DC circuits

Outline
• Energy Source in Circuits
• Electric Fields in Circuit
• Resistor Combinations
• Energy and Power in Electric Circuits
• Kirchhoff’s Rules
• RC Circuits
 Electrical Circuit Symbols
Electrical circuits often contain one or more
resistors grouped together and attached to
an energy source, such as a battery.
The following symbols are often used:

Ground Battery Resistor

+ -

+ - + -
- + - + -
Circuit
 4/14/2021

Electric Current
• Whenever charges of like signs move in a given direction,
a current is said to exist.
• Consider charges are moving perpendicularly to a surface
of area A.
• Definition: the current is the rate at which charge flows
through this surface.

+ +
+
+
A +
I
 4/14/2021

Electric Current - Definition

• Given an amount of charge, DQ, passing through the
area A in a time interval Dt, the current is the ratio of the
charge to the time interval.

Dq dq
i (if i is DC) i(t )  (if I is AC)
Dt dt
+ +
+
+
A +
I
Electric current is the flow of electric charge from
one place to another.
The SI units of current is the ampere (A),
the ampere is fundamental unit.
1 C = 1 A٠s
1 A of current is equivalent to 1 C of
charge passing through the area in a
time interval of 1 s.
A closed path through which charge can flow,
returning to its starting point, is called an electric
circuit.
A battery uses chemical reactions to produce a potential
difference between its terminals. It causes current to
flow through the flashlight bulb similar to the way the
person lifting the water causes the water to flow through
the paddle wheel.
 Electromotive Force
A battery that is disconnected from any circuit has an
electric potential difference between its terminals that
is called the electromotive force or emf:
emf (E )
Remember – despite its name, the emf is an electric
potential, not a force and its SI unit is volt (V).
The amount of work it takes to move a unit charge
from one terminal to the other that means:
E  dW / dq
The direction of current flow – from the positive terminal to the
negative one – was decided before it was realized that
electrons are negatively charged. Therefore, current flows
around a circuit in the direction a positive charge would move;
electrons move the other way.
However, this does
not matter in most
circuits.

A fluid flow
 Electric Fields in Circuit
• The battery provides the emf to the circuit and does the work.
The work is defined as W=Fds the work per unit of charge is E
therefore,

E    F / q   ds
Inside the wire, there is electric
field and it creates the flow of
charges (electrons) in wire and A singe-loop
resistor. For DC this field is an circuit
electrostatic field.
Its work along loop is zero.
So, the work in a circuit is done
by the battery only.
Animation: Conduction
 Analyzing of Circuit
Let us consider the simplest electrical circuit consisting of
one battery and one circuit device.
The goal in analyzing circuits
is to determine the
magnitude and direction of
the currents for given emfs
and resistors in circuits.
1. We choose direction of
travel along the loop:
clockwise or counterclockwise.
2. We try to make guess a direction of currents (in the
junction the sum of currents must be zero).
3. The algebraic sum of all differences in potential (sum
voltages or potential drops) around a complete loop must
be zero.
4. If a chosen direction of current and direction of traveling
along loop is coincided the sign of current is taken positive
otherwise it is negative.
5. If we travel from the positive terminal of the battery to the
negative one the potential drops.
Now we can examine the changes in potential drops starting at
point a where the potential is Va. Proceeding clockwise direction
of travel of the loop from point a through the resistor and the
battery we find
Va -DVR +E =Va , using Ohm’s law DVR = DVab =Va- Vb =i R we get
- i R+ E =0 or
E
i .
R

This is the current in the simplest circuit.

 The emf E and Internal Resistance
• This chemically generated voltage E also has to push the
current through the battery itself.
• The battery has an internal resistance, usually denoted by r,
so for a current i in the circuit, the battery supplies to the
outside world a terminal voltage
DV = E - i r

• r1 and r2 are the internal resistance of the batteries.

• (This is usually a small effect and can be neglected, then the
device resistance R is much large than the internal r .)
To show how the potential drops in more complicated circuit
we consider the next problem (counterclockwise travel):

Va -E1 - ir1 -iR-ir2 + E2 =Va  -E1 - ir1 -iR-ir2 +E2 =0 or

E2  E1
i .
R  r1  r2
 Potential Difference in Circuit
The potential difference between two arbitrary taken points of
the circuit does not depend on traveling way over the given
circuit. The current is
E
i .
R1  R2
The voltage between a an b is
DVab = Va – Vb = iR1 according to
Ohm’s law. If we travel from a to b counterclockwise direction
we get Va –E+iR2=Vb  DVab = -iR2 + E  DVab =-iR2 +iR1+iR2
again DVab =iR1 or we substituting i obtain:
E R1
DVab  .
R1  R2
Series and Parallel Circuits
• In series circuits, current can only take one path.
• The resistance of wires is neglected because their
resistance much smaller than the resistance of devices.
• The amount of current is the same at all points in a series
circuit.
Series and Parallel Circuits
• In parallel circuits the current can take more than one path.
• In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same across each
branch because each branch has a low resistance (the
resistance of wire is neglected) path back to the battery
• Because there are multiple branches, the current is not the
same at all points in a parallel circuit.
 Resistances in Series
• A battery voltage V pumps a steady current
i through 3 resistances in series, as shown. a
i
• Think of the battery as a pump, raising the
potential of charge, which then drops in the R1
R’s, like a series of waterfalls a, b, c , d. b
• From Ohm’s Law, the potential drops are: R2 DV
DVab = iR1, DVbc = iR2, DVcd = iR3.
c
• So the total drop DV = DVad = DVab+DVbc+DVcd =
iR1 + iR2 + iR3 = iR, R3
where the total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 d
 Resistances in Parallel
• (Convention: lines without zigzag DV
represent wires of negligible resistance.)
i
• This means all three of the resistances i1
shown have the same voltage DV
R1
between their ends.
i2
• So DV = i1R1 = i2R2 = i3R3
• The total resistance is defined by DV = iR. R2
• Now i3
DV DV DV DV
i  i1  i2  i3     ,
R1 R2 R3 R R3
1 1 1 1
   is giving
R R1 R2 R3
 Remember…
• Resistances in series all carry the same
current
• Resistances in parallel all have the same
voltage drop
• Put this together with Ohm’s law for each
resistance.
 Complex Circuits
The complex circuit containing many loops.
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
More complex circuits cannot be broken down into
series and parallel pieces.
For these circuits, Kirchhoff’s rules are useful.
The junction rule is a consequence of charge
conservation; the loop rule is a consequence of
energy conservation.
Currents in a junction

i1  i2  i3  i4  0
i1  i4  i2  i3
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
• Junction Rule: when several wires meet at a point, the
total current flowing into the point must equal the total
current flowing out. Charge cannot disappear, or pile up
at a point.
N

i
n 1
n 0

• Loop Rule: the total potential (voltage) change on

following wires around a loop to your starting point must
be zero. N

 DV
n 1
n 0

• (The loop rule is equivalent to saying that if you follow

some random path on a hillside, and get back eventually
to your starting point, your net change in height above sea
level is zero.)
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
The junction rule: At any junction, the current entering
the junction must equal the current leaving it.
The current entering
to the junction has
positive sign while
the current leaving
the junction has
negative sign. The
sum of currents
equals to zero.
N

i
n 1
n 0
Calculation of potential change
Three circuit laws
 Electrical energy and power
• In any circuit, battery is used to induce electrical current
chemical energy of the battery is transformed into kinetic
energy of mobile charge carriers (electrical energy gain)
• Any device that possesses resistance (resistor) present in
the circuit will transform electrical energy into heat kinetic
energy of charge carriers is transformed into heat via
collisions with atoms in a conductor (electrical energy
loss)
C
DV = iR D

+ -
i
B A
 Electrical energy
• Consider circuit on the right in detail
• AB: charge gains electrical energy
form the battery

DE  W  Dq  E C
B
(battery looses chemical energy)
• CD: electrical energy lost
A D
(transferred into heat)
• Back to A: same potential energy
(zero) as before
• Gained electrical energy = lost
electrical energy on the resistor

4/14/2021 33
Power
• Compute rate of energy loss (power dissipated on the
resistor)
DE W Dq
P   E  iE
Dt Dt Dt
• Use Ohm’s law to the external and the battery internal
parts:
 DVR 
2

PR  iDVR  i 2
R Pr  i 2 r
R
Units of power: SI: watt (W). Delivered energy: kilowatt-
hours (kWh)
 
1 kWh  103W  3600 s   3.60 106 J
 Review
Steady current i or DC (constant in magnitude and direction)
• requires a complete circuit
• path cannot be only resistance
cannot be only potential drops in direction of current flow
Electromotive Force (EMF)
• provides increase in potential E
• converts some external form of energy into electrical energy
Single emf and a single resistor: emf can be thought of as a
“charge pump” DV = iR

DV = iR E
+ -
i

E
• Each real battery has
some internal resistance
• AB: potential increases by
E on the source of EMF, B C
then decreases by ir
(because of the internal r
resistance)
R
• Thus, terminal voltage on E
the battery DV is
DV = E - i r A D

• Note: E is the same as the

terminal voltage when the
current is zero (open circuit)

4/14/2021 36
• Now add a load resistance R
• Since it is connected by a
conducting wire to the battery →
terminal voltage is the same as B C
the potential difference across
the load resistance r
DV  E  ir  iR, or R
E  ir  iR E

• Thus, the current in the circuit is A D

E
i Power output:
Rr iE  i 2 r  i 2 R

Note: we’ll assume r negligible unless otherwise is stated

4/14/2021 37
 RC circuits
• Charging the capacitor
• Consider the circuit t
0
q
0
i
1
0.02 0.064493015 0.935507
0.04 0.124826681 0.8751733

E
0.06 0.181269247 0.8187308
switch i
0.08
0.1
0.234071662 0.7659283
0.283468689 0.7165313
0.12 0.329679954 0.67032
0.14 0.372910915 0.6270891
q
0.16
0.18
0.41335378 0.5866462
0.451188364 0.5488116
i
C 0.2
0.22
0.486582881 0.5134171
0.519694699 0.4803053

+q -q R 0.24
0.26
0.550671036 0.449329
0.579649615 0.4203504
0.28 0.606759279 0.3932407
0.3 0.632120559 0.3678794
0.32 0.655846213 0.3441538
0.340 0.2 0.4
0.678041728 0.60.3219583
0.8 1 1.2

t
Dvc = q/C DvR = iR
0.36 0.698805788 0.3011942
0.38 0.718230711 0.2817693
0.4 0.736402862 0.2635971

q(t )  q0 1  e t RC  t=RC is called the time constant

q0  E C
 Charging Capacitor (derivation)
a R
q q
C
iR   E = 0
b C
+
+
E i
C
- - dq q
R E 
dt C
Rearrange terms to place in differential form and

multiply by C dt : RCdq  (CE  q)dt

dq dt q dq t dt

(CE  q) RC 
0

(CE  q) o RC
 Charging Capacitor (derivation)
q dq t dt t
    
q
ln(C E q )
0 (CE  q) 0 RC 0
RC
t (CE  q) t
ln(CE  q)  ln(CE )  ln 
RC CE RC

q  CE 1  e  t / RC
 t  RC is called
time constant
 What is the time constant t?

q Capacitor
Qmax

Rise in Charge
0.63 Q

t Time, t

The time t = RC is known as the time constant.

 Decay of Current
a R
q
As charge q rises, the
b C current i will decay.

+
+
 
E i
C  t / RC
- - q  CE 1  e

  CE  C E e 
dq d  t / RC CE t / RC
i  e
dt dt RC
Current decay as a E t / RC
capacitor is charged: i e
R
 RC circuits
• Discharge the capacitor
t q i
0 1 1

E
0.02 0.935506985 0.935507
switch i
0.04
0.06
0.875173319 0.8751733
0.818730753 0.8187308
0.08 0.765928338 0.7659283
0.1 0.716531311 0.7165313
0.12 0.670320046 0.67032
0.14 0.627089085 0.6270891

C q
0.16
0.18
0.58664622 0.5866462
0.548811636 0.5488116
i
+q -q R 0.2
0.22
0.513417119 0.5134171
0.480305301 0.4803053
0.24 0.449328964 0.449329
0.26 0.420350385 0.4203504
0.28 0.393240721 0.3932407
0.3 0.367879441 0.3678794
0.32 0.344153787 0.3441538

Dvc = q/C DvR = iR

0.340 0.2 0.4
0.321958272 0.60.3219583
0.8 1 1.2
0.36
0.38
t
0.301194212 0.3011942
0.281769289 0.2817693
0.4 0.263597138 0.2635971

t RC
q (t )  q0e
 Discharge (derivation)
After C is fully charged, we turn switch to b,
allowing it to discharge.
a R a R
q
b
+ b C
+

+
+
E C E i
- - C
- -

Discharging capacitor. . . loop rule gives:

q Negative because
 iR of decreasing i.
C
 Discharge (derivation)
Instantaneous charge q on discharging capacitor:
q dq
  Ri; q   RC
C dt
t
dq dt dq t dt  t 
ln q q
q
 q0 q  0 RC ;
q
;   
q RC 0
 RC  0

t q t
ln q  ln q0  ln 
RC q0 RC
 Discharging (derivation)
q t
ln  q  q0e  t / RC
q0 RC
Note qo = CE and the instantaneous current is: dq/dt.

  CE e 
dq d t / RC CE t / RC
i  e
dt dt RC
Current i for a E t / RC
discharging capacitor. i e
C
Simulation of RC circuits
http://web.mit.edu/8.02t/www/802TEAL3D/simulations/capacitor.jnlp
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=31
http://www.physics-chemistry-interactive-flash-
animation.com/electricity_interactive.htm
Problem-Solving Strategy
• Conceptualize
• Study the circuit diagram and identify all the elements
• Identify the polarity of the battery
• Imagine the directions of the currents in each battery
• Categorize
• Determine if the circuit can be reduced by combining series
and parallel resistors
• If so, proceed with those techniques
• If not, apply Kirchhoff’s Rules
Problem-Solving Strategy, 2
• Analyze
• Assign labels and symbols to all known and unknown quantities
• Assign directions to the currents
• The direction is arbitrary, but you must adhere to the assigned directions
when applying Kirchhoff’s rules
• Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit that provides
new relationships among the various currents
Problem-Solving Strategy, 3
• Analyze, cont
• Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed to solve for
the unknowns
• To apply the loop rule, you must choose a direction in which to
travel around the loop
• You must also correctly identify the potential difference as you
cross various elements
• Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown quantities
• Draw the circuit diagram and assign labels and symbols to all
known and unknown quantities. Assign directions to the
currents.
• The direction is arbitrary, but you must adhere to the assigned
directions when applying Kirchhoff’s rules
• Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit that
provides new relationships among the various currents
Problem-Solving Strategy, final
• Finalize
• Check your numerical answers for consistency
• If any current value is negative, it means you guessed the direction
of that current incorrectly
• The magnitude will still be correct
Sample Problems
• Q1. Voltage vs. current graph of a conductor is given
below. Find the change in the resistance of conductor in
first and third intervals.

Solution:
We use ohm's law to find relation between V, I and R.
Interval I: Since potential and current increase linearly,
resistance of the conductor becomes constant.
• Interval II: In this interval, potential is constant but current
increases. Thus, resistance of the conductor must
decrease to make potential constant.
• Interval III: In this interval potential increases but current
is constant. Thus, resistance of the conductor must
increase to make potential increase.
• Q2. a)Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit given
below. b)Find current passing through the circuit.
• Solution:
a) Since resistance are connected in parallel between
points A and B:

1/Req=1/4+1/4; Req=2 (Ω)

Equivalent resistance between points C and B;

Req=4+2=6 (Ω)

b) E=i.R
36=i.6
Answer: I=6 Amperes
• Q3. a) Find equivalent resistance between the points X
and Y.
• b) If the current passing from 7Ω resistor is I1, and current
passing from 8Ω resistor is I2, find I1/I2.

• Solution:
• a) We redraw circuit and make it simple;

• →

• Req=7+(2.2)/(2+2) (resistance in lower branch)

• Req=8 (Ω)
• Equivalent resistance between points X and Y;
• Req=(8.8)/(8+8)=4 (Ω}
• b) Since resistances are in parallel, their potentials are
equal. Using ohm's law;
• V1=I1.R1 (lower branch)
• V=I1.8
• V2=I2.R2 (upper branch)
• V=I2.8
• I1/I2=1
• Q4. Find the efficiency of the motor in the circuit given
below.
• Current passing through circuit is:
• i=(ε1+ε2-ε')/Req
• i=(40+60-70)/(7+2+2+4); i=2 Amperes
• Efficiency=ε'/(ε'+i.r')=70/(70+2.2)=35/37
• Q5 A portion of an infinite array of identical resistors is
shown in Fig. A battery is connected across two distant
junctions. Show that the potential at any junction is the
average of the potential at the four nearest junctions.
• Solution:
For the junction 0 the net current must
be zero; there is no way for charge
to accumulate on the junction. So,
Q6 How many time constants are needed for a capacitor
to reach 99% of final charge in RC circuit?

q  qmax 1  e   t /t

 t /t q
1 e   0.99
qmax
Let x = t/t, then: e-x = 1-0.99 or e-x = 0.01
1
x
 0.01; e x
 100 From definition ln e (100)  x
e of logarithm:
t Answer: 4.61 time
x = 4.61
x constants
RC
Resistance and Differential Resistance