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Hybrid Nanofluids
for Convection
Heat Transfer
 Hybrid Nanofluids
for Convection
Heat Transfer

Edited by
Hafiz Muhammad Ali
Mechanical Engineering Department, King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Contents
List of contributors ...................................................................................................ix
Biography..................................................................................................................xi

CHAPTER 1 History and introduction ............................................... 1

Hemmat Esfe Mohammad, Saeed Esfandeh and
Mohammad Hassan Kamyab
1.1 History ............................................................................................1
1.1.1 Conventional methods to enhance heat transfer ................ 2
1.1.2 Microscale additives in fluids............................................. 2
1.1.3 Nanoscale additives in fluids.............................................. 3
1.1.4 Nanoscale particles and nanofluids .................................... 4
1.2 Introduction ....................................................................................9
1.2.1 Fundamental of conduction .............................................. 10
1.2.2 Fundamental of convection............................................... 11
1.2.3 Fundamental of radiation .................................................. 11
1.2.4 Fundamental of viscosity .................................................. 13
1.2.5 Fundamental of density..................................................... 14
1.2.6 Fundamental of heat capacity........................................... 14
1.3 Nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid...................................................15
1.3.1 Unique characteristics of hybrid nanofluid ...................... 18
1.3.2 Microscale heat transfer.................................................... 20
1.3.3 Nanoscale heat transfer..................................................... 22
1.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................40
Nomenclature............................................................................... 41
References.................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 2 Hybrid nanofluids preparation method ...................... 49
Masoud Afrand and Ramin Ranjbarzadeh
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................49
2.2 Methods of nanoparticles synthesis .............................................50
2.2.1 Bottom-up.......................................................................... 50
2.2.2 Top-down .......................................................................... 64
2.3 Nanoparticles................................................................................75
2.3.1 Properties of nanoparticles................................................ 75
2.3.2 Effect of nanoparticles volume fraction ........................... 77
2.4 Choosing an appropriate base fluid .............................................78
2.5 Nanoparticle combination ............................................................83
2.6 Hybrid nanofluid preparation.......................................................83

v
vi Contents

2.6.1 Single-step method............................................................ 83

2.6.2 Two step method............................................................... 85
2.7 Conclusions and future direction .................................................88
References.................................................................................... 91

CHAPTER 3 Thermophysical and rheological properties of

hybrid nanofluids ...................................................... 101
Hatice Mercan
3.1 Thermal conductivity .................................................................101
3.1.1 Measurement techniques................................................. 103
3.1.2 Theory ............................................................................. 104
3.1.3 Experimental results........................................................ 113
3.2 Viscosity .....................................................................................117
3.2.1 Measurement techniques................................................. 117
3.2.2 Theory ............................................................................. 119
3.2.3 Experimental results........................................................ 123
3.3 Heat capacity ..............................................................................127
3.3.1 Measurement techniques................................................. 127
3.3.2 Theory ............................................................................. 128
3.3.3 Experimental results........................................................ 129
3.4 Density........................................................................................130
3.4.1 Measurement techniques................................................. 130
3.4.2 Theory ............................................................................. 131
3.4.3 Experimental results........................................................ 131
3.5 Wetting .......................................................................................132
3.6 Comparison of unitary and hybrid nanofluids...........................132
3.7 Challenges and conclusions .......................................................135
References.................................................................................. 136
CHAPTER 4 Hybrid nanofluids as a heat transferring media...... 143
Hamza Babar, Muhammad Usman Sajid and Hafiz
Muhammad Ali
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................143
4.2 Natural convection heat transfer ................................................145
4.3 Forced convection heat transfer.................................................158
4.3.1 Single-phase and two-phase forced convection heat
transfer............................................................................. 163
4.4 Heat transfer in porous media....................................................166
4.5 Theoretical studies and models for prediction of heat
transfer ........................................................................................167
4.6 Concluding remarks ...................................................................167
 Contents vii

Nomenclature............................................................................. 170
Greek letters............................................................................... 171
Subscript .................................................................................... 171
References.................................................................................. 172

CHAPTER 5 Performance effecting parameters of hybrid

nanofluids.................................................................. 179
Tayyab Raza Shah, Hasan Koten and Hafiz Muhammad Ali
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................179
5.2 Nanoparticle concentration ........................................................180
5.3 Basefluid.....................................................................................184
5.4 Temperature................................................................................186
5.5 Sonication time...........................................................................187
5.6 Surfactant addition .....................................................................190
5.7 Particle size ................................................................................191
5.8 Brownian motion of nanoparticles.............................................194
5.9 Particle shape..............................................................................197
5.10 pH value .....................................................................................201
5.11 Clustering effect .........................................................................203
5.12 Conclusion ..................................................................................204
References.................................................................................. 205
CHAPTER 6 Applications of hybrid nanofluids in different
fields.......................................................................... 215
Furqan Jamil and Hafiz Muhammad Ali
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................216
6.2 Main applications of hybrid nanofluids.....................................218
6.2.1 Solar energy .................................................................. 218
6.2.2 Refrigeration and heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning applications .............................................. 223
6.2.3 Heat exchanger.............................................................. 224
6.2.4 Heat pipes...................................................................... 228
6.2.5 Coolant in machining and manufacturing .................... 229
6.2.6 Electronic cooling ......................................................... 234
6.2.7 Automotive industry ..................................................... 236
6.2.8 Generator cooling.......................................................... 238
6.2.9 Transformer cooling...................................................... 238
6.2.10 Nuclear system cooling................................................. 240
6.2.11 Biomedical .................................................................... 243
6.2.12 Space, Ships, and defense............................................. 245
6.3 Conclusions ................................................................................245
viii Contents

Nomenclature............................................................................. 246
Abbreviations.........................................................................246
Symbols..................................................................................246
References.................................................................................. 246

CHAPTER 7 Barriers and challenges in hybrid nanofluids

development and implementation ............................ 255
Alina Adriana Minea
7.1 Stability of hybrid nanofluids ....................................................256
7.1.1 Stability enhancement procedures .................................. 258
7.2 Viscosity and thermal conductivity modeling techniques for
hybrid nanofluids........................................................................260
7.2.1 Viscosity modeling techniques for hybrid nanofluids ... 260
7.2.2 Thermal conductivity modeling techniques for hybrid
nanofluids ........................................................................ 261
7.3 Nanoparticles dispersion in hybrid nanofluids ..........................261
7.3.1 Pairs of nanoparticles...................................................... 263
7.3.2 Hybrid nanocomposites................................................... 263
7.3.3 Other approaches............................................................. 264
7.4 Pumping power studies and approach on hybrid nanofluids ....265
7.4.1 Pumping power comparison for water based hybrid
nanofluids: theoretical approach..................................... 266
7.5 Selection of proper hybrid nanofluids .......................................271
7.5.1 Selection of suitable pairs of nanomaterials or hybrid
materials .......................................................................... 272
7.5.2 Selection of base fluids................................................... 272
7.6 pH control of hybrid nanofluids ................................................272
7.7 Conclusion and perspectives......................................................274
Nomenclature............................................................................. 274
Abbreviations.........................................................................274
Roman letters .........................................................................274
Greek letters...........................................................................275
Subscripts...............................................................................275
References.................................................................................. 275

Index ......................................................................................................................281
List of contributors
Masoud Afrand
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad,
Iran
Hafiz Muhammad Ali
Mechanical Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum &
Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Hamza Babar
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
Saeed Esfandeh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imam Hossein University, College of
Engineering, Tehran, Iran; Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Jundishapur University of Technology, Dezful, Iran
Furqan Jamil
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
Mohammad Hassan Kamyab
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imam Hossein University, College of
Engineering, Tehran, Iran
Hasan Koten
Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul,
Turkey
Hatice Mercan
Mechatronics Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
Alina Adriana Minea
Technical University Gheorghe Asachi, Iaşi, Romania
Hemmat Esfe Mohammad
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imam Hossein University, College of
Engineering, Tehran, Iran
Ramin Ranjbarzadeh
Department of Civil, Constructional and Environmental Engineering, Sapienza
University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Muhammad Usman Sajid
Division of Sustainable Development (DSD), College of Science and
Engineering (CSE), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Qatar Foundation
(QF), Education City, Doha, Qatar
Tayyab Raza Shah
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Engineering and
Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

ix
Biography
Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Ali, currently working as an associate professor of
Mechanical Engineering at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Saudi Arabia, received his doctoral degree in mechanical engineering from
School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary, University of
London, United Kingdom, in 2011. He was a postdoc at Water and Energy
Laboratory of University of California at Merced, United States, during 2015 16.
He is a noted faculty member having thermal sciences, heat transfer, and solar
energy as his major areas of interest. Over the span of several years, he super-
vised numerous undergraduate and postgraduate students and his work produced
more than 100 papers featured in various reputed international journals. He also
represented his institution and Pakistan at several international and national con-
ferences as an invited speaker and delivered various keynote talks. His other
research interests include electronics cooling, condensation, nanofluids, heat
transfer devices, and thermal management.
He is the recipient of the “Best Young Research Scholar Award” for 2017 in
the Engineering category, conferred by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan
at the 7th HEC Outstanding Research Award Ceremony. He also had the honor of
receiving HEC’s Best Research Paper Award (2013/2014) and Research
Productivity Award by Pakistan Council of Science and Technology (2016 17).
Apart from his academic duties, he is actively involved with editorial duties at
several international journals, notably Journal of Thermal Analysis and
Calorimetry (Springer), International Journal of Thermofluids (Elsevier), Journal
Thermal Science, and Journal of Mechanical Engineering.

xi
 CHAPTER

History and introduction

Hemmat Esfe Mohammad1, Saeed Esfandeh1,2 and Mohammad Hassan Kamyab1

1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imam Hossein University, College of Engineering,
Tehran, Iran
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jundishapur University of Technology, Dezful, Iran

Chapter Outline
1.1 History ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1.1 Conventional methods to enhance heat transfer.....................................2
1.1.2 Microscale additives in fluids ..............................................................2
1.1.3 Nanoscale additives in fluids ...............................................................3
1.1.4 Nanoscale particles and nanofluids ......................................................4
1.2 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 9
1.2.1 Fundamental of conduction ...............................................................10
1.2.2 Fundamental of convection ...............................................................11
1.2.3 Fundamental of radiation ..................................................................11
1.2.4 Fundamental of viscosity...................................................................13
1.2.5 Fundamental of density.....................................................................14
1.2.6 Fundamental of heat capacity............................................................14
1.3 Nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid ........................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Unique characteristics of hybrid nanofluid..........................................18
1.3.2 Microscale heat transfer....................................................................20
1.3.3 Nanoscale heat transfer ....................................................................22
1.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 40
Nomenclature ........................................................................................................... 41
References ............................................................................................................... 43

1.1 History
The initial spark of heat transfer science can be attributed to Galileo Galilei [1]
with the invention of the Galilean thermometer in the 16th century and Newton
[2] by presenting Newton’s cooling law as the first heat transfer formula in the
18th century. Then we can refer to Fourier’s mathematical theory of heat transfer

Hybrid Nanofluids for Convection Heat Transfer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819280-1.00001-X

© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 History and introduction

in 1822 [2]. In fact, from the beginning of the 17th century through the middle of the
19th century, many of the basic concepts of heat transfer, such as heat, temperature,
thermal energy, specific heat, latent heat, and kinetic energy, were defined, as well
as the first and second rules of thermodynamics were introduced. Nevertheless, the
history of modern heat transfer science dates back to the 1930s and is still ongoing
[3]. The breadth and variety of subsystems of heat transfer science over the years has
led to the division of this science into many specialized subdivisions, including the
three main subsections of convection, radiation, and conduction heat transfer. Today,
heat transfer is one of the important branches of study in many engineering disci-
plines, including mechanical engineering and chemistry. The application of heat
transfer phenomena in various industries, including electronics, marine industries,
and power plants, is also clearly visible. For example, in the design of boilers, con-
densers, evaporators, heat exchangers, and radiators, heat transfer analysis is neces-
sary to calculate their optimized size and determine their type.

1.1.1 Conventional methods to enhance heat transfer

In recent years, many studies have been conducted on methods to increase the heat
transfer rate in equipment used in various industries, which can be divided into two
general active and inactive methods. Among the active methods, it is possible to
increase the thermal areas [4
6], the application of electric current or magnetic
field [7
9] and fluid injection or suction [10
13], and on the other hand inactive
methods, special geometry flat plates and additive or enriched fluids are used to
achieve more heat exchange. According to the information in Table 1.1 on the ther-
mal conductivity of different fluids, conventional heat transfer fluids such as water,
ethylene glycol, and engine oils have poor thermal properties compared to metals
and even metal oxides. This has led many scholars to think about how to improve
the thermal properties of conventional fluids in heat transfer.
Akoh [14] introduced the idea of a very fine magnetic particle dispersal in
conventional heat transfer fluids, for the first time. Subsequently many studies
have been conducted on the behavior and estimation of the thermal conductivity
coefficient of the fluids with the solid particles dispersed therein, among which
the theoretical and classical models of Maxwell [15] and Hamilton and Crosser
[16] are the pioneers to estimate the thermal conductivity of solid
liquid mix-
tures. Indisputably the researchers in their theoretical models have not referred to
the problems caused by the sedimentation of these solid particles. The erosion of
the system and the increase in power required for pumping as well as increasing
energy consumption were other unannounced points in the Akoh, Maxwell, and
Hamilton
Crosser researches.

1.1.2 Microscale additives in fluids

As stated, one of the ways to improve the heat transfer is to add particles with
better thermal properties to fluids such as water and ethylene glycol. Ahuja [17]
 1.1 History 3

Table 1.1 Thermal conductivity coefficient of some fluids and solids.

Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Material
0.613 Water
0.289 Glycerol
0.145 Engine oil
0.141 Pump oil
0.252 Ethylene glycol
237 Aluminum
40 Aluminum oxide
401 Copper
148 Silicon

measured the thermal and viscosity conductivity of 50 and 100 μm of polyester

spherical particles dispersed in sodium chloride and glycerin. Based on the
results, the thermal conductivity of the fluid was increased three times when com-
pared with the base fluid. Choi and Tran [18], in the American National Argon
Laboratory, introduced new fluids for industrial applications. Masuda et al. [19]
used ultrafine aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, and titanium oxide to enhance the
thermal properties of host fluids and to calculate their thermal conductivity and
viscosity. They also observed the conglomeration of microparticles in the base
fluid. These fluids with particles in millimeters or micrometers were never wel-
comed and commercially used, due to their low stability, rapid settling, obstruc-
tion and trapping of the flow path, rapid erosion of the pipe wall and equipments,
and the sharp increase in pressure drop across the fluid flow.

1.1.3 Nanoscale additives in fluids

According to the difficulties with the use of microparticles in fluids, researchers
have sought to find a way to solve these problems. Choi et al. [20] first dispersed
solid particles with nanosize (between 1 and 100 nm) in the fluids, and the result-
ing suspension was called nanofluid. According to their studies, nanosized parti-
cles formed more stable suspensions than suspensions containing microparticles,
so that their low sedimentation rate would minimize the problem of obstruction of
fluids paths. This research and its results can be considered as the starting point
for using nanoparticles to improve the thermophysical properties of fluids.
Masuda et al. [19] and Pak and Cho [21] are other pioneering scientists in this
field.
Metal nanoparticles (aluminum, silver, copper, nickel, etc.), metal oxides (alu-
minum oxide, copper oxides, iron oxide, silicon oxide, titanium oxide, etc.), or
polymers such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, and the like are nanoparticles that
could be used as nanoscale additives in fluids. Water, ethylene glycol, propylene
4 CHAPTER 1 History and introduction

FIGURE 1.1
An image of the surface-enhanced effect of nanostructured materials.

glycol, oil, etc. could also be used as the base fluid. In general, the advantages of
adding nanoparticles to a fluid compared with fluids containing microparticles
and ordinary fluids are as follows:
• increasing the effective surface (Fig. 1.1) and fluid heat capacity;
• increasing the effective thermal conductivity of the fluid; and
• lowering the possibility of obstruction caused by the presence of nanoparticles
in the fluid compared to microparticles.

1.1.4 Nanoscale particles and nanofluids

In terms of structure, materials generally have three dimensions: length, width, and
height. If at least one of these dimensions be in the scale of nanotechnology
(1
100 nm), that material is called nanostructured. The reason of attraction for nano-
technology is that nanoscale materials have completely different properties than mac-
roscale materials. All of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the
macroscopic scale may vary substantially in nanoscale. These properties are conduc-
tivity of heat and electricity, magnetic properties, optical properties, physical strength
of materials, reactivity, and reaction speed [22,23].
Some other applications of nanofluids are in microelectronics, fuel cells, phar-
maceutical processes, hybrid engines [24], internal combustion engines in cooling
and heat cycles, chillers, heat exchangers, and lowering temperature of boilers
exhaust gas from chimney [25]. Nanofluids increase the thermal conductivity and
heat transfer coefficient relative to the base fluid [26]. It should be noted that in
addition to thermal behavior, knowing the rheological behavior of the nanofluids
in deciding whether they are practically suitable for convective heat transfer is
very important [27].
Nanostructured materials are divided into different groups based on the num-
ber of nanosized dimensions that is known as free dimension. The free dimension
refers to dimensions of a material with larger size than nanosize. Accordingly the
material is divided into four parts nanoparticles, nanowires, thin films, and bulk
nanomaterials.
 1.1 History 5

The energy structures (alignment or band) of materials are length, width, and
height directions. In other words, every three-dimensional object has three distinct
energy structures along its three dimensions, the resultant of them defines total
energy structure of material. Dimensions of nanoscale materials that are in nano-
scale have quantum confinement. The quantum confinement means that the bands
of energy become discrete due to the size limitations of the nanoscale, and more
limitations led to more energy levels. Therefore one of the main differences
between different types of nanostructured materials is the number of continuous
energy bands and discrete energy levels in three dimensions, which results in a
large variation in their properties.
In fact, nanomaterials are divided into four categories of nanodimensional:
zero-dimensional, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and
bulky three-dimensional nanomaterials in terms of their nanosized dimensions,
which can be produced by top-down or bottom-up method. Top-down and
bottom-up methods (Fig. 1.2) are used to build all of the mentioned nanostruc-
tures and are not related to a specific group of nanostructures.
Generally by changing the size of nanoparticles in the range of 1
100 nm, the
surface-to-volume ratio and the energy balance distance will change. These two
variables are the cause of many changes in properties and features. In other
words, by controlling the size of the nanoparticles, they can control nanoparticles
properties, which is very important.

FIGURE 1.2
Top-down and bottom-up production methods to make different types of nanostructures.
6 CHAPTER 1 History and introduction

1.1.4.1 Properties
Properties and features of nanoparticles generally depend on their material and
size. Certainly it is not possible to check all of these properties. As a solution, all
the properties and features in nanoparticles can be explained by two factors that
are increasing the surface-to-volume ratio and discretization of energy levels.
Some of these properties are summarized briefly.

1.1.4.1.1 Optical properties

In general, when the light hits an atom, it may be absorbed, reflected, or crossed.
The excitation mechanism of electrons is different in atoms, in normal materials,
and in nanoparticles, which is shown in Fig. 1.3.
According to Fig. 1.3, the absorption of light in ordinary materials with con-
tinuous energy bands also occurs, and electrons are transferred from the valence
band to the conduction band (however, here the thermal energy can also excite
the electrons toward the conductive band). In the right side of Fig. 1.3, the
absorption of light by nanoparticles is also shown. As shown in the figure, nano-
particles, such as atoms, have discrete energy levels. Hence, nanoparticles are
called artificial atoms as well. Moreover, nanoparticles below 10 nm are called
quantum dots.
By changing the size of the nanoparticles, the distance between the energy
levels changes. Smaller size of nanoparticles cause increase in distance between
the energy levels and vice versa. This makes it possible to adjusting the gap
between energy levels by changing the size of the nanoparticles to absorb certain
waves at a specific frequency. For example, it is possible to adjust the dimensions
of the specific nanoparticles to absorb waves of infrared, ultraviolet, radio, and so
on. This feature in the military and electronics industries has a great application.

FIGURE 1.3
Electrons excitation, from the left to right, in atoms, in normal materials, and in
nanoparticles, respectively. Nanoparticles act like atoms because they have discrete
energy levels and are known as artificial atoms.
 1.1 History 7

FIGURE 1.4
The effect of nanoparticles sizes on their color.

Different colors of the nanoparticles in Fig. 1.4 show different distance

between their energy levels. In Fig. 1.4, the color of the nanosized gold and silver
in different sizes is shown with image of their electron microscopy.
In nature three elements of iron, nickel, cobalt, and the combination of other
elements with these three elements have magnetic properties, and other elements
or compounds alone have no magnetic properties. In the world, magnets and mag-
netic materials are widely in use from simple applications such as window lifters,
car wipers, printers, scanners, electrical appliances in kitchens, and speakers to
extremely complex applications such as generator motors, and so on. Only certain
compounds can have magnetic properties and it counts as a limitation.
One of the most interesting and highly functional properties in nanoscale
dimension is that many of the materials that do not have magnetic properties in
their normal size can have magnetic properties below a certain size in terms of
nanotechnology. Aluminum oxide nanoparticles, gold, etc. are some
notable examples. This will remove the above limitation, and considering the vast
application of magnetic materials, new materials with improved properties can be
produced. For instance, the magnetic properties of some nanoparticles are used in
medicine and pharmaceutical applications as well. The reason for the creation of
magnetic properties in materials that do not have magnetic properties in the ordi-
nary dimension is the high increase in the surface and the creation of broken
 1.3 Nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid 19

nanoparticles. In some cases, in addition to improving thermophysical properties,

this will improve the cost-effectiveness of nanofluid production as well.
Each nanoparticle has its own useful properties. For example, metal oxide
nanoparticles such as aluminum oxide, which after suspension in the host fluid,
show a remarkable and very beneficial chemical stability and diffusion, is not an
attractive option in improving thermal properties such as thermal conductivity.
On the other hand, metal nanoparticles such as aluminum, copper, and silver
improve the thermal conductivity considerably, but they are not a good option in
achieving a stable nanofluid. Thus by combining metal nanoparticles with metal
oxide nanoparticles and ceramic nanoparticles, a stable solution can be obtained,
while having improved thermal properties.
As stated before the combination of nanoparticles and the production of hybrid
nanofluids is not always a good option for improving the thermal properties of
nanofluids. For example, Jana et al. [59] studied the effect of simultaneously add-
ing Cu-CNT and Au-CNT nanoparticles to the host water fluid, which according
to their results showed that the heat transfer conduction of conventional nano-
fluids was higher than the heat transfer conduction of the produced hybrid nano-
fluids. They predicted the following reasons for this result:
1. The inappropriateness and lack of interaction of the two types of nanoparticles
with each other and, in fact, the disparity in their chemical behavior with each
other.
2. Adding nanoparticles of carbon nanotubes will increase the growth rate of
metallic nanoparticles agglomeration, which will have a negative effect on the
thermal conductivity of the nanofluid.
3. Carbon nanotubes are less tendency to follow the natural flow of heat transfer,
so adding them to metal nanoparticles may reduce the natural displacement of
metal nanoparticles.
In another study, Madhesh and Kalaiselvam [62] studied the effect of adding
TiO2-Cu nanoparticles simultaneously in the base water fluid, and according to
the results of the experiments, they were faced with improving the thermal prop-
erties of the prepared nanofluid. They explained the reason for this increase and
improvement in the thermal properties of the copper nanoparticles as a nanolayer
on the surface of the titanium oxide nanoparticles which produces a better and
stronger thermal network between the nanoparticles that are combined with the
host fluid layers. This will further improve the thermal properties of nanofluids.
As stated, extensive research has been done to compare the thermal properties
of hybrid nanoparticles with nanofluids containing single nanoparticles and tradi-
tional heat transfer fluids. In many of these studies, researchers have pointed to
improvements in the thermal properties of hybrid nanofluids. For example,
Sundar et al. [63] compared the water-based hybrid nanofluid containing ND-
Fe3O4 nanoparticles with thermal properties of water base containing Fe3O4.
The results showed the increase of about 15% of the thermal conductivity of
the hybrid nanofluid in comparison to the thermal conductivity of the water.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
his cannibal's thought-pattern, torrents of perfectly stable electricity,
slowly influencing his own pattern as he had expected to influence
the impulse, influencing his into a frozen, stable, inflexible pattern of
continuous hunger-satisfaction.
His crystalloid jaws spread wide, Rahll floated in the black void of
space, motionless, unable to move, unable to twist into new thought-
patterns, and therefore unable to think. The inflexible current of
electricity poured steadily into his body....

Slowly the effects of the morphine wore off, and the haze lifted from
Brenner's mind. As his power to think returned, he began to realize
that his plan had worked, and that the alien had been overcome; and
he was glad of this only because it removed him, Brenner, from
danger. He no longer cared that the creature might have absorbed
the impulses of every living being in existence; the thing was frozen,
and he was safe from it—that was all that mattered to him.
Of course he could not see, or feel, or hear the motionless crystalloid
pattern outside. But he knew it was there. He could sense it.
He could sense it because his heretofore unmethodical hub-impulse
pattern, in its close association with Rahll's, had been slowly twisted
and molded into a form very much like the alien's, giving him Rahll's
powers of sightless observation of other impulses and objects.
Brenner no longer had any need for his lost powers of sight, hearing,
taste, smell and touch.
He groped his way back to the nose seat, sensing his way as he
could not feel it. He would find Base—he would be able to sense the
way back to it as soon as it was close enough. He would go back to
Base, because, naturally, his basic thought-form had also been
molded into the shape of Rahll's; and Brenner was hungry, and he
knew he could find food at Base.
Food. He pictured Hale, and the other men at the station.
Food. His jagged cannibal's pattern contracted in ecstacy at the
thought of it.
He activated the atomic generator and whirled the ship around.
THE END
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