of road, starting
from Olmas on the Central Uruguay runs to Maldonado. Much of the
traffic is to the seaside resorts, Puente del Este and Piriápolis; there
is also considerable freight for the Montevideo market, of agricultural
and pastoral products and fish. An extension northward from San
Carlos to Rocha is authorized. The road has been purchased by the
Government. A line from Durazno on the Central to Trinidad, begun
by the Farquhar-Pearson Syndicate as part of a line designed to
cross the country diagonally from Colonia to the Brazilian border,
was taken over by the Government, which has in view the securing
of a system of State railways. Besides building the 31-mile line from
San Carlos on the East Coast Railway it intends purchasing the 23-
mile line from Rocha to the port Paloma. Further needed
construction is planned by the Government as soon as may be
practicable.
Aeroplane service is to be installed by a British company from
Montevideo to Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco, and aerial postal
service is planned for the interior.

Resources and Industries

Stock raising is by far the leading industry, as is evident from the

fact that in 1917 nearly 98 per cent of the exports were of stock
products. Of the 44 million acres devoted to livestock and agriculture
the latter occupies hardly 5 per cent. In 1603, 100 cattle and two
herds of horses were brought into the country; the cattle increased
so rapidly that at one time they were killed for their hides, as more
recently in Paraguay. Since 1860 when Durham bulls were imported
and stock breeding began, much advance has been made in quality.
Herefords, Devon, a few Polled Angus and others have also been
imported; some for dairy purposes, as Swiss and Flemish. In 1917
the cattle numbered about 8,000,000. The best estancias have
sheds to house pedigreed stock, they plant trees and have cattle
dips. Societies encourage scientific breeding and the Government
subsidizes agricultural shows. One estancia of 60,000 acres has
15,000 cattle, 20,000 sheep, some horses, and pays dividends of
16-25 per cent on a capital of £120,000. Another company with
40,000 acres and a capital of £40,000 pays dividends of 14-20 per
cent. At least 20,000 acres are devoted to dairy farming; 50,000
pounds of butter are made monthly, and both butter and cheese are
exported. The best of apparatus is employed.
Sheep, imported from Argentina in 1608, flourish to the number of
11,700,000; the varieties of Merino, Lincoln, Romney Marsh are
found among others, the English breeds being preferred.
Horses of good quality are raised, 570,000, both light and heavy,
but few in comparison to the cattle. There are 300,000 pigs, a few
mules, 16,000, and 12,000 goats.
Meat Packing. In 1754 the first meat salting plant was established
but the true pioneer dates from 1786. Others followed. There are
now 13 besides seven factories for preserving meat and two
frigorificos. The slaughter season is from November to January. The
meat for saladeros is separated from the bones, dried 4-6 days in
the sun, and then salted. It is arranged in four grades according to
fat or lean; the fat meat is sent to Brazil, the lean to Cuba and
elsewhere.
Of frigorificos the Swifts own one, and exported to Europe in 1915
and 1916, each, over 700,000 frozen quarters of beef and 100,000
chilled; also mutton and lamb. The Frigorifica Uruguaya shipped
nearly 44,000,000 pounds of beef to Europe in 1916 and over
2,000,000 pounds of mutton. The total export of animal products
shipped in 1916 was worth $73,000,000. A model slaughter house
and cold storage plant is in prospect. A new one for wool washing
has a capacity of 132,000 pounds daily. Saving in freight cost and
immunity from deterioration are thereby attained.
 The Liebig Extract of Beef Company, with extensive holdings in
and near Fray Bentos and with a total capitalization of £2,000,000
usually pays 20 per cent dividends on the ordinary shares; 5 per cent
in 1916. They use the best of meat, and their Oxo capsules and
Lemco have a world-wide reputation. They own and rent in Uruguay,
Argentina, and Paraguay 1,120,000 acres.
In spite of strikes and labor troubles the livestock industry has
brought prosperity to the country, with record prices for beef, mutton,
hides, and wool, thus greatly increasing land values. The cattle are
pastured on the natural long thick grass, very little alfalfa being
cultivated. Hogs, hens, bees, and silkworms are raised. The seal
industry and fisheries are important.

Agriculture

The agricultural products are insufficient for the use of the country
although 2,000,000 acres are in cultivation. About 900,000 acres are
in wheat, 700,000 in corn, 128,000 in flax, 100,000 oats, some
barley and canary seed. In 1916 agricultural exports were valued at
$1,500,000. Among other crops are tobacco, which is especially
promising, linseed, alfalfa, sugar cane, some cotton, potatoes, etc.
Viticulture is quite extensive, American grapes growing better in the
south, and French and Italian in the north. Other fruits, oranges,
olives, apples, pears, cherries, peaches, and melons flourish.

Forestry

Forestry is encouraged so far as planting is concerned; about

1,000,000 acres are in natural forest land. Millions of trees have
been planted on land not otherwise useful. The supply of wood in
future will be greatly increased and there may even be export.

Minerals

Minerals are of some importance and may become of more. The

country is believed to contain considerable wealth in gold, silver,
coal, marble, jasper; and in other minerals and semi-precious
stones, including amethyst and topaz. There is little export save
sand, stone for paving, and similar articles.
Gold. The chief gold fields are in the Department Rivera near
Cuñapiru not far from the Brazilian border. A district 35-40 miles long
and 7 wide contains auriferous reef with gold 5 ounces to the ton; if
deep the prospect is limitless. A modern English plant is now getting
out gold. Bars worth $4000 were exported in 1915. Four hundred
mines have been denounced in the Department. Enormous
quantities of manganese are in the neighborhood. Gold is found also
in Minas, Salto, and Tacuarembó.
Copper exists in quantity in Cerro Largo, Maldonado, Minas,
Paysandú, and Salto. Iron, silver, slate, gypsum, asbestos, lead, etc.
may be exploited later. Even greatly needed coal of fair quality has
been found in Montevideo, Santa Lucía, and especially in Cerro
Largo where it seems promising, though no working of minerals is
sufficiently developed to present decisive results. Indications of
petroleum have been noted at the north, the strata coming in from
Brazil.

Manufactures

Naturally manufacturing save for home consumption is of slight

importance, except of products of the pastoral industry, as of dairies
and of meat extract. For home use there are 115 flour mills, 45
others, as of hardware, soap, macaroni; 1 sugar factory, 3 starch, 1
cement, 4 breweries. Many of these are in Montevideo. The
Government proposes the construction of chemical factories for the
production of sulphuric, nitric, carbolic, and acetic acid, glycerine,
benzol, alcohol, sulphuric ether, etc., and a powder and explosive
factory; these to cost over $2,000,000, material and machinery to
enter free of duty.
An important project of the Government is the development of
water power from the cataracts of the Uruguay River, which will be
equivalent to 3,000,000 tons of coal per annum. Two dams are
planned, one movable and one fixed, with canals by which 419 miles
of river will be open to navigation from the lower section. Irrigation is
included in the project, and 37,000 acres near Montevideo are to be
irrigated as an illustration. Fifteen cities have authorized work in
connection with this project.

Investments

Aside from the development of hydro-electric power and the

construction of public works of various kinds including railways, it is
probable that agriculture and fisheries present the most favorable
openings, with good possibilities also in manufacturing industries,
stone cutting, and mining. Stock raising is already pretty well
developed.
 CHAPTER XLV
BRAZIL: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.

The country of Brazil, largest of the South American Republics, has also
a greater area than the United States without Alaska, and is more than
three-fourths the size of all Europe. It cannot therefore be considered as a
whole so easily as the other Republics. It is essential to differentiate
between the various regions and States; for the dissimilarity is not confined
to climate and productions; or to the character of the people, by reason of
some being indigenous and others of European descent. It arises in part
from the long coast line and the difficulty of land communication; in part
from the fact that in some districts the population is almost entirely of
European descent while in others there is a large percentage of negro
blood; as well as from differences in physical and climatic conditions. Thus
the Capital is not so markedly the centre of the Republic as in Argentina,
and the States are more loosely bound together than in the other
Republics. The States and the character of the people may be said to
differ as much among themselves as the countries of the West Coast from
each other, a point of importance to notice in commercial relations.

Area, Population, Boundary

Area. Brazil covers a surface of 3,112,453 square miles. Its length, 2750
miles, is about that of Chile; its extreme width, 2560 miles, is ten times at
great. The coast-line is much longer, 4140 miles. A considerable portion of
this immense area is still but superficially explored.
Population. According to the cabled report of the census of 1920, Brazil
has 30,553,509 inhabitants. Its population, therefore, exceeds that of any
other South American Republic even more largely than its area.
Boundary. The boundary of the country, though familiar from that of the
others, may be rehearsed. On the north we find Colombia, Venezuela, and
the three Guianas with the Atlantic beyond; on the east and southeast the
Atlantic only, on the south Uruguay, a speck of Argentina, Paraguay,
Bolivia, a bit of Peru; on the west a small corner of Argentina, Paraguay,
Bolivia, and Peru. The only countries of the continent not touching its
border are Ecuador and Chile. However, a few writers mention Ecuador on
the west, as the southeast boundary line of that country is still
undetermined.

History

The first of the South American countries to be discovered after

Colombia and Venezuela, it was to the region of Brazil that the name
America was first applied. It is therefore especially unbecoming for us to
appropriate to ourselves in any exclusive sense the title of Americans;
though having no other name, with apologies to the others, it may be
pardonable for us to employ it when necessary.
In the year 1500 the first landing on this part of the continent was made
by Pedro Alvares Cabral, then on his way from Portugal to the West
Indies. In commemoration of that event, May 3rd is a Brazilian national
holiday and the date of the assembling of Congress. As soon as the news
was received in the home country, an expedition was sent out under
Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the coast from its eastern extremity
almost to La Plata, nearly 2000 miles. Fifteen Captaincies, each 150 miles
along the coast, were later allotted and settlements were begun. The
earliest of these which rose to importance were São Vicente in the
neighborhood of Santos, and Pernambuco; a little later, Bahia and Rio de
Janeiro. These were the first agricultural colonies to be founded in South
America, gold and silver being the attraction elsewhere. The French also
had an eye to this country, making a settlement at Rio de Janeiro; the
Dutch as well, who about a century later captured Bahia and Pernambuco;
but both were ultimately expelled, the whole country remaining in the
hands of the Portuguese. Conflicts with the Indians took place, at first with
some who were unfriendly, and afterwards through attacks made by the
invaders upon those Indians who had been christianized by the Jesuits.
Their settlements were destroyed, 300,000 are said to have been
slaughtered, and the rest were driven by the Paulistas from the region of
the upper Paraná.
As Philip II of Spain in 1581 became ruler of Portugal, during the 60
years following, the expansion of Brazil to the west in territory which had
been assigned to Spain was permitted, and such possession remained
permanent. At other times conflicts occurred with the Spaniards at the
south, but in 1777 peace was made with the boundaries as at present.
In 1807, Prince João, fleeing from Napoleon, came with his court to
Brazil. He soon opened the five chief ports to commerce, he encouraged
science, education, literature, art, and the immigration of foreigners, thus
inaugurating a development of permanent value. On his return to Europe
in 1821, the Prince, in view of the revolts of the Spanish colonies, hinted to
his son whom he left in charge the advisability of himself assuming the
crown, if a disposition towards independence became manifest.
Accordingly in 1822, the son was crowned Emperor of Brazil; but having
alienated his supporters, in 1831 he abdicated in favor of his infant son,
Pedro. In 1889, the old Emperor, Dom Pedro II, who for many years had
ruled wisely and well, was expelled on 24 hours’ notice; after a brief interim
a Republic was established in 1891. Extravagance, insurrections, and
financial distress followed, but since 1900 the country has made rapid
advancement in wealth and in varied lines of development.

Government

The government is a federalized republic with the usual branches, the

States more loosely bound together than with us, or than in any other
South American Republic. They may even fix export taxes, and levy stamp
duties. The President, with a Vice President, is elected for four years and
is ineligible for a succeeding term. He has a Cabinet of seven Ministers.
Congress is composed of a Senate with 63 members and a Chamber of
212 Deputies. There are 20 States, a Federal District, and the Territory of
Acre. The last is composed of three Prefectures, with capital cities where
government is administered by Government appointees. The States have
their own administrative bodies, some with one house of legislation, some
with two; and with a Governor or President as chief executive, a slight
confusion possibly arising at times where the latter term is employed. All
male citizens over 21 may vote except illiterates, soldiers, beggars, and
members of monastic orders subject to vows of obedience, a wise
prescription. The list of States precedes, with the usual figures, as
accurate as obtainable, the areas from the latest Government survey. The
list begins at the northwest, goes down the coast, and follows with the
interior.
States Area, Population Capitals Population Altitude,
in in feet
square
miles
Amazonas 645,940 435,000 Manaos 60,000 131
Pará 399,000 992,300 Belem 250,000 23
Maranhão 150,830 853,000 Maranhão 40,000 198
Piauhy 89,850 548,250 Therezina 35,000
Ceará 62,160 1,436,300 Fortaleza 65,000
Rio Grande 15,925 552,000 Natal 20,000 25
do Norte
Parahyba 22,548 785,100 Parahyba 20,000
Pernambuco 38,570 1,975,440 Recife 200,000
Alagôas 10,400 990,000 Maceió 40,000
Sergipe 8,983 535,000 Aracajú 30,000
Bahia 206,990 3,373,000 São 300,000 147
Salvador
Espirito 16,860 479,200 Victoria 20,000
Santo
Rio de 16,408 1,502,000 Nictheroy 30,000
Janeiro
São Paulo 101,890 4,823,000 São Paulo 510,000 2,510
Paraná 73,465 674,300 Curityba 50,000 2,980
Santa 43,168 633,000 Florianopolis 30,000
Catharina
Rio Grande 92,350 2,138,800 Porto Alegre 125,000
do Sul
Minas 227,238 5,789,000 Bello 35,000 3,081
Geraes Horizonte
Goyaz 284,000 529,000 Goyaz 18,000 1,577
Matto 554,400 274,100 Cuyabá 32,000 953
Grosso
Territory of 67,712 104,000
Acre
Federal 450 1,150,080 Rio de 1,150,080
District Janeiro

Population
 The population, by the recent census 30,553,509, is of a more varied
character than that of Uruguay and Argentina at the south. Some figures
given are 52 per cent white, 26 mixed, 13 Indian, and 9 per cent negro.
The original settlers were Portuguese, and at first immigration was from
the mother country. In the early days many negroes were imported from
Africa as slaves, yet there was little color prejudice so that the number of
mulattoes and lighter as well as of negroes in some sections is very large.
During the last hundred years over 3,000,000 immigrants have arrived,
of whom the Italians formed the larger proportion; next in number were the
Portuguese, half as many Spaniards; those of other nationalities included
100,000 Germans, and a small colony from our Southern States, who left
in disgust in 1867. The negroes, freed in 1888 and endowed with suffrage,
were less qualified for it than in the United States. While some have made
good advancement others have relapsed into a worse condition, being
able in many parts of the country to exist on almost nothing. Indolence is a
failing among many of all complexions, as is natural in tropical regions; on
the other hand many Brazilians even in the warmer sections are
characterized by great activity and industry. In the large cities culture and
elegance are noticeable and aristocracy of birth is cherished. In some
regions the inhabitants are less pretentious, live more simply, and practise
the homely virtues; the most primitive section according to Oakenfull is
between the São Francisco River and Maranhão. Women in general are
more secluded than in some of the other Republics. The Brazilians have
much literary and artistic taste and as a rule are punctilious in courtesy,
though exceptions may be noted.

Education

Education is highly regarded in Brazil. Primary and secondary are free

and secular, generally provided by the States and Municipalities. The
Federal Government administers several Professional Schools as of
Medicine, Law, Engineering, etc., and many of Agriculture in various parts
of the country. With some of these, local schools are affiliated, as Schools
of Law, of Applied Science, at Rio of Social Science, at Recife
Engineering, etc. The different States spend 4-21 per cent of their revenue
on primary education, averaging above ten. The Federal District spends 28
per cent. There are also private schools in different cities, several English
or American; the American Mackenzie College at São Paulo is affiliated
with the University of the State of New York.
 Press, Religion, etc.

The Press is influential and of high quality, the leading papers of Rio,
São Paulo, and other cities comparing well with those of cities of
corresponding size in other parts of the world.
Religion. In Brazil there is entire separation of Church and State and
absolute religious freedom. Civil marriage alone is recognized.
Post and Telegraph. Brazil has 3700 Post Offices.
Telegraph wires (over 26,000 miles) are in part national; other lines
belong to the railways; there are submarine cables, and one up the
Amazon. Wireless stations have been installed at many points on the
coast and in the interior, including the Amazon district, as at Manaos and
beyond. Telephones are to be found in all cities of any considerable size,
about 80 systems.
Money is more complicated and bothersome than in any of the other
countries, the unit being of 1000 instead of 100 parts, as is usual. Thus the
milreis, written 1$000, equals 1000 reis as the name indicates. The milreis
of gold is equal to 54.6 cents, but exchange varies, and the paper in
common use varies from its ordinary value, 33.3 cents, to half that or even
less in disturbed conditions. A conto of reis, a term often used, is 1000
milreis, and is written with a colon, thus: 5 contos, 20 milreis, and 300 reis
would be written 5:20$300.
The Metric System is legal and compulsory, but in some places, the old
Portuguese measures persist; these differ from the Spanish. A vara in
Peru is less than a yard, but in Brazil it is 1.111 metre, or 1.215 yard. A
libra is 4.695 kilos; an alquiere varies from 24 to 160 litres. Other variety
exists in the same or in different places.
 CHAPTER XLVI
BRAZIL: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Brazil presents in physical characteristics more variety than is

generally supposed. As the great Amazon Basin is in striking
contrast to the immense Andean Range, the entire country is thought
of as hot. Since it extends from 5° 10′ N. Lat. to 33° 45′ S. Lat. with
the widest part near the equator, the greater portion of the territory is
evidently in the torrid zone, 11° only in the temperate, with more than
twice that in the tropics. However, in this comparatively low country,
there is happily a variation in altitude sufficient to affect the climate
and to give rise to variety in productions; to which diversity the 11° in
the temperate zone also contribute. The territory may be considered
as in four general sections: the Amazon Basin, the Plata (the two
almost connected over low elevations), the Coastal Belt, and a mass
of mountains and highlands along the coastal states, extending also
at a lower level across to Bolivia. In addition there are the Guiana
Highlands at the north.

The Coastal Belt

The coastal section is largely a low-lying sandy tract, varied by

swamp lands overgrown with palms or other verdure, and slopes
covered with dense tropical vegetation. Without deep indentations in
the form of gulfs and bays there is a considerable number of good
harbors. In the far south two large lakes have been created which
are connected with the ocean. The coastal strip varies in width from
one to 100 miles.

The Guiana Highlands

Of the mountainous regions, the range forming the boundary line

with Venezuela and Guiana on the north with its offshoots and the
country between has attracted little interest and been but slightly
explored. From Mt. Roraima, 8500 feet, at the corner of Venezuela
and British Guiana, the range lowers toward the East, the highest
point on the French frontier being about 2600 feet. South of this are
broken ranges and deep river courses on the Brazilian plateau,
which with an altitude of 2000 feet slopes south and east. Excepting
the part near the coast, this section called Brazilian Guiana is semi-
arid, on account of the mountains extracting the moisture from the
northeast trade winds. Inhabited by a few roving bands of Indians
and in the east visited by white mining adventurers, it has been
deemed one of the least attractive parts of the Republic. Recent
exploration, however, has reported an extent of valuable forest lands
and immense areas of open country suited to cattle ranges. A
railway from British Guiana is talked of to render this district
accessible to the outside world.

The Plateau and Mountain Region

An important part of Brazil is the plateau region (altitude 1000-

3000 feet) south of the Amazon, especially that portion extending
along the coastal states. The greater part of the central section was
once covered with a thick sandstone sheet, now deeply eroded by
numerous rivers which have left high flat ridges between the lower
basins. The true mountain systems which rise from the plateau are
parallel ranges following the coast, and the Central or Goyana
system. An almost continuous range, the Serra do Mar, stretches
from Rio Grande do Sul to Cape Frio, just east of Rio de Janeiro;
beyond this, farther from the coast, broken sections extend well
towards Cape St. Roque in Rio Grande do Norte. The highest point
in the Serra do Mar or Coast Range is 7223 feet in the Organ
Mountains near Rio, as the capital city is often called for short and
may be so understood when here used.
A second parallel range runs from Eastern São Paulo northeast
and north to the point where the São Francisco River turns east in
Bahia; Itatiaiá, 9823 feet, in Rio de Janeiro State, is its culminating
point in Brazil. West of the São Francisco River is the Central or
Goyaz Range, also in two branches, running from the southern part
of Goyaz northeast, one branch across western Minas Geraes, the
other in Goyaz with highlands extending far north separating the
Tocantins Basin from the São Francisco, and in the south separating
it from the Paraná. The highest point is near the city of Goyaz, Mt.
Pyraneus, 7750 feet. How the great table-land has been broken
down by rivers is shown by the Tocantins-Araguaya Basin excavated
northward for 700 miles. From 100 to 500 miles wide, it is from 10 to
1500 feet deep.
The eastern margin of the plateau is near the Atlantic where it
breaks off suddenly with an average height of 2600-3200 feet. This
plateau is the best part of the country, the Atlantic slope heavily
wooded, the more gradual west slope with many grass covered
plains. A fertile soil, rich forests, and regular rainfall make this a
favored region. Farther north than Minas Geraes, the section has
less rain, is thinly wooded in places, with large areas suited to
grazing but subject to drought. The plateau extends across Brazil
north of Paraguay abruptly breaking down from a height of 2600-
3000 feet towards the Paraná and Paraguay Basins. It has a gradual
slope towards the Amazon, the parts excavated by the rivers having
lowland characteristics.

The Amazon Basin

The section of the Amazon Basin is indeed immense. The whole

drainage area with that of the Tocantins, generally included though
not strictly a component part, spreads over 2,700,000 square miles,
much of it as we have already seen outside of Brazil, and occupying
two-fifths of South America. This area is greater than the basins of
the Mississippi, Missouri, Danube, and Nile, all combined. The
course of one tributary to the sea is 3200 miles. Of the 55 largest
rivers in the world, it is said that 33 are mainly if not wholly in Brazil.
Twenty-seven thousand miles of navigable rivers are found in the
country, the greater part connected with the Amazon, which is itself
navigable for ocean steamers to Iquitos, Peru, a distance of 2300
miles, and 486 miles farther for vessels of 14 feet draft. The true
mouth of the Amazon is west and north of the Marajos Island which
is greater in area than Holland or Belgium, while the Pará River at
the south and east is the mouth of the Tocantins. This, however, is
the usual entrance for Amazon steamers even when they do not
wish to call at Pará, for this river is connected by natural channels
among islands with the greater stream, and the northern entrance
has too strong a current to be desirable for navigation. As a matter of
convenience the Tocantins is generally included with the Amazon in
descriptions. The depth of the estuary is 90-900 feet, averaging 150.
The Tocantins River is a great artery of Brazil flowing from south
to north a distance of 1600 miles, with a west affluent, the Araguaya,
almost its equal in size and 1000 miles long above the union. Both
rivers receive many tributaries. The flat broad valleys are overlooked
by steep bluffs. The cataracts and rapids which occur on nearly all of
the rivers as they come down from the plateau greatly interfere with
navigation, but in their lower courses many are navigable for
hundreds of miles, the Tocantins for 130.
The Xingú, the next river, with a length of 1260 miles is the first
true tributary of the Amazon on the south. This also flows nearly
north with many rapids and at last a fall, Itamaracá, at the head of
navigation, 105 miles from its mouth. Near this the river expands into
a great lake which communicates with the Amazon by many natural
channels.
The Tapajós, 1158 miles long, entering the Amazon about 500
miles above Pará, rises near Diamantino on the plateau, and flows
through a long, hot, unhealthful valley. One hundred and eighty-eight
miles are navigable, the lower 100 of these being 4-9 miles wide and
throughout much of its course very deep. Along the lower river valley
are bluffs 300-400 feet high.
The Madeira, entering 870 miles above Pará, almost rivals the
Amazon in volume. In the rainy season, during which it rises 50 feet,
the largest ocean steamers may ascend 665 miles to the falls of
Santo Antonio and the Madeira-Mamoré Railway; from June to
December it is navigable for vessels of 5-6 foot draft only. Tributary
to the Madeira on the east is the river formerly called the Duvida, first
completely traversed by Colonel Roosevelt and his party and now
named in his honor Rio Roosevelt. The Madeira which has 90
tributaries and a basin of over 600,000 square miles is formed a little
higher up by the junction of the Beni and Mamoré, both of which
streams rise close to the head waters of the Paraguay. From Santo
Antonio south, the Madeira-Mamoré is obstructed for 263 miles by a
series of rapids and cataracts, the Madeira Falls, where the Beni
comes in, presenting a vast display of whirlpool and boiling torrents.
Above Santo Antonio the drainage is received of the southwest slope
of the State of Matto Grosso, the north slope of the Chiquitos
Sierras, and the northeast slope of the Andes from Santa Cruz de la
Sierra in Bolivia to Cuzco in Peru. The most important of the
affluents are the Guaporé, Baurés, Itonamas, Mamoré, Beni, and
Madre de Dios. The almost level Mojos and Beni plains are said to
rival if not to exceed in fertility the Nile Valley; they are the most
healthful and most inviting grazing and agricultural regions in the
Amazon Basin, which has an area about equal to that of France and
Spain. However, 35,000 square miles are flooded 2-3 feet, three or
four months every year.
The Purús, over 2000 miles in length, is a very sluggish stream
parallel to the Madeira, in the great depression between the Brazilian
plateau and the Andes. A peculiar feature is five parallel canals
coming into it from the Amazon northwest at almost regular intervals,
making five low islands; and nearer to the great river are three more.
The Purús is navigable for light steamers 1648 miles five months in
the year; for 800 miles its depth is not less than 45 feet. The lands
are subject to inundation, the river at times rising 50 feet.
The Juruá is a similar river, navigable for 1133 miles.
The Javary, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is
navigable for craft 260 miles. The region is occupied by savages.
The Trombetes. On the north side of the Amazon there are fewer
important rivers, the Trombetes, the first from the east, which is
navigable 135 miles, comes from the Guiana Highlands.
The Negro, 900 miles from Pará, 1500 miles long, is navigable for
450 miles forming midway a succession of lagoons, and overflowing
its banks, often for a width of 20 miles. The rivers farther west have
been sufficiently described.
 The average depth of the Amazon is 50 feet, the current is three
miles an hour. Beginning to rise in November the river is fullest in
June, then falling to November. The Madeira, which rises and falls
two months earlier, is in places 4-6 miles wide. The width of the
Amazon is 20-60 miles, while in periods of inundation the forest is
partly submerged for a width of 400 miles.

The Plata Basin

A much smaller portion of Brazil lies in the basin of La Plata; this,

at least for the moment, is the best and richest part of the entire
country, containing the greatest population outside of the coastal
fringe.
The Uruguay. At the south the several rivers forming the Uruguay,
which rise in the Serra do Mar, drain Rio Grande do Sul and part of
Santa Catharina, while from there up to the north end of São Paulo
and into Goyaz only a narrow coast region is outside the Paraná
Basin.
The Paraná. The most remote source of the Paraná, that of the
branch Paranahyba, is in the Serra Pyreneos in Goyaz, while the Rio
Grande branch rises in the Serra da Mantiqueira near the peak
Itatiaiá, so to say, in sight of Rio. Many affluents are received from
the States of São Paulo and Paraná, these generally flowing
northwest or west; the Paraná itself flows southwest forming the
western boundary of those States. A branch, the Tiété, in São Paulo,
700 miles long, is broken by 54 rapids and two falls. The
Paranapanema in Paraná, 600 miles long, is navigable for 30 miles.
The Iguassú, rising in the Serra do Mar in Santa Catharina and
flowing west is hardly navigable for canoes.
Twenty-eight miles above the mouth of the Tiété the course of the
Paraná is interrupted by the Falls of Urubupungá. From here to the
Guaira or Sete Quedas Falls, 400 miles, there is unobstructed
navigation. At this point the river forms a lake 4¹⁄₂ miles long and 2¹⁄₂
wide before cutting through the Serra de Maracajú. Then after
rushing through a deep and narrow gorge for two miles, it plunges
down a long cañon hardly 200 feet wide in a series of rapids or falls
called the Sete Quedas, Seven Falls. It is reported as able to supply
over a million horse power, probably the most of any cataract in the
world. Again the river is navigable from a little below the falls, and
with regular service it forms an outlet for the State of Paraná to the
ocean.
The Paraguay. The River Paraguay rises near Diamantino in
Matto Grosso receiving a number of tributaries from that State, one
of which, the Cuyabá, called the São Lourenço lower down, has its
source close to that of the Tapajós branch of the Amazon.

Coast Rivers and Lakes

Other rivers flow directly into the Atlantic, several of some

importance. North of the Amazon a few small rivers are called
auriferous, the Araguary of considerable length. South of the
Amazon Delta, some rivers flow north and northeast among the
mountain ridges, others directly to the ocean. Of the former the most
important are the Parnahyba, 900 miles long, navigable in sections,
and farther south the São Francisco, the largest river of the coastal
region, navigable 192 miles from the coast to the fine Paulo Affonso
Falls, and above these for a much greater distance. The
Jequitinhonha, 500 miles long, has 84 miles navigable. The most
important river south of the São Francisco is the Parahyba do Sul,
658 miles long, rising in the State of São Paulo and flowing across
Rio. It is navigable from its mouth a distance of 57 miles and 90 in its
upper course.
The Ribeira de Iguapé. The only coast river of economic
importance south of Cape Frio is the Ribeira de Iguapé which rises
on the table-land of Paraná and after receiving several affluents
breaks through the mountains near the boundary of São Paulo.
Besides a navigable channel of 118 miles it communicates with an
inland waterway called the Iguapé or Mar Pequeno, extending many
miles along the coast. In Rio Grande do Sul, where the coastal plain
extends half across the State, several rivers partly navigable flow
into the important Lagôa dos Patos, with which is connected by a
navigable channel, 61 miles long, the Lagôa Mirím.
Lakes. The Lakes of Brazil are few in comparison with the rivers.
Those in the Amazon Basin are reservoirs from the overflow of the
rivers and rise and fall with these. The coastal section has lagoons
and inland channels formed by uplifted beaches; they are usually
shallow and some, as in Bahia, are associated with swamps; but on
the Alagôas coast the lakes are long, narrow, and deep. The largest
coastal lakes are the two in Rio Grande do Sul already mentioned,
separated by broad sand beaches from the ocean, with which they
communicate by a channel 42 miles long at the south end of the
Lagôa dos Patos. This lake is 140 miles long and 30 wide; the Mirím
is 78 miles long and at the most 25 wide. Both are navigable, though
shallow and with many sand bars.

Climate

This great country of Brazil presents considerable diversity of

climate, as already observed. The forest covered Amazon Basin is
hot, with slight variation throughout the year, and with heavy rainfalls;
but while the average temperature is over 80°, ranging from 65° to
95°, some locations are decidedly preferable to others. The regular
rainy season is from November to March, a second of less degree
from August to October; also the rainy season is said to last nine
months. On the upper Amazon there is a short dry season in
January and February. There is a flood time November, December,
and higher water from March to June. The average rainfall is about
78 inches, the rise of the river 45 feet. There are east winds, warm
and moisture laden, the deflected trades, and colder winds from the
west and southwest.
The coast region as far south as Santos is generally warm and
humid (except for a stretch at the northeast), with a wet and dry
season, though it rains also in the latter, except on the arid northeast
coast. A variation occurs in Pernambuco where it rains from March
to August, the dry and cooler season in Rio. Here on the edge of the
tropics the annual temperature is 5° lower than on the Amazon. At
Santos rainfall is heavy and the place is hot, but farther south it is
cooler with a wider range of temperature and a more even
distribution of rain. In Rio Grande do Sul the mercury ranges from
20° to 80°. Cold southwest storms from the Argentine pampa,
occasionally as far as Rio, create discomfort for two or three days at
a time. The highest temperature in Rio is 98.7°.
The Brazilian plateau is very different. As a rule the days are
hotter and the nights cooler, the air drier, than on the coast at the
same latitude. With mean temperature 68° there is occasional frost.
Brazilian Guiana is hot and arid, though with more rain at the east
and west than in the centre. South of the Amazon from Piauhy to
southern Bahia is another semi-arid section with a rainless season
from June to December, when streams are dry and fields are burned
bare. With heavy rains from January to May, the country is covered
with verdure; when these fail, sometimes for successive years, the
droughts are destructive to agriculture and cattle. The plateaus of
Minas, São Paulo, and Rio have a climate which is modified by
luxuriant vegetation, south winds, and their altitude; though Minas
Geraes, having forests only along the rivers and at the south, is
hotter by day, but with always cool nights. The open lands of São
Paulo also have higher daily temperature; the annual mean is
68°-77°. In south Minas and São Paulo frosts occasionally occur. In
the State of Rio there is a delightful climate in the high valleys of the
Serra do Mar, temperature 45°-90°. The table-lands farther south,
Paraná, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate
climate with abundant rain, occasional frost, but no snow. The
northern valleys of the Paraná River are sub-tropical, the mean
annual temperature of Goyaz City being 77°.
The country over a large extent may be considered healthful; the
yellow fever which once afflicted Rio and some other cities has been
exterminated by rigid sanitary measures, and the conditions of life on
the eastern plateau and in the temperate south are agreeable. The
Amazon Valley is of course malarial, though some sections are far
better than others. It would seem that the lower parts which are
subject to inundation can hardly be made suitable for residence
whatever precautions are taken; but the higher lands may be to